THE 



Young Folks' Cyclopaedia 



GAMES AND SPORTS 



BY 

JOHN D. CHAMPLIN 

LATB ASSOCIATB EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN CYCLOPAEDIA 
AND 

ARTHUR E BOSTWICK 



Mttb numcroue ITllustrations 



SECOND EDITION, REVISED 




NEW YORK 

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 

1899 



,C44 



Copyright, 1890. 
HENRY HOLT & Ca 



DRnUHOMD, 

EUctrotyper and I^nter, 
New York. 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



The Young Folks' CvcLOPiEDiA of Games and Sports is a 
compendium of recreations of all kinds, including indoor and out- 
door giames and plays, athletic and rural sports and pastimes, chem- 
ical and mechanical experiments and amusements, and every similar 
thing that can interest a wide-awake boy or girl. Like the other 
volumes in the Young Folks' Series, it is in cyclopaedic style, a 
novelty in a work of this kind, rendering its articles easy of refer- 
ence, and combining other advantages never before united in a 
similar volume. Intended primarily for the family, for the use of 
children and youth of all ages, it will be of equal value to the 
adult, as it includes the official rules, given word for word, of ath- 
letic sports and standard games, and the official records of athletic 
meets and events, thus making it a work of reference for the settle- 
ment of disputed questions relating to such matters. To insure 
accuracy, such articles as require it have been revised by competent 
experts. 

Among the features of the work are a brief historical sketch of 
each game or sporty the description of foreign varieties of each, a 
full illustration of the text by accurate plans and diagrams, and a 
system of etymology, as in the other volumes of the series, giving 
the derivation of names and technical terms. While the " padding" 
characteristic of too many such works has been rigorously excluded, 
the endeavor has been to make the explanations full enough for 
simplicity and clearness. Unlike many other works on sports and 
games published in this country, which are merely reprints of Eng- 
lish books, this cyclopaedia has been written for American use from 
the American standpoint, even such a game as Cricket being treated 
as it is played in the United States. 

While the illustration is very full, no picture has been inserted 
for its own sake, or otherwise than as an aid to the understanding 
of the text or the elucidation of different periods of games and 
sports. 



!v PREFACE. 

A large number of works on sports and kindred subjects, in 
many languages, have been consulted and freely used in the prepara- 
tion of this book, which is believed to be more comprehensive in its 
scope than any other similar publication. The editors are indebted 
to Messrs. A. G. Spalding & Bros, for permission to print the foot- 
ball rules of the University Athletic Club, and the official rules of 
other athletic sports. 

In the present edition the description and rules of all such sports 
as baseball, football and tennis have been brought carefully down 
to date, the articles on cycling and golf have been greatly enlarged 
in view of the increased popularity of both, and other changes have 
been made to increase the value of the book. 

New York, January lo, 1899. 



THE 



YOUNG FOLKS' CYCLOPAEDIA 



GAMES AND SPORTS. 



^^Words printed in LETTERS LIKE THESE are explained in their alphabetical places. 

^"•The references C. C. T. and C. P. P., are to the " Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of Common 
Things," and the "Young Folks' Cyclopaedia of Persons and Places," companion volumes to 
this, which explain a great deal not coming within the plan of this book. 



A— B— C. A game played by any 
number of persons with a pack of 
CARDS, on each of which are a letter 
of the alphabet and a picture. The 
pack is placed face upward on the 
table, and each player in order names 
an object in the picture on the top 
card which begins with the letter on 
that card. Any one who cannot do so 
in less that one minute is out. No 



IJI^p ^|j ^B ^^ ^U H III 



■Hiii 



■Hkl^liilln7^flkS'Sh>i!iAH'!ii^fi'flrillBi<iC 



1 



Agon Board ready for Playing. 

ADJECTIVES. A game played by 
any number of persons. One writes 
a letter, leaving blank spaces for the 
adjectives, and then asks the other 
players, in order, to furnish the miss- 
ing words without knowing what 
has been written. The letter is then 
read aloud. The game may be varied 
by leaving blanks for other words 
than adjectives, but in that case each 



one must name an object which has 
already been named. When all the 
players but one are out, that one 
takes the card, and the other cards 
one by one are treated in like man- 
ner, beginning in each case with the 
player who took the previous card. 
He who takes most cards is the 
winner. 
ACTING CRAMBO. See Crambo. 






ljMM§|||^|lii!lili 



Position of Men at End of Game. 



of 



player must be told what part 
speech he is expected to supply. 
AGON, or the QUEEN'S GUARDS. 

A game played by two persons on a 
six-sided board like that represented 
in the pictures. Each player has 
seven pieces, a Queen, which is 
slightly higherthan the others, and her 
six Guards. Each places his Queen 
on the corner space in front of him. 



AIR-PUMP 



AIR-PUMP 



and the guards are then arranged 
alternately on the outermost row as 
shown in the first illustration. The 
object of the game is to get a Queen 
into the center with herGuards ranged 
on the six spaces around her, as shown 
in the second figure, and the player 
whofirst gets his pieces in thisposition 
wins. The players move alternately 
after the first move has been decided. 
Any piece may be moved one space 
forward or sideways, but never back- 
ward. If any Guard gets between 
two hostile pieces so that the three 
form a straight line on adjacent 
spaces, such Guard must be taken up 
for the next move, and placed some- 
where on the outermost row. If the 
Queen gets in a similar situation she 
must likewise be taken up, but she 
may be placed anywhere on the 
board. 

In playing, it is well to try to ar- 
range the pieces so that several of 
the enemy's Guards can be taken up 
in succession, rather than to throw 
back one piece alone, for in the latter 
case that piece is often able to secure 
a good position. As no piece can be 
moved backward he who has a man 
in the rear has an advantage. It is 
a good plan to keep one man back 
and hurry the others forward, keep- 
ing them together as close as pos- 
sible. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. None but the Queens must oc- 
cupy the center space. 

2. Of two or more pieces liable to 
be thrown back at one time, the 
Queen, if she be one, must be taken 
up first, and the others may be 
taken in any order the player chooses, 
the removal of each piece counting 
as a move. 

3. If a piece be touched prepara- 
tory to moving, it must be moved or 
the move be lost. 

4. If the six Guards are placed in 
the circle surrounding the center 
space, leaving the Queen outside, the 
player of them forfeits the game. 

AIR-PUMP, Experiments with an. 
The common air-pump is described 




in C. C. T. A simpler one may be 
made with a large glass jar or bottle, 
closed with a rubber stopper having 
a hole through it. Into the hole put 
a short piece of glass tubing, over the 
end of which fit a piece of rubber 
tubing, about an inch 
and a half long (See 
Fig. i). Exhaust the 
lungs, apply the mouth 
to the tube and suck. 
Pinch the rubber tube 
tightly to prevent air 
entering the bottle, and 
after exhausting the 
lungs again, repeat the 
process. If the air is to 
Fig- I- be i^ept exhausted for 
some time, a pinch-cock (see Chem- 
ical Experiments) should be fast- 
ened to the rubber tube. In this 
way about three-quarters of the air 
can be removed from the jar. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1. Put into the jar a small vaseline 
or other wide-mouthed bottle, with a 
piece of thin rubber cloth 
tied over the top. On ex- 
hausting the air, the cloth 
will bulge up like a bal- 
loon (See Fig. 2). This 
is caused by the air trying 
to get out of the bottle, 
owing to the lightening of 
the pressure above it. 

2. Instead of exhausting 
the air, condense it, by 
forcing the breath into the 
bottle, pinching the rub- 
ber tube between breaths, as before. 

The rubber cloth on the 
small bottle will bulge in- 
ward (see Fig. 3), owing 
to the increased pressure 
above it. 

3. Replace the short 
glass tube with a longer 
one, c, having a jet b (see 
Chemical Experi- 
ments) on the end inside 
the jar. Exhaust the air 
as before, and then keep- 
ing the rubber tube pinched, hold the 
I jar upside down, and put the end of 




Fig. 2. 




Fig. 3. 



AIR-PUMP 



ALCOHOL 




Fig. 4. 



the rubber tube into a glass of water 
d. On releasing the tube the water 
will spirt up through the jet into 
the bottle, making a little 
fountain (See Fig. 4). 
This is because the pres- 
sure of the air on the 
surface of the water in 
the bowl forces it up 
into the jar, where the 
pressure is less. 

4. Turn the glass tube 
so that the jet will be 
outside, seeing that the 
tube nearly reaches the 
bottom of the jar. Pour 
jfir in water enough to cover 
an inch or two of the 
end. Put the rubber 
tube over the jet, and 
condense the air in the jar, as in Ex- 
periment 2, Quickly pull off the 
rubber tube, and a foun- 
tain Hke that in Experi- 
ment 3 will play from 
the jet (See F'ig. 5). 

5. In the vaseline 
bottle used in Experi- 
ments I and 2, or a 
similar one, fit a stopper 
and jet like those used 
on the large jar in Ex- 
periment 4. Partly fill 
it with water, place it 
inside the jar, exhaust 
the air, ancl a fountain 
will play from the jet. 
(See Fig. 6). 

6. In the vaseline bottle put a bent 
tube reaching nearly to the bottom 

on the inside and about 
as far down on the out- 
side. Put enough water 
into both bottle and jar 
to cover well the ends of 
the tube. Exhaust the 
air. All the water will be 
forced out of the bottle. 
Let in the air again. 
More water will run in 
Fig. 6. from the jar than was in 
the bottle to begin with. 

Steam vacuum. A partial va- 
cuum may be produced also by 




Fig:. 5. 




means of steam. If a little water be 
boiled in a flask, the steam will drive 
out all the air, and if the flask be 
then corked and cooled by placing 
it in water the steam will condense 
to water, leaving nothing in its place 
but a little cool water-vapor. The 
cork must be put in carefully, and 
the flask withdrawn from the heat at 
the same time, otherwise the steam 
might force the cork out again. By 
connecting the cork by means of 
rubber tubing with another bottle or 
jar, the air in the latter may be 
greatly rarefied and many of the 
above experiments tried. If a toy 
rubber balloon, with no air in it, be 
fastened to the under side of a glass 
tube passing through the cork, so 
that it will be inside of the flask 
when it is corked, the balloon will 
swell up and fill the flask as soon as 
the flask is cooled ; the outside air 
rushing in to fill the vacuum made 
by condensing the steam. 

ALCOHOL, Experiments with. 
(Read Chemical Experiments). 
Alcohol is described in C. C. T. To 
make it, mix about a quarter of a 
glass of molasses with a glass and a 
half of water, add a little yeast, and 
set the liquid in a warm place for 
two or three days. During this time 
it will ferment and bubbles of gas 
will rise from it, which may be col- 
lected if the liquid is in a corked 
flask with a delivery tube leading to 
the bottom of a jar. The gas is 
CARBONIC ACID, as may be shown 
by shaking it with lime-water. The 
liquid now has alcohol in it, which 
must be separated from it by DIS- 
TILLING. Instead of condensing 
the vapor at once, however, it is first 
led into a bottle which is kept at a 
little below the boiling point of water, 
by being heated over a water bath. 
Most of the steam condenses in this 
bottle, but the alcohol, which will not 
condense at so high a temperature, 
goes on to the next bottle, which is 
kept in ice-cold water. Test the 
liquid thus obtained by trying to light 
some of it on a glass rod. If it will 



ALICE IN WONDERLAND 



ALL FOOLS' DAY 



not burn, it is not strong enough, 
and must be distilled over again. 
Not more than a quarter of the 
liquid must be boiled away, for by 
that time most of the alcohol is 
gone from it. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1. Try to dissolve different sub- 
stances in alcohol. It will be found 
that oily or gummy substances, which 
will not dissolve at all in water, will 
do so in alcohol. 

2. Mix equal quantities of alcohol 
and water together, after measuring 
each in a graduated tube. The 
liquid will shrink in mixing so that 
the mixture will not measure as 
much as the sum of the two quan- 
tities. 

3. Drop alcohol on the still sur- 
face of a basin of water. There will 
be a little dimple, or pit, where it 
strikes, because the heavier and 
stronger fluid on the surface around 
it pulls it away. 

4. Put a teaspoonful of raw white 
of ^^^ in a glass, and pour on it 
about a tablespoonful of alcohol. It 
will be cooked, as if by heat. 

5. Fill a glass with alcohol and into 
it drop a very little of any aniline dye 
in the form of powder. These dyes 
may be obtained of a druggist. The 
dye will descend into the fluid in a 
colored thread which will branch 
out into two or more, and these in 
turn will divide, so as to resemble 
the growth of a plant. If the alco- 
hol be contained in a tank with par- 
allel glass sides (see Prism), the 
phenomenon may be thrown on to a 
screen with the HELIOSTAT, and as 
the lens reverses the object the col- 
ored threads will appear to grow up- 
ward, thus increasing the resem- 
blance to a tree. 

ALICE IN WONDERLAND. A 
game played by any number of per- 
sons, with 52 cards bearing pictures 
of characters in the story of that 
name. The cards are divided into 
three sets : 16 picture-cards with a 
star in the corner, numbered from i 
to 16 ; the same picture-cards with- 



out the star, numbered in like man- 
ner ; and 20 cards without pictures, 
numbered from i to 20. In each set 
the cards rank according to their 
numbers, but a star card is higher 
than any other, and a plain picture- 
card is higher than a plain numbered 
card. At the beginning of the game, 
each player is given seven cards. 
The eldest hand leads. If he lead a 
picture card, the next must play its 
mate (from the other picture-set), if 
possible ; otherwise a card from the 
same set. If a plain numbered card 
be led, the next player must play 
another of that set. If he have no 
card of the set led, he may play what 
he chooses. Each in turn plays in 
like manner, but if a picture card has 
been played it must be followed by 
its mate if possible, even if the lead 
was a plain card. If more than one 
picture card has been played, the 
first must be mated first, if possible. 
When each has played one card, he 
who played the highest card takes 
the trick and leads for the next one. 
When the hands have been played, 
each scores 10 points for each pair 
among the cards he has taken, 20 
for Alice and 20 for the Pool of 
Tears, if he have them ; and he who 
has taken most cards scores 10. The 
player with the greatest number of 
points wins the game. 

ALL FOOLS' DAY. April Fool 
candy can be made by dipping balls 
of cotton in melted chocolate, so that 
they will look like chocolate-creams, 
or by covering a lead pencil, cut in 
half, with frosting so that it will look 
like white candy. 

April Fool cake can be made by 
covering a tin pan, turned upside 
down, with frosting, and an April 
Fool custard by lining a glass closely 
with white or yellow paper and cov- 
ering it with tissue paper on which 
there is a little white of t.gg beaten 
to a froth. An April Fool pie is 
made of ordinary pie-crust either 
with nothing but air within it, or 
stuffed with sawdust. Coarse yellow 
soap cut into pieces makes very good 



ALL FOOLS' DAY 



ALL FOURS 



April Fool cheese. These decep- 
tions served once or twice during a 
meal will be almost certain to catch 
some one. An April Fool whistle 
can be made as shown in the illustra- 
tion, and filled with flour, which 
will fly into the face of any one who 
tries to blow it. A B (Fig. i) is a 
tin tube, stopped by two pieces of 
cork. One at the end has holes in 
it and a glass tube through it, as 
shown in Fig. 2. The other figures 
explain themselves. 

The oldest April Fool trick was to 
send some one on a fruitless errand. 



generally for some absurd or impos- 
sible thing, such as a " stick with 
only one end," a " crooked straight 
edge," etc. This trick was generally 
practiced on some young apprentice, 
and he was sent in search of the ob- 
ject from one place to another till he 
was tired. Sometimes he was sent 
to a shoemaker for some " strap oil." 
which was generally understood to 
mean a thrashing with a strap. 

History. The origin of the cus- 
tom of deceiving people on the first 
of April is unknown, though many 
have tried to explain it. Some say 





Fig- 3. 
April Fool Whistle. 



Fig. 4. 



that the sending boys on silly er- 
rands is to commemorate the send- 
ing out by Noah of the dove, when 
it found nothing to rest on. Others 
connect it with the Hindoo feast on 
March 31, called Huli, which is cele- 
brated in a similar way. The custom 
seems to have been taken to England 
and Germany from France, where 
an April fool is called Poisson 
d'Avril (April fish). Some think 
that this refers to the fool's allow- 
ing himself to be caught like a fish, 
but others say it is a corruption of 
Passion d'Avril (April passion or 
suffering), and that the custom of 
sending people about on fruitless 
errands arose from an old Morality, 



or Miracle Play, representing Christ 
sent backward and forward between 
Herod and Pilate, In France, even 
the highest dignitaries condescended 
to take part in the sport. It is re- 
lated that a high ecclesiastic gathered 
a great crowd to hear him preach on 
the first of April, and, when he had 
ascended the pulpit, made the sign 
of the cross, cried out " April Fool ! " 
and went down again. In Scotland 
the April fool is called a "gowk" 
(cuckoo). 

ALL FOURS (Called also Old- 
Sledge, Seven-Up, and High-Low- 
Jack). A game played with a full 
pack of CARDS, which rank as in 
Whist. It is usually played by two 



ALL FOURS 



ALL FOURS 



persons, or by four acting as part- 
ners, as in Whist ; but it may be 
played also by three or four persons 
without partnership. In the two- 
handed game, the dealer gives each 
player six cards, three at a time, and 
turns up the next card as trump. If 
it be a knave he scores one point at 
once, as further explained below. 
The non-dealer then looks at his 
hand. If he is satisfied with it, he 
says " I stand," in which case play 
begins at once ; but if not, he says 
" I beg." The dealer may then 
either say " Take one," allowing his 
opponent to score one point before 
play begins, or he may lay aside the 
trump and deal three more cards to 
each, turning up the next as a new 
trump. If the new trump is of the 
same suit as the old, three more cards 
must be dealt again to each player, 
and so on till a trump card of a 
different suit is turned. This is 
called " running the cards for a new 
trump." In playing, suit must be 
followed if possible, except when the 
player chooses to trump. The points 
that may be made in one hand are 
four, as follows : 

High. The holder of the highest 
trump out scores one point. 

Low. The original holder of the 
lowest trump out scores one point, 
whether he takes the trick containing 
it or not. 

Jack. The player that wins the 
trick containing the knave of trumps, 
or who turns it up as trump when 
dealing, scores one point. 

Game. The player whose tricks 
contain cards the sum of whose values 
is the greatest, scores one point, 
counting 

Ace as 4 

King " 3 

Queen " 2 

Knave " I 

Ten " 10 

The other cards count nothing toward 
Game ; hence a hand may be played 
when no Game is made, neither 
player holding either court cards or 



tens. If there be a tie,— that is, 
when each player holds an equal 
number for game, it is scored by the 
eldest hand. It may happen that a 
single card may score more than one 
point, or all four points ; thus, if a 
player hold only one face card, the 
Knave of trumps, and his opponent 
have no face card, trump, ten, nor 
Ace, the Knave will score High, Low, 
Jack, and Game. He who first scores 
seven points, wins. 

In the three and four handed 
games only the player at the dealer's 
left has the option of " standing " or 
" begging," as in the two-handed 
game, and the method of playing is 
the same. If new cards are dealt, 
they must be dealt to each of the 
players. In the four-handed game, 
each may play for himself, or two, as 
partners, against the other two. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. In cutting for deal, the Ace 
counts as the highest card. 

2. If the dealer expose any card 
but his own, or make a misdeal, he 
must deal again. 

3. The points must be scored in 
the order, High, Low, Jack, Game ; 
thus, if the players stand six to six in 
the score, and one has High, while 
his opponent has the other three, the 
one that has High goes out. But 
when Jack is turned up as trump, it 
must be scored immediately, thus 
taking precedence of all other points. 

4. A turned-up Jack is to be 
scored, even. if the opponent begs, 
and the trump is thus changed. 

5. No one may beg more than 
once in a hand, but if the hands are 
unsatisfactory after the cards have 
been run, a new deal may had by 
agreement of all the players, or they 
may agree to run the cards again ; 
but no suit can be trump that has 
already been turned as such in the 
same hand. 

6. Should the same suit be turned, 
in running the cards, till the pack 
has all been used, there must be a 
new deal. 

7. In the four-handed game, only 



ALL FOURS 



ALL FOURS 



the dealer and the player on his left 
may look at their cards before the 
latter decides whether to stand or 
beg, and, if he begs, the others may 
not look at their hands till the dealer 
tells whether he will " give one," or 
run the cards for another trump. 

The game is called All Fours from 
the points that can be made in one 
deal; High, Low, Jack, Game (or 
more commonly High-Low-Jack), 
from the names of the points ; and 
Seven-Up, from the number of points 
that win the game. 

Pitch. A kind of All Fours, in 
which no trump is turned, the first 
suit led being considered the trump 
suit. The eldest hand thus has the 
privilege of leading or pitching the 
trump, from which the game gets its 
name. The method of playing is the 
same as in All Fours, except that 
there is no begging. In case of a 
tie for Game, too, neither player can 
score Game. With these changes, 
the rules are the same as in All 
Fours. 

Auction Pitch (called also Com- 
mercial Pitch). A kind of All Fours, 
in which the trump card is not 
turned, but led or pitched by the 
player making the highest bid for the 
priyilege. The game may be played 
by any number of persons, usually 
not more than eight. After the deal 
the eldest hand, who is called the 
seller, asks each in turn, going to- 
ward the left, what he will bid for 
the privilege of pitching the trump. 
Each bids as many points as he 
thinks he can make, and each has 
but one bid. 

The seller, who has the last say, 
may either sell to the highest bid- 
der — that is, permit him to pitch the 
trump — or he may decline to sell 
and pitch the trump himself at the 
same price offered by the highest 
bidder ; but he is not obliged to out- 
bid him. If he accept the bid, he 
e^dds the number of points bid to his 
oWn score at once before playing 
begins. The player who has won 
the privilege must lead a card of the 



suit he has made trumps, and the 
game proceeds as in All Fours. The 
player who pitches the trump, 
whether it be the highest bidder or 
the seller, scores, if successful in 
playing, all the points he may make ; 
but if he fail to make as many points 
as the highest bid, that number of 
points is deducted from his score and 
he cannot count any of the points 
made in that hand. If no bid is 
made the seller must pitch the trump. 

The scoring is usually done by 
giving each player ten to begin with, 
subtracting what he wins, and add- 
ing what he loses, so that the winner 
is he who first gets rid of all his 
points. The score can be very readily 
kept by writing two X's, each of which 
stands for five. For the first point 
the middle of one X can have a ring 
drawn around it, and one of the arms 
can be crossed off for each point 
made afterward. 

Pedro Sancho, oir Sancho Pedrot 
A kind of Auction Pitch in which 
the dealer sells the privilege of mak- 
ing or pitching the trump, and the 
players may bid over and over again 
in turn, till all are satisfied. Any 
number of persons may play, but six 
or eight is the most convenient num- 
ber and makes the best game. The 
cards are dealt as in All Fours, but 
nine or twelve cards instead of six 
may be dealt to each player, by agree- 
ment, if the number be small. High, 
Low, and Jack count each one point, 
as in All Fours, but Low counts for 
him who takes it, not for the original 
holder. Game, too, counts one point, 
but is won by the player who takes the 
ten of trumps. The five of trumps 
(called Pedro) counts five points, and 
the nine of trumps (called Sancho) 
nine points, each in favor of the player 
who wins the trick containing it. 
The game is usually for fifty points, 
and is scored as in Auction Pitch. 
The points must be scored in the 
order High, Low, Jack, Game, Pedro, 
Sancho. 

Dom Pedro. When a Joker, or 
blank card, is used in this game, it is 



ALLITERATION 



8 



AMALGAMS 



called Dom, and the game Dom 
Pedro. No matter what suit is 
trumps, the Joker is always a trump, 
though it may be taken by any other 
trump; but, though the lowest trump, 
it cannot score for Low. It is scored 
last in order, or below Sancho, and 
counts the one who wins it fifteen 
points. When the game is played 
with a Joker, it is for loo points. 

Sancho may be omitted from the 
game, which is then called Pedro. 

California Jack. A kind of All 
Fours played usually by two or four 
persons. After the deal, the dealer 
turns the rest of the pack (called the 
stock) face upward, and the exposed 
card is the trump. He then either 
slips the trump into the middle of the 
pack, or shuffles the cards after which 
they remain face upward on the table. 
After each trick is taken, the dealer 
gives the top card of the stock to 
the winner, and one card to each of 
the other players in order, to the 
left, holding each card face upward. 
Thus each continues to have six 
cards in his hand as long as the 
stock lasts. The points are High, 
Low, Jack, and Game, as in All 
Fours. As all the pack is used, 
High will always be the Ace, and 
Low the two of trumps. The latter 
counts for the taker, not the original 
holder as in All Fours. He who 
first makes ten points wins. 

The chief feature of this game is 
the fact that the topmost card of the 
stock is always visible, and if it is a 
high one each player wishes to take 
the trick, so as to get it. Hence 
there is some interest in playing 
each trick, whereas in all other kinds 
of All Fours a player cares to take 
only tricks containing cards that 
count. Care must be taken not to 
expose any but the top card of the 
stock. 

ALLITERATION. A game played 
by any number of persons, each of 
whom is required to write a story in 
which each word shall begin with a 
given letter of the alphabet. The 
Stories may be required to be of the 



same length, as agreed on before- 
hand, or a given time may be 
allowed for writing. When all have 
finished, the stories are read aloud, 
and he whose story is the best, as 
decided by a majority of the players, 
is declared the winner. 

ALPHABETICAL TRAVELS. A 
game played by any number of per- 
sons. Each of the players, who sit 
in a row, tells, in order, to what place 
he will travel and what he will do 
there, always using for principal 
words (such as nouns, adjectives, 
and verbs), those beginning with a 
single letter of the alphabet. The 
first player takes A, the second B, 
and so on. Thus the players, in 
order, may say : 

" I am going to Africa, to Ask an 
Arab for Apricots." 

"I am going to Boston to Buy 
Baked Beans." ' 

" I am going to California to Cut 
Curious Capers." 

" I am going to Damascus to Dine 
on Delicious Doughnuts." 

" I am going to Elizabeth to Eat 
Eggs Egotistically." And so on 
through the alphabet. 

Any one unable to give a sentence 
of this kind may be required to pay 
a forfeit, or a score may be kept, the 
successful ones being given one 
point. In this case the company 
may be divided into sides. The 
method of playing must be agreed 
upon beforehand. 

ALUM, Experiment with. Heat a 
small quantity of crystalline alum in 
an earthenware crucible. It will turn 
to a white powder, and expanding 
will overflow the crucible. (See also 
Crystallization.) 

AlVIALCAIVIS. Compound of mer- 
cury with other metals. Mercury 
dissolves most metals at ordinary 
tenriperatures, as may be seen by ex- 
periment. The amalgam is often 
made more quickly if the metal be in 
the form of scrapings or powder, and 
if both it and the mercury be heated. 
Three curious kinds of amalgam are 
formed in the following experiments : 



AMMONIA 



AMMONIA 



1. Sodium Amalgam, Into mer- 
cury contained in a glass dish put 
some thin strips of sodium and stir 
with a glass tube. The metals will 
unite with a crackling noise and a 
flame. As drops of metal are fre- 
quently thrown out it is best to cover 
the dish while the action is going cm. 
The appearance of the amalgam 
varies according to the proportion of 
sodium used. Thirty parts of mer- 
cury to one of sodium form a soHd 
mass. If three or four times as 
much mercury is used the result is a 
thick liquid, and with quantities be- 
tween these two extremes the amal- 
gam is a more or less thick paste. 

2. A7nmonium Amalgam. Half 
fill a test tube with a strong solution 
of sal-ammoniac in water and pour 
into it a small quantity of sodium 
amalgam. The liquid will expand 
and push itself out of the tube in a 
pasty, frothy mass. This has been 
supposed by some persons to be an 
amalgam of mercury and the metal 
ammonium, which is believed to be 
present in ammonia. It breaks up 
soon into mercury and ammonia. 

3. Gold Amalgam. Suspend a 
piece of gold leaf in a bottle con- 
taining mercury. The mercury 
vapor will amalgamate with the gold, 
turning it gradually gray. (The use 
of mercury for extracting gold from 
its ore is described in C. C. T., arti- 
cle Gold). 

AMMONIA, Experiments with. 
(Read article on Chemical Exper- 
iments). Ammonia is described in 
C. C. T. The common ammonia 
water sold at drug stores is ammonia 
gas mixed with water. The gas can 
be obtained from this, by heating it 
in a flask, the delivery tube from 
which passes to the top of an inverted 
jar, since the gas is lighter than air. 
A piece of red litmus paper, held at 
the mouth of the jar when it is full, 
will turn blue (see Test Papers). 
The gas cannot be collected over 
water because it dissolves in water so 
easily. 

Another way to obtain the gas is 



to mix a teaspoonful of pulverized 
sal-ammoniac with twice as much 
freshly slaked LIME, first allowing 
the lime to cool. Add just enough 
water to make the mixture lumpy 
when stirred. Heat it gently in a 
flask, collecting the gas as before. 
The ammonia in this case comes 
from the sal-ammoniac, which is 
composed of chlorine and ammonia. 
The chlorine prefers the hme to the 
ammonia, and so lets the latter 
escape. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

I. The Ammonia Fountain. Fill 
a bottle with ammonia gas as de- 
scribed above, and stop it with a 
cork through which passes a small 
glass tube, ending in 
a jet inside the bottle. 
Dip the exposed end 
of the tube into a 
glass of water, and 
after a time the water 
will spurt up into the 
bottle of ammonia, 
forming a little foun- 
tain. The reason is 
that water and am- 
monia have a great 
liking for each other. 
The gas in the tube 
dissolves in the water 
into which it projects, 
and the pressure of 
the air on the surface 
of the water in the 
glass forces it up to 
take the place of the dissolved 
ammonia. Thus more gas is dis- 
solved, and so the fountain keeps 
on playing till all the gas is gone. 
It often takes a long time to start 
the fountain, because the tube is 
filled with air, and the action does 
not begin till the ammonia reaches 
water. The experimenter will have 
to wait patiently, or he may hurry 
matters by pouring a little water 
into the tube. If the water in the 
glass be colored with red litmus, it 
will turn blue as it enters the am- 
monia (see Test Papers). The 
experiment will succeed better if the 




AMMONIA 



lo 



ANAGRAMS 



ammonia be perfectly dry, so it may 
be passed through a dryi'^g bottle 
before collecting. See that the cork 
and tube are perfectly tight, or the 
fountain will not play. 

2. To Burn Ammonia. To burn 
a jet of ammonia gas it must be 
surrounded by oxygen. Connect 
the delivery tube d from the drying 

bottle to a long glass jet 
around which is placed 
an argand lamp chim- 
ney, as shown in the 
figure, the top of the 
chimney a being on a 
level with the top of the 
jet. It will be found im- 
possible to light the am- 
monia gas flowing from 
the jet unless a current 
of oxygen be passed 
through the lamp chim- 
ney from a tube b, when 
it will take fire with a 
yellow flame. Instead of surrounding 
the ammonia with oxygen, the two 
gases may be mixed, by passing a 
stream of oxygen through strong am- 
monia water in a flask or bottle. Heat 
the flask, and the mixed gases can 
then be lighted at its mouth. 

3. Sal-ammoniac. Into the bot- 
tom of a glass pour a few drops of 
strong ammonia water, and shake it 
about so that it will wet the sides of 




Argand 
Burner. 




Sal-ammoniac Cloud. 

the glass. Into another glass pour, 
in like manner, hydrochloric 
acid; place a sheet of paper over 
one glass and then put the other 



on it, bottom upward. After waiting 
a moment, pull the paper away, 
when the glass will fill with a dense, 
white cloud. This cloud is formed 
of particles of sal-ammoniac, which 
is made of chlorine and ammonia. 

4. Ammonia from Cheese. Am- 
monia may be obtained from cheese 
in the following manner. Place in a 
test tube a bit of cheese and some 
caustic potash, and heat over an 
alcohol lamp. The odor of ammo- 
nia will soon be perceived, and if a 
piece of turmeric paper be held over 
the tube it will be turned brown, 
showing that an alkali is present. 
The ammonia is formed by the union 
of the nitrogen and hydrogen which 
are present in cheese. 

ANAGRAMS. A game played 
with printed letters of the alphabet, 
like those used in playing LOGO- 
MACHY. Each player forms a word 
and then, mixing the letters compos- 
ing it, gives it to his right-hand 
neighbor, who is required to arrange 
the letters again in their proper 
order. This is the usual method, 
but as thus played Anagrams is 
rather an amusement than a game. 
It may be played as a game by re- 
quiring each player to give his word, 
at the same time, to each of the 
others. Whoever guesses all his 
words soonest, or guesses most of 
them in a given time, is declared 
winner. In this method no two per- 
sons have exactly the same list of 
words to solve. That all may be 
equal in this respect, some one not in 
the game may give the words to all. 

Forming Anagrams has long been 
a favorite amusement, and much in- 
genuity has been shown in trans- 
forming a word, by changing its let- 
ters into another defining it or related 
to it in some way. Some of the 
anagrams made in this way are as 
follows : 

Telegraph. — Great help. 

Reformations. — To sin far more. 

Old England.— Golden land. 

The following was made by Dean 
Swift : 



ANAMORPHOSES 



II 



ANAMORPHOSES 



Transubstantiation, — Sin sat on a 
tin tar tub. 

The game of Anagrams is called 
in France Le jeu de mots (the Game 
of Words), and is played with bits 
of wood or bone resembling domi- 
noes, having a capital letter on one 
end and a small one on the other. 

Alphabet Game. A kind of Ana- 
grams, where, instead of the actual 
letters of the word to be guessed, the 
guesser is given an arrangement of 
dots, single ones representing conso- 
nants, and double ones vowels. Thus, 
the word "Philadelphia" would be 
denoted thus : 



The guesser is allowed to ask " Is 
it a city } " " Is it a person ? " or 
any similar question which can be 
answered by " Yes " or " No." The 
number of these questions can be 
limited by agreement. This game is 
called in Germany Das Buchstabir- 
spiel (the Letter Game). 

ANAMORPHOSES. Drawings in 
which the objects represented are 
twisted out of shape, but can be seen 
in their proper proportions by using 
some special device. The simplest 
kind can be made as follows. Sup- 
pose Fig. I is the picture to be trans- 
formed. Divide it into squares, as 
shown. Then draw a straight line 
ab (Fig. 2) equal to the side A Boi the 
square, divide it into the same num- 





\ I 


1^ 


w 




! 




fci 


l-h 



Fig. I. 

ber of parts, and draw lines from each 
point of division to some point below 



as V. Draw VS parallel with the 
base line, and from any point S on 




Fig. 2. 

it draw a line to the point a. At the 
places where this crosses the other 
lines draw parallels to the base line. 
The figure ac db will now be divided 
into the same number of parts as the 
original square, but of a different 
shape. The picture is now rc-drawn 
in this new figure, placing in each 
part what was in the corresponding 
square. The greater the number of 
squares into which the original pic- 
ture was divided, the more accurately 
this can be done. By looking at the 
distorted picture from a point near 
the paper just above V, it will appear 
in its right shape. This point varies 
according to the positions of the 
points V and S, but is easily found 
by trial. 

Another way of drawing the same 



ANGLING 



12 



ANGLING 



kind of anamorphosis is to prick pin- 
holes in the original picture so as to 
trace the outlines, and then hold it 
upright just in front of a candle so 




Fig. 3. 

that the light shining through the 
pin-holes forms the picture on a sheet 
of paper laid before it on the table. 
The outlines are then traced on this 



sheet by following the illuminated 
lines with a pencil, and the picture 
is afterward filled in in detail. If 
the original picture be removed and 
the distorted one looked at with the 
eye placed exactly where the candle 
was, it will be seen in its proper 
shape. (See Fig. 3.) 

Anamorphoses are sometimes 
made, which appear of their proper 
shape when viewed in a cylindrical 
or conical mirror. Such distorted 
pictures can often be bought at toy 
stores, but they are very difficult to 
draw properly. 

ANGLING, or FISH POND. A 
game played by an even number of 
persons, who angle for toy fish with 
a miniature pole and hook and line. 
The fish, which maybe made to look 
Hke real fish, or may be simply little 
pieces of wood, are fitted with rings 




Angling. 



about I- 16 of an inch in diameter, 
and have on them numbers in regu- 
lar order. For four players, about 




Fish. 



forty fish are generally provided. 
The players sit opposite each other, 
and each is given five fish for his 



"private pond," which are placed in 
front of him, while the rest are put 
in the middle of the table to form the 
" large pond." 

The game begins by two of the 
players fishing in each other's ponds, 
each holding his pole, and trying to 
lift one of the fish by passing the 
hook through the ring. The first 
one to do so cries, "Caught !" and 
his opponent takes the fish in his 
hand, while the successful angler 



ANORTHOSCOPE 



13 



ANORTHOSCOPE 



guesses whether its number is odd 
or even. If the guess be correct he 
takes the fish into his own pond, and 
the same pair fish again as before, 
but in the large pond. As long as 
one of them is successful, the same 
pair continue to fish, alternately in 
each other's ponds and the large 
pond. When there is a wrong guess, 
the fish is put into the large pond, if it 
has been taken from a private pond, 
and into the opponent's pond if from 
the large pond, and the next two 
players begin to fish. If the players 
catch fish at the same time, the one 
who first calls out "Caught," is 
given the preference. If both call at 
once, he who guesses correctly is 
preferred, and if both guess correctly, 
the fish are returned to their respec- 
tive ponds for another trial. The 
game is ended when any pond, large 
or private, is empty, and he wins who 
has most fish. If two have the same 
number, the sum of the numbers 
marked on the fish decides the game. 
When only two play, each private 
pond should contain ten fish. 

Angling is much played as a PRO- 
GRESSIVE GAME. When it is thus 
played, an increased number of fish 
is needed ; each player may be pro- 
vided with a rod and line, or there 
may be two for each table. 

ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND 
MINERAL. See Twenty Ques- 
tions. 

ANORTHOSCOPE. An optical 
toy which distorts figures viewed 
through it. It consists of two discs, 
on one of which the figure to be 
viewed is painted, while in the other 
there are slits through which the 
observer looks, as in the zoetrope. 
The discs are so arranged as to 
revolve in opposite directions, and 
the disc bearing the figures is made 
transparent, so that it may be seen 
by holding it up toward the light. 
The figures are usually so drawn 
that when viewed by the unaided eye 
they are unrecognizable, but when 
placed in the anorthoscope they are 
restored to their proper shape. The 



arrangement and results of the toy 
depend somewhat on the relative 
velocity of the disks. We will sup- 
pose that the disk bearing the slit is 
made to revolve once, while that 
with the figure does so four times. 
Then there must be four slits in the 
front disk, arranged thus -]-, and, 
whatever figure may be drawn on 
the other disk, five distorted figures, 
all alike, will be seen by looking 
through the slits. The illustrations 
on page 14 show the appearance of 
two designs, first as seen with the 
naked eye, and then through the slits. 

The reason why the toy produces 
this effect will now be given. First 
suppose there is only one slit in the 
front disk, and only a dot, instead of 
a picture, on the other. Suppose the 
disk to start with the dot just behind 
the slit. As the back disk turns four 
times as fast as the front one, the dot 
will pass behind the slit four times 
before they get around into the same 
position again. Thus the eye will 
see five dots on the rear disk instead 
of one. If there are four slits at 
right angles the result will be the 
same, for each will pass the dot in 
the same place as the others. But 
there cannot be more than four. The 
same will be true of a large figure as 
of a dot, but each of the multiplied 
figures will be shut together like a 
fan, so as to extend only one-fifth as 
far around the circle as before. That 
is, supposing the circle to be divided 
into 360 degrees, if the picture extend- 
ed around sixty degrees, it will appear 
in the anorthoscope to extend over 
only twelve degrees. This shutting 
together is a consequence of the rapid 
movement of the rear disk past the 
front one. If this reduction in size 
took place in all directions, the figure 
would be the same shape, only 
smaller, but it takes place in only one 
direction, that is, around the circle, 
hence the figure is twisted out of 
shape. 

A/iy figure may be drawn on the 
disk so that it will appear in its proper 
shape when viewed through the an- 



ANORTHOSCOPE 



14 



ANORTHOSCOPE 



orthoscope. Suppose the figure to 
be that of a card as shown in the 
illustration. Draw Hnes from the 
center of the disk through the angles 
of the card, and others to the points 
I, 2, 3, etc., at intervals of any de- 
sired number of degrees, say five, as 



in the plan on page 1 5. The position 
of the card should be so arranged 
that the lines passing through the 
corners will be multiples of five de- 
grees apart. (The degrees may be 
laid off with a curved scale, called 
a protractor, sold by any dealer 




Anorthoscope Designs. 



in drawing materials.) Then draw 
an equal number of lines from the 
center, twenty -five degrees apart 
to the points i', 2', 3', 4', etc., repre- 
senting the first lines opened out like 
a fan. Take any line of the figure, 
and measure the distance, from the 
center, of the point where it crossed 
each of the radii first drawn, and 



make a dot on the corresponding 
new radius at just that distance. 
For instance, measure the distance 
from the center to the left-hand cor- 
ner on the radius drawn to i, and then 
lay it off on the radius drawn to i'. 
Join all the dots so made by a curved 
line, and do the same with all the 
other lines of the figure. Care must 



ANORTHOSCOPE 



15 



ARCHERY 



be taken that the original figure does 
not take up more than one-fifth of 
the disk ; otherwise the adjoining 
figures, as seen in the anorthoscope, 
will overlap. 

Anorthoscopes can be made which 
will multiply the figure seen as many 
times as desired, shutting it together 
to a corresponding degree. The 
number of figures seen is always one 
greater than the number of revolu- 
tions the back disk makes while the 
front one is going around once, and 
the number of slits, always one less 
than the number of figures, must be 
disposed at equal distances around 
the disk. Thus, if it makes eight to 
the front disk's one, nine figures will 
be seen, each of which reaches only 
one-ninth as far around the circle as 
the original. In this case there must 
be eight slits. 

The anorthoscope may be made to 
work in many other ways besides the 
one described here. If the disks re- 
volve in the same direction the num- 
ber of revolutions can be so adjusted 
as to combine several figures into 




Plan for Drawing. 

one, instead of expanding one into 
several. By slightly varying these 
figures an effect is obtained like that 

of the ZOETROPE. 

The anorthoscope is not commonly 
sold at toy stores. The disks can 
easily be made as above described. 



but it is more difficult to make the 
disks revolve at exactly the proper 
rate. This can be effected by means 
of cog-wheels arranged as shown in 
the illustration. If the number of 
cogs on the larger of the two parallel 
wheels be four times that on the 
smaller, the latter will revolve four 




Wheels for Anorthoscope. 

times as fast. The number on the 
crank-wheel is immaterial. The ar- 
rangement can be made at any 
machine shop. 

The anorthoscope is the invention 
of Prof. Plateau, a Belgian scientist. 
The name is from the Greek aiior- 
thos, crooked, and skopein, to see. 

ARCHERY. The best bows are 
made of a single piece of Italian or 
Spanish yew, or of two pieces joined 
at the handle, but good bows are 
made also of lancewood or ash. A 
good bow is largest in the middle 
and tapers toward the ends, which 
are usually tipped with horn with 
notches to hold the cord. The force 
required to draw a 28-inch arrow to 
its head in any bow measures that 
bow's strength, which is expressed in 
pounds. The distance to the head 
of such an arrow is 27 inches, so if a 
40-pound weight, tied to the middle 
of a bow string, will pull it just 27 
inches below the bow (held horizon- 
tally), the latter is a 40-pound bow. 
The best arrows are made of red 
deal wood with a piece of harder 
wood fastened to them at the point 
or " pile." At the opposite end three 
strips of feather are glued, to make 



ARCHERY 



l6 



ARCHERY 



the arrow fly accurately. Sometimes 
the feathers are cut in triangular 
shape and sometimes they are 
curved. The latter method, called 
balloon feathering, is generally con- 



sidered the best, though perhaps not 
the easiest. The best arrows are 
made in England, and their weight 
is expressed in English shillings and 
pence. The regulation length is 28 




Bracer and Glove. 



inches for six-foot bows, and 25 for 
women's bows, which are from four 
and a half to five feet long. 

Thimbles of leather (called " finger 
stalls "), open at the end, are usually 
worn on the forefinger, middle-finger. 




Target. 

and third finger of the right hand, so 
that the finger tips may not be blis- 
tered by the bow-string. They 
should fit closely and should be of 
as thin material as will properly 



guard the fingers. Other forms of 
protection for the fingers may be 
substituted. Many archers wear also 
a " bracer," or arm guard of hard 
leather, fastened by straps to the left 
arm near the wrist, to protect it from 
the bow-string. A leather or tin 
case called a quiver may be fastened 
to the archer's belt to hold his arrows, 
and a tassel of worsted is appended 
to wipe the dirt from them. The 
targets used in archery matches are 
made of a pad of straw covered on 
one side with cloth, and hung on a 
tripod so that its middle is about 
four feet from the ground. In the 
center is a gilt or yellow spot, called 
the gold (or sometimes the " bull's 
eye "), and around this in order are 
bands of red, blue, black, and white. 
The archer scores a larger or smaller 
number as he strikes one or another 
of the colors. Thus : 

An arrow in the gold generally counts 9 
" " " " red " " 7 

" " " " blue " " 5 

" " " " black " '• 3 

" " " " white " " I 

The score is sometimes kept by 
pricking the shots on a card shaped 
like a target, as shown in the illus- 
tration on page 17. 



1 



ARCHERY 



ARCHERY 



The targets most used in England 
were formerly supported on Butts, — 
walls of sodded earth serving as 
backing for discs of paper. Butts 
should be 6 feet high and 8 feet long. 
Instead of the backing of straw sold 
at toy stores, a box filled with earth 
may be used. Another simple kind 
of target is a " clout," or disc of 
pasteboard, stuck in the cleft end of 
a stick, the other end of which is 
pushed into the ground. 

An archer's equipments are often 
kept in a cupboard called an Ascham, 
after Roger Ascham, a writer on 
archery. It is shaped like a small 
wardrobe, about six feet high and 
three wide. About three feet from 



the bottom is a shelf with holes in it, 
in which are supported the bows 
and arrows, while hooks on the sides 
bear the bracer, gloves, and other 
necessary articles. 

Roving. — Instead of firing from 
the same point, archers sometimes 
move about and shoot at improvised 
targets, which is called "roving." 
One of the party of archers selects a 
tree, or other object, to be shot at, 
and he who hits it is allowed to 
choose the next one. If no one hits 
it, he whose arrow falls nearest is 
allowed the choice. 

Hunting. — Expert archers say 
that hunting with a bow and arrow 
is a more fascinating sport than 




Score Card. 



hunting with a gun. The shooting 
makes no noise, and so does not 
frighten the game. Shooting at 
wild game requires more skill than 
shooting at an ordinary target. Good 
practice for shooting at birds may be 
obtained by using a black rubber 
ball, about four inches in diameter, 
suspended by a string from the limb 
of a tree. 

The rules governing archery 
matches or " meetings " are given 
below. 

The first thing for the beginner in 
archery is to learn to " string" his bow 
properly ; that is, to fit the bow-string 
to it so that it will be ready for use. 



When unstrung the bow is nearly 
straight. The bow-string has a loop 
at each end like that in the illustra- 
tion. Slipping the larger loop over 
one end of the bow held upper- 
most, and sliding it down below the 
" nock " or groove for the string, the 
archer fits the smaller one into the 
lower nock, and then taking the 
middle of the bow in his right hand 
presses the lower end of the bow on 
the ground in the hollow of his right 
foot, the back of the bow next to the 
foot, as shown in the illustration. By 
then pulling with the right hand and 
pushing with the left, near the upper 
end of the bow, it will be bent, and 



ARCHERY 



i8 



ARCHERY 



at the same time the left hand can 
push the upper loop into its nock. 




Bow-string Loop. 

The bow-string should be two or 
three inches shorter than the bow. 
In a strung bow the string should 
be about six inches from the wood at 
the middle in a six-foot bow, and 
correspondingly nearer in a smaller 
one. When the bow has been 
strung the archer holds it upright by 
its middle in his left hand, and 
taking an arrow in his right, fits its 
notch to the middle of the bow- 
string, the shaft being on the left 
side of the bow and resting on the 
left hand. He then hooks the first 
three fingers of his right hand around 
the string, so that it rests on the 
finger-balls, the end of the arrow 
being between the first and second ; 
and extending the left arm, pulls the 
string with the right, at the same 
time drawing the arrow with it till 
its head nearly touches the bow. 
Then both string and arrow are re- 
leased, by unhooking the fingers 
gently, and the shot is made. The 
best posture for the archer, while 
shooting, is with the left side toward 



the target, the body nearly erect, 
and the feet about six inches apart. 
The best archers hold the bow up- 
right while shooting, but lean the 
top a little to the right, which keeps 
the arrow in place and enables 
the string to be drawn more 
easily. 

Accuracy in shooting depends 
chiefly on three things : the draw, 
the aim, and the release. It requires 
long practice to draw the arrow and 
string back steadily, and if this is not 
done, a good shot cannot be made. 
The arrow should be drawn back to 
a point just under the chin, and not 
to the eye, which the beginner may 
think is necessary for a correct aim. 
It is of no use to " sight " along the 
arrow, for it does not fly straight to 
the mark, but describes a curve in 
the air. If the arrow is pointed 
directly at the target, except at very 
short distances, it will strike the 
ground in front of the mark. This 
is equally true of a firearm ; the bul- 
let moves in a curve, not a straight 
line, but it moves very fast, and so, 
except for very long distances, the 




Stringing. 

curve is very flat, and the gun or 
pistol can be aimed at the mark. 



1 



ARCHERY 



19 



ARCHERY 



But the arrow moves much more 
slowly, and sixty yards away from 
the target it must be pointed above 
the target. The point which the 
arrow-head must seem to cover at 
any particular distance is called the 
" point of aim " for that distance, 
and is best learned by trial. The 
string should always be drawn back 
to the same spot before taking aim, 
otherwise the arrow-head would seem 
to the eye to cover different points. 
The best plan is to draw the arrow 
back three-fourths of its length, then 
pause an instant to take aim, and then 
draw it the rest of the way and loose 




Shooting. 

it. The release, or loosing the ar- 
row, requires great care, as it is easy, 
in letting go, to move the arrow to 
one side, thereby destroying the aim. 
The fingers should slip easily from 
the string, and should not follow it. 
One v/ho hopes to become a good 
archer should practice the draw, the 
aim, and the release, till he has per- 
fect command of them, and should 
always perform them in the same 
way, never changing to try experi- 
ments. 

At archery club meetings, the con- 



testants generally take turns, each 
shooting three arrows at a turn, un- 
til each has shot a number previously 
agreed upon. This entire number is 
called a " round." The rounds gen- 
erally shot are : 

The " York Round," consisting of — 
72 arrows at 100 yards. 
48 " " 80 " 
24 " " 60 " 

144 arrows. 

The " American Round," consisting of— 
30 arrows at 60 yards. 
30 " " 50 I' 
30 ' 40 

90 arrows. 

The " Columbia Round " (for women), consist- 
ing of — 

24 arrows at 50 yards. 

24 30 

72 arrows. 

Where a large number are to 
shoot, several targets are used, and 
the contestants are divided into par- 
ties, each of which uses the same 
target throughout the match. 

RULES FOR ARCHERY MEETINGS. 

1. A Field Captain shall be ap- 
pointed who shall have entire control 
of the ranges, targets and order of 
shooting, and he shall appoint a 
Target Captain for each target, who 
shall direct the order of shooting at 
his target. 

2. Each Target Captain shall ap- 
point a Scorer and a Herald to act 
at his target. The Scorer shall keep 
a record of each arrow shot, upon 
blanks provided for the purpose by 
the association. The Herald shall 
announce the result of each shot. 

3. An arrow must remain in the 
target until the value of the " hit " is 
recorded, otherwise the " hit " shall 
not be counted. 

4. The targets shall be four feet 
in diameter, and placed on easels, 
the center of the "gold " being four 
feet from the ground. 

5. The " gold " shall be 9^^^^ in 
diameter, and each ring shall be 4^ 
inches in width. 

6. The value of colors shall be : 



ARCHERY 



20 



ARCHERY 



Gold, 9 ; red, 7 ; blue, 5 ; black, 3 ; 
white, I. 

7. In case an arrow cuts two 
colors, it shall count as having hit 
the inner one. 

8. All disputes shall be referred 
for decision to the Captain of the 
target where they arise. 

9. Every archer shall shoot with 
arrows bearing his mark, and every 
arrow leaving the bow shall be 
deemed as having been shot, unless 
the archer can reach it with his bow 
while standing inside the line from 
which he is shooting. 

10. No person, unless competing 
for prizes, shall be allowed within 
the bounds of the Archers' grounds 
during the progress of the shooting. 

Cross-Bow. — The ancient cross- 
bow is described below, under His- 
tory. The modern toy is a bow 
fixed on a gun-stock, and fired by 
a trigger like that in the illustration. 
The bow-string, when drawn, is 
hooked over the trigger and the 
arrow is placed in a groove. The 
trigger, which turns on a pivot, is 
held at the bottom by an elastic 
band, which keeps it in position. 




Cross-bow. 

The arrows shot by a cross-bow 
are properly called bolts, and are 
shorter than those shot from a long- 
bow. Pieces of wood three or four 
inches long, loaded at the head by 
driving in a nail, make good bolts. 

A small cross-bow, often called a 
watch-spring gun, can be made by 
using a piece of watch-spring for a 
bow. The spring should be about six 
inches long. Little arrows, or shot, 
may be used in such a gun, which 



will carry about 50 feet. In firing 
shot, fit the gun with a tin barrel 
made of a blow-gun tube. A stick 
fitting loosely in it has the bow- 
string passed through a hole in its 
rear end. The spring may also be 
arranged as shown in the illustration 
on page 21. The stick must be so 
long that when the bow is bent the 
end does not pull out of the tube. 

Elastic Cross-bow. — This bow is 
made of a stiff piece of wood, as it is 
not intended to bend. Its convex 
side is toward the shooter. The 
string is made of strong india-rubber 
cord whose elasticity sends the arrow 
or bolt. 

History. — The bow and arrow 
were in use ail over the world in 
times so ancient that we have no 
record of them. This is proved from 
arrow-heads dug up in many places ; 
and from other things found with 
them we know that they were made 
long before men were acquainted 
with the use of metals, in the Stone 
Age, so called because all weapons 
and tools were then made of stone. 
These ancient arrow-heads, some- 
times six inches in length by two in 
breadth, were used both in war and 
in hunting enormous wild animals 
now extinct. The earliest records 
we have tell of skilled archers among 
the Asiatic nations and the Egyp- 
tians ; and the first explorers of the 
American continent found the natives 
expert in the use of the bow. Among 
the best archers of antiquity were the 
Persians, Parthians, Numidians, and 
Cretans. The archers in the Persian 
army were so numerous and let fly 
such clouds of arrows that a Persian 
once boasted to a Greek that they 
would darken the sun at mid-day. 
The Greeks and Romans employed 
foreign archers. The poet Virgil 
describes an archery match where a 
bird tied to a mast was the target. 
One marksman cut the string with 
his arrow, and as the bird flew away 
another killed it. 

Archery was practiced in England 
from the earliest times, but the Sax- 



ARCHERY 



ARCHERY 



ons and Danes used the bow prob- 
ably only for hunting. The illustra- 
tion from an old manuscript shows an 
ancient Saxon bow and arrow. The 
Normans, however, made it a military 
weapon, and their archers won the 
battle of Hastings, which brought 
England under Norman rule. From 
this time the English long-bowmen 



became the most famous in the world, 
and did much toward making their 
country great and powerful. The 
kings of England were so anxious 
that skill in archery should not de- 
cline, that they frequently discour- 
aged and even forbade other amuse- 
ments and exercises. The price of 
bows was regulated by law. In the 




Watch-spring Gun. 



reign of Edward IV. dealers were 
compelled to sell them at three shil- 
lings and fourpence each (about 83 
cents), but in Queen Mary's time the 
price was fixed at six shillings and 
eightpence ($1.56) for the best bows, 
and two shillings (50 cents) for an 
inferior kind. 



Roger Ascham, an Englishman, 
who wrote, in 1 544, a book on arch- 
ery called " Toxophilus " (the bow- 
lover), gives directions for shooting 
v^^hich are much the same as those 
approved by good archers to-day. 
He says that the ancient style of 
drawing the bow was to the right 




Egyptian Archer. 



breast, but he prefers that it be 
drawn to the ear, the method of the 
English archers. He advises young 
archers to shoot at lights in the 
night, that they may learn to look at 
the mark in aiming, and not at the 
arrow. 

Ancient archers were skilled in 
shooting long distances. By an act 



of Parliament passed in the reign 
of Henry VIII., persons who had 
reached the age of twenty-four years 
were forbidden to shoot at any mark 
less than 220 yards' distance. But 
the statement, often made, that a 
good archer could hit a peeled willow 
wand at 300 yards, is believed by 
expert modern archers to be an 



ARCHERY 



22 



ARCHERY 



absurdity. Prince Arthur, son of 
Henry VII., was a fine shot with the 
bow, and from him good marksmen 
were frequently called Arthur. Henry 
VIII., while attending an archery 



meeting, was so pleased with the 
shooting of a Londoner named Bar- 
low, who lived at Shoreditch, that he 
gave him in jest the title of " Duke 
of Shoreditch," and the captain of 




the London archers was long known 
by this name. In 1583, at a grand 
shooting match, the " Duke," with a 
retinue of mock marquises and earls, 
and a throng of about 7000 follow- 
ers, all quaintly dressed, paraded in 
London. 

The cross-bow or arbalast, which 
came into use about the i ith century, 
was more in vogue on the continent 
of Europe than the long-bow; but 
in England the archers disHked the 
new weapon, because it took less 
skill, and laws were passed against 
it. It consisted of a short bow fixed 
at the end of a stock somewhat like 
a gun-stock, on the top of which was 
a barrel sht so as to let the string be 
pulled back until caught by the trig- 
ger. When the trigger was pulled, 
the string was released and springing 
through the slit drove the arrow out 
of the barrel. 

The best arbalasts had steel bows, 
and required the aid of a crank to 
draw them. They shot short arrows, 
called bolts or quarrels, so swiftly 
and with such force that they often 
pierced heavy armor. The cross- 
bow was the most deadly weapon in 
the world before the invention of 
fire-arms. The use of the bow sur- 
vived long after that event, but when 
the improvement of musketry caused 
the bow to be given up as a weapon, 
archery became merely an amuse- 
iiitnt and remains so at the present 



day. In 1844 there was a great re- 
vival of the sport in England, and 
there are now in that country more 
than eighty large clubs, some of 




Arbalast. 

which are centuries old. In the 
United States scientific archery has 
only recently come into favor, though 
the bow has always been used as a 



ARMY SOLITAIRE 



23 



ARMY SOLITAIRE 



toy. In 1879 was formed a National 
Archery Association, which holds 
meetings every year and awards gold 
medals as prizes. 

ARMY SOLITAIRE. A soli- 
taire game of cards, played with 
one full pack. The first card taken 
from the pack, whatever it may be, 
and the similar cards of the other 
suits are called foundation cards. 
These cards whenever they ap- 
pear are placed to form the 
corners of a square of nine cards, 



places being reserved for them till 
they appear. From these founda- 
tions, " towers," one of each suit, 
must be built up by placing on each 
in order the other cards of the same 
suit up to the King. If the founda- 
tion card is an Ace, the tower will 
thus include all the cards, but other- 
wise not. Other cards than the foun- 
dations are placed to form the five 
remaining cards of the square, till all 
the places are occupied. After that, 
a card may be placed on any of them 




Shooting at the Butts with the Cross-Bow. 



which ranks just above or just below 
it, without regarding suit. If a card, 
which will go on neither the towers 
nor in the "reserve corps," as the 
other piles are called, is turned, it 
must be laid aside to form " stock." 
The top card of any pile of the re- 
serve corps may be placed on any 
other pile, either a tower or another 
reserve pile, if it belongs there. 
Thus, a Ten on a reserve pile may 
be put on a Nine of the same suit on 
a tower; or on a Nine or Knave of 
any suit on another reserve pile, and 



when any pile of the latter is entirely 
used, the top card of the stock is 
taken to fill the vacant space. When 
all the cards are used, the stock is 
shuffled and played. This is usually 
done only once, but sometimes the 
player continues to do so till he com- 
pletes his towers, measuring his skill 
by the number of shufflings of the 
stock. Skill is required in arranging 
the reserve corps so that it will best 
aid the building of the towers. The 
game is often more difficult with a 
small tower to build (as when a Nine 



ARTIFICIAL WOOD 



H 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



or Ten is the foundation) than with a 
higher one, for the useless cards clog 
the reserve corps. Sometimes, in- 
stead of stopping at the King, the 
towers are built higher, going on 
with the Ace, Two, Three, etc., till 
the whole suit is used, ending with 
the card just below the foundation 
card. Sometimes the reserve piles 
are built only downward instead of 
in either direction. This game of 
Solitaire is said to have been much 
played by the soldiers during our 
Civil War. 

ARTIFICIAL WOOD. A solution 
of copper in strong ammonia has the 
property of dissolving woody fibre. 
To make it, half fill a quart bottle 
with ammonia and put into it a 
bunch of straight copper wires, of 
such a length that about half will be 
above the water. They should be 
allowed to stand thus several months, 
the bottle being shaken occasionally 
and the cork removed for a few 
minutes once in a while to admit 
more air, which is necessary to the 
formation of the solution. 

Cut old newspapers into disks 
about an inch in diameter, and clip 
the disks on the edges so that they 
can be readily molded to a curved 
surface. They may now be partially 
dissolved in the solution, and vAW 
then adhere closely to form a solid 
mass, like wood. 

The disks are best put in shape 
over a mold. For instance, if a thin 
glass flask be used, they can be 
molded over its surface, and then 
the flask can be broken by a sudden 
blow, leaving a wooden bottle when 
the fragments are removed. The 
solution should be poured, a little at 
a time, into a flat dish, and frequently 
renewed. The disks are soaked in 
it for a few minutes, till they feel 
slippery, and then molded over the 
bottle. Rubber finger-tips may be 
used to prevent injury to the fingers 
from the strong ammonia. After 
one layer has been applied, another 
is put on, till the desired thickness is 
obtained. In the same way, after a 



little practice, other articles may be 
made. The paper disks are not 
simply stuck together, like paste- 
board, but form a solid wooden mass, 
and may be soaked in boiling water 
without coming apart. 

ATHLETIC GAMES, properly 
speaking, include all manly sports 
requiring physical strength, such as 
Base Ball, Foot Ball, Fencing, 
and the like, but in the ordinary use 
of the term it means only those in 
which each man contends for him- 
self alone. The sports in which 
several work together as a " team " 
are treated under their own titles. 
In this article are described only 
those feats included in the champion- 
ship contests of athletic societies, to- 
gether with a few additional ones 
sometimes seen at collegiate and 
other contests. The games usually 
found on the programmes of the 
Amateur Athletic Union, the chief 
athletic association in the United 
States (see p. 38), are as follows: 

100 yards dash, 220 yards dash. 
One-quarter mile run. One-half mile 
run, and the One mile run ; also, 
Running five miles. 

Hurdle racing, 120 yards with hur- 
dles 3 ft. 6 in., 220 yards with hurdles 
2 ft. 6 in. 

Walking one mile. Walking three 
miles. Walking seven miles. 

Running high jump, and the 
Broad jump. 

Pole leaping. Putting the shot, 
Throwing the hammer. Throwing 
56 lb. weight, Bicycle racing. Indi- 
vidual Tug of War, and Tug of War 
with teams of five men. 

Each of these games is called an 
"event." 

J^u/^ I.—OJicmls.— Section i. All 
amateur meetings shall be under the 
direction of: A Games Committee, 
One Referee, Two or more Inspect- 
ors, Three Judges at Finish, Three 
or more Field Judges, Three Time- 
keepers, One Judge of Walking, One 
Starter, One Clerk of the Course, 
One Scorer, One Marshal. 

Sec. 2. If deemed necessary, as- 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



25 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



sistants may be provided for the 
Judge of Walking, the Clerk of the 
Course, the Scorer, and the Marshal, 
and an Official Announcer may be 
appointed. 

Rule II. — The Ga7nes Cojnmittee. 
The Games Committee at any club 
meeting shall be composed of mem- 
bers of the Club holding the meet- 
ing. 

This Committee shall have juris- 
diction of all matter not assigned by 
these rules to the Referee or other 
games officials. (See also Rule XV). 
Rule III.— The Referee shall de- 
cide all questions relating to the 
actual conduct of the meeting, whose 
final settlement is not otherwise 
covered by these rules. 

He alone shall have the power to 
change the order of events as laid 
down in the official programme, to 
add to, or to alter the announced 
arrangement of heats in any event. 

Rule IV.— The Inspectors. It 
shall be the duty of an Inspector to 
stand at such point as the Referee 
may designate; to watch the com- 
petition closely, and in case of a 
claim of foul to report to the Referee 
what he saw of the incident. 

Such Inspectors are merely as- 
sistants to the Referee, to whom they 
shall report, and have no power to 
make any decisions. 

Rule v.— The Judges at Finish 
shall determine the order of finish- 
ing of contestants, and shall arrange 
among themselves as to noting the 
winner, 2d, 3d, 4th, etc., as the case 
may require. 

Their decision in this respect shall 
be without appeal, and in case of 
disagreement a majority shall govern. 
Rule VI. — The Field Judges 
shall make an accurate measurement, 
and keep a tally of all trials of com- 
petitors in the high and broad jumps, 
the pole vault, the weight compe- 
titions, and the tug of war. 

They shall act as judges of these 
events, and their decisions shall like- 
wise be without appeal. In case of 
disagreement a majority shall govern. 



In all weight competitions and jumps 
for distance, a small flag, placed in 
the ground, shall denote the best 
throw or jump as the contest pro- 
gresses. 

Rule VII. — The Timekeepers 
shall individually time all events 
where time record is called for. 
Should two of the three watches 
mark the same time and the third 
disagree, the time marked by the two 
watches shall be accepted. Should 
all three disagree, the time marked 
by the intermediate watch shall be 
accepted. 

i:\\^ flash of the pistol shall denote 
the actual time of starting. 

In case only two watches are held 
on an event, and they fail to agree, 
the longest time of the two shall be 
accepted. 

Rule VIII.— The Starter shall 
have sole jurisdiction over the com- 
petitors after the Clerk of the Course 
has properly placed them in their 
positions for the start. 

The method of starting shall be by 
pistol report, except that in time 
handicap races the word "go " shall 
be used. 

An actual start shall not be ef- 
fected until the pistol has been pur- 
posely discharged after the competi- 
tors have been warned to get 
ready. 

When any part of a competitor 
shall touch the ground in front of his 
mark before the starting signal is 
given, it shall be considered a false 
start. 

Penalties for false starting shall be 
inflicted by the Starter, as follows: 

In races up to and including 300 
yards, the competitor shall be put 
back one yard for the first and an- 
other yard for the second attempt ; 
in races over 300 yards and including 
600 yards, two yards for the first and 
two more for the second attempt ; 
in races over 600 yards and including 
1000 yards, three yards for the first 
and three more for the second at- 
tempt; in races over 1000 yards and 
including one mile, five yards for the 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



26 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



first and five more for the second at- 
tempt ; in all races over one mile, ten 
yards for the first and ten more for the 
second attempt. In all cases the 
third false start shall prevent his com- 
peting in that event. 

The Starter shall also rule out of 
that event any competitor who at- 
tempts to advance himself from his 
mark, as prescribed in the official 
programme, after he has given the 
warning to " get ready." 

Rule IX.— The Clerk of the 
Course shall be provided with the 
names and the numbers of all entered 
competitors, and he shall notify them 
to appear at the starting line before 
the start in each event in which they 
are entered. 

Rule X. — The Judge of Walking 
shall have sole power to determine 
the fairness or unfairness of walking, 
and his rulings thereon shall be final 
and without appeal. 

He shall caution any competitor 
whenever walking unfairly ; the ihird 
caution to disqualify, except that he 
shall immediately disqualify any com- 
petitor when walking unfairly during 
the last 220 yards of a race. 

He shall control his assistants, and 
assign to them such of his duties as 
he may deem proper. 

Rule XI. — The Scorer ^\2S\. re- 
cord the order in which each com- 
petitor finishes his event, together 
with the time furnished him by the 
Timekeeper. 

He shall keep a tally of the laps 
made by each competitor in races 
covering more than one lap, and shall 
announce by means of a bell, or 
otherwise, when the leading man en- 
ters the last lap. 

He shall control his assistants, and 
assign to them such of his duties as 
he may deem best. 

Rule XI I. — The Marshal shall 
have full police charge of the enclo- 
sure, and shall prevent any but offi- 
cials and actual competitors from 
entering or remaining therein. 

He shall control his assistants, and 
assign them their duties. 



Rule XIII.— The Official An- 
nouncer shall receive from the Scorer 
and Field Judges the result of each 
event, and announce the same by voice 
or by means of a bulletin board. 

Ricle XIV. — Competitors shall re- 
port to the Clerk of the Course im- 
mediately upon their arrival at the 
place of meeting, and shall be pro- 
vided by that official with their proper 
numbers, which must be worn con- 
spicuously by the competitors when 
competing, and without which they 
shall not be allowed to start. 

Each competitor shall inform him- 
self of the time of starting, and shall 
be promptly at the starting-point of 
each competition in which he is en- 
tered, and there report to the Clerk 
of the Course. 

Under no condition shall the at- 
tendants be allowed to accompany 
competitors at the start or during any 
competition except in match races, 
where special agreements may be 
made. 

Rule XV. — Protests against any 
entered competitor may be made ver- 
bally or in writing to the referee, or 
a member of the Games Committee, 
before or during the meeting. If 
possible the Committee shall decide 
such protest at once. If the nature 
of the protest or the necessity of ob- 
taining testimony prevents an imme- 
diate decision, the competitor shall 
be allowed to compete under protest, 
and the protest shall be decided by 
the Games Committee within one 
week, unless its subject be the ama- 
teur standing of the competitor, in 
which case the Games Committee 
must report such protest within forty- 
eight hours to the Secretary of the 
A. A. U. 

Rule XVI. — Track Measure- 
ment. All distances run or walked 
shall be measured upon a line eighteen 
inches outward from the inner edge 
of the track, except that in races on 
straightaway tracks the distance shall 
be measured in a direct line from the 
starting mark to the finishing line. 

Rule X VII. — The Course. Each 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



27 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



competitor shall keep in his respec- 
tive position from start to finish in 
all races on straightaway tracks, and 
in all races on tracks with one or 
more turns he shall not cross to the 
inner edge of the track, except when 
he is at least six feet in advance of 
his nearest competitor. 

The Referee shall disqualify from 
that event any competitor who will- 
fully pushes against, impedes, crosses 
the course of, or in any way interferes 
with another competitor. 

The Referee shall disqualify from 
further participation in the games, 
any contestant competing to lose, to 
coach, or in any way impede the 
chances of another competitor either 
in a trial or final contest. 

Rule XVIII.— The Finish of the 
course shall be represented by a line 
between two finishing posts, drawn 
across and at right angles to the sides 
of the track, and three feet above 
which line shall be placed a tape 
attached at either end to the finishing 
posts. A finish shall be counted 
when any part of the winner's body, 
except his hands or arms, shall touch 
the tape at the finish line. The tape 
is to be considered the finishing line 
for the winner, but the order of fin- 
ishing across the track line shall de- 
termine the positions of the other 
competitors. 

A description of each of the stand- 
ard events, except the Bicycle race 
and the Tug of War, which are de- 
scribed separately, will now be given. 
A list of the best records in each is 
given in the Appendix. 

Men who engage in athletic sports 
for a money prize or for a portion of 
the gate receipts are termed profes- 
sional athletes, and are not allowed 
to compete in amateur contests. The 
National Amateur Athletic Union 
has adopted the following definition 
of an Amateur : 

" One who has not entered in an 
open competition ; or for either a 
stake, public or admission money or 
entrance fee ; or under a fictitious 
name ; or has not competed with or 



against a professional for any prize 
or where admission fee is charged ; 
or who has not instructed, pursued 
or assisted in the pursuit of athletic 
exercises as a means of liveHhood, or 
for gain or any emolument ; or whose 
membership of any Athletic Club of 
any kind was not brought about or 
does not continue, because of any 
mutual understanding, express or 
implied, whereby his becoming or 
continuing a member of such Club 
would be of any pecuniary benefit to 
him whatever, direct or indirect, and 
who shall in other and all respects 
conform to the rules and regulations 
of this organization, will be con- 
sidered an Amateur." 

An open competition is one in 
which any one who wishes may enter. 

Walking.— It is very difficult to dis- 
tinguish between walking and run- 
ning, and on this account many so- 
called " walking matches " are made 




Slow Stride. 

what is called " go as you please " 
matches ; that is, the contestant is 
allowed to walk, run, jump, or move 
in any way he chooses, so long as he 
receives no aid. To be what is 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



28 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



called a " fair " walker, the athlete 
must touch both heel and toe to the 
ground, first the former and then the 




Free Stride. 

latter, he must not bend the knee 
while his foot is on the ground, and 
he must never have both feet in the 
air at once. The difficulty experi- 
enced in justly deciding whether a 



walker is fair or not has led to many 
disputes. A fast walk, following the 
rules, is not a graceful gait nor a 
natural one, and can be learned only 
by practice. The illustrations show 
two different kinds of strides. 

Running. Running any distance 
from 100 to 400 yards is called 
" sprinting," while covering all dis- 
tances of a mile or over is termed 
long-distance running. To make 
quick time, especially in sprinting, a 
good start is essential, and many 
methods of starting have been 
adopted by skilled runners. Some 
crouch down, placing the left foot 
forward, holding the right arm out, 
and the left parallel with the right 
leg; some stand with both heels 
together, jumping forward at the 
flash of the pistol, and others stand 
with one side in advance of the other. 
(Not allowable by U. A. A. rules.) 

It has been found almost impossi- 
ble to time a short run with perfect 
accuracy. The timing is done with 
a " stop watch " which is arranged 
with a long, fine pointer-hand, which 
moves completely around its dial once 
every minute, and with a small spring 




Start of Foot Race. 



at the side by pressure on which the 
watch can be started or stopped at 
any instant desired. 

The timer starts his watch on see- 
ing the flash of the pistol, and stops 
it when the man he is timing crosses 



the mark. The time can then be 
read off. A pointer, however, can- 
not be made to travel uniformly. It 
goes by little jumps, and until re- 
cently the jumps were made every 
fifth of a second, The time, there- 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



29 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



fore, was doubtful by this amount, 
for when the watch was stopped it 
could not be told whether the hand 
had just finished a jump or was 
about to start on a new one. In a 
fifth of a second a good sprinter moves 
about two yards, and races are often 
won by a few feet. 

Jumping. There are four kinds of 
jumps, the running high, the running 
broad (or long), the standing high, 
and the standing broad (or long). 

The high jumps are made over a 
light bar supported on pegs inserted 
one inch apart in two upright posts. 
The pegs project on the side of the 
posts away from the jumpers, so 
that if the jumper strike the bar with 
his foot he will simply lift it from 
the pegs and not be thrown down.* 
Sometimes in practice a cord, 
weighted at each end, is used in- 
stead of a bar, but this is not 
allowed in match contests. 

At each succeeding round the bar 
is raised usually an inch, but some- 
times more. In the standing broad 
jump the contestants are sometimes 
permitted to hold dumb-bells or 
weights in their hands, but in the 
ordinary broad jump this is not 
allowed. Where, however, this is 
done, the jumper casts the weights be- 
hind him while in mid-air and is thus 
carried forward a greater distance. 

The rules of the National Amateur 
Athletic Union governing jumping 
are as follows : 

Section i. A fair jump shall be 
one that is made without the assis- 
tance of weights, diving, somersets, 
or hand springs of any kind. 

In all handicap jumps the scratch 
man shall be entitled to try last. 

Sec. 1. The Running High Jump. 
The Field Judges shall decide the 
height at which the jump shall com- 
mence, and shall regulate the suc- 
ceeding elevations. 

Each competitor shall be allowed 
three trial jumps at each height, and 
if on the third trial he shall fail, he 
shall be declared out of the com- 
petition. 



Competitors shall jump in order as 
placed in the programme ; then those 
failing, if any, shall have their second 
trial jump in a like order, after which 
those having failed twice shall make 
their third trial jump. 

The jump shall be made over a 
bar resting on pins projecting not 
more than three inches from the up- 
rights, and when this bar is removed 




High Jump. 

from its place it shall be counted as 
a trial jump. 

Running under the bar in making 
an attempt to jump shall be counted 
as a "balk," and three successive 
" balks" shall be counted as a trial 
jump. 

The distance of the run before the 
jump shall be unlimited. 

A competitor may decline to jump 
at any height in his turn, and by so 
doing forfeits his right to again jump 
at the height declined. 

Sec. 3. The Standing High Jump. 
The feet of the competitor may be 
placed in any position, but shall 
leave the ground only once in making 
an attempt to jump. When the feet 
are lifted from the ground twice, or 
two springs are made in making the 
attempt, it shall count as a trial 
jump without result. 

With this exception the rules gov- 
erning the Running High Jump shall 
govern the Standing High Jump. 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



30 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



Sec. 4. The Runnmg Broad 
Jump. When jumped on earth, a 
joist five inches wide shall be sunk 
flush with it. The outer edge of this 
joist shall be called the scratch line, 
and the measurement of all jumps 
shall be made from it at right angles 
to the nearest break in the ground 
made by any part of the person of the 
competitor. 

In front of the scratch line the 
ground shall be removed to the depth 
of three and the width of twelve 
inches outward. 

A foul jump shall be one where 
the competitor in jumping off the 




Long Jump. 

scratch line makes a mark on the 
ground immediately in front of it, 
and shall count as a trial jump with- 
out result. 

Each competitor shall have three 
trial jumps, and the best three shall 
each have three more trial jumps. 

The competition shall be decided 
by the best of all the trial jumps of 
the competitors. 

The distance of the run before the 
scratch line shall be unlimited. 

Sec. 6. The Standing Broad 



Jump. The feet of the competitor 
may be placed in any position, but 
shall leave the ground only once in 
making an attempt to jump. When 
the feet are lifted from the ground 
twice, or two springs are made in 
making the attempt, it shall count as 
a trial jump without result. 

In all other respects the rule gov- 
erning the Running Broad Jump 
shall also govern the Standing Broad 
Jump. 

Sec. 7. The Three Standing 
Broad Jumps. The feet of the com- 
petitor shall leave the ground only 
once in making an attempt for each 
of the three jumps, and no stoppage 
between jumps shall be allowed. In 
all other respects the rules governing 
the Standing Broad Jump shall also 
govern the three Standing Broad 
Jumps. 

Sec. 8. Running Hop, Step and 
Jump. The competitor shall first 
land upon the same foot with which 
he shall have taken off. The reverse 
foot shall be used for the second 
landing, and both feet shall be used 
for the third landing. 

In all other respects the rules gov- 
erning the Running Broad Jump 
shall also govern the Running Hop, 
Step and Jump. 

(In the Running High Jump a 
line called a balk line is sometimes 
drawn three feet in front of the bar, 
and if the competitor passes this he 
is credited with a trial, whether he 
actually attempts to jump or not.) 

In the running broad jumps, the 
space cleared depends partly on the 
way in which the spring is made, and 
partly on the impetus gained by the 
run. Before 1 870 almost every cham- 
pionship contest was won with a 
jump of less than 20 feet, but now 
many a one who is a good sprinter 
can clear that distance. Some au- 
thorities think the reason for this is 
that jumpers now take longer and 
swifter runs than formerly, and that 
the impetus thus gained carries them 
a greater distance. 

In both the high jumps, some 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



31 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



jumpers draw their legs up under 
them, straightening them forward as 
they pass the bar, and others swing 
them to one side as they clear it. 

In running for a jump, the last few 
steps should be slightly shorter than 
the usual stride. 

Hurdle Racing consists in a com- 
bination of running and jumping. 
These races are usually either 120 
yards or 220 yards in length, the num- 
ber of hurdles to be leaped being ten. 
The height varies from 2 feet 6 inches 
to 3 feet 6 inches, and the hurdles 
are placed at equal distances along 
the course. The contestants start 
together as for a running race, leap- 
ing each hurdle as it is reached. 
Skilled runners take exactly three 
steps between every two hurdles in 
the 120 yard course and always 
springing from the same foot. 

Each hurdle, as it is reached, is 
cleared at a single stride, the jumper 
usually jumping from his right foot 
and landing on his left. He thus 
continues down through the hurdles, 
keeping his stride as in ordinary 
running, the only difference being 
that in every third stride he leaps 
into the air a sufficient height to 
clear the hurdles. 

The rule of the National Amateur 
Athletic Union for hurdle races is as 
follows: 

Different heights, distances, and 
number of hurdles may be selected 
for hurdle races. 

In the 120 yards hurdle race, ten 
hurdles shall be used ; each hurdle 
to be three feet six inches high. 
They shall be placed ten yards apart, 
with the first hurdle fifteen yards 
distance from the starting point, and 
the last hurdle fifteen yards before 
the finishing line. In the 220 yards 
hurdle race ten hurdles shall be used, 
each hurdle to be two feet six inches 
high. They shall be placed twenty 
yards apart, with the first hurdle 
twenty yards distant from the start- 
ing mark, and the last hurdle twenty 
yards before the finishing line. 

In hurdle races of other distances 



and with different numbers of hur- 
dles, the hurdles shall be placed at 
equal intervals, with the same space 
between the first hurdle and the 
starting point and the last hurdle 
and the finishing line, as between 
each of the hurdles. 

In making a record it shall be 
necessary for the competitor to jump 
over every hurdle in its proper posi- 
tion. 

Pole Leaping consists in leaping 
with the aid of a stout wooden pole. 
The pole is generally made of ash, 
about i| inches in diameter, and 




Pole Leaping— First Position. 

fifteen feet long. It should be quite 
smooth, and shod with an iron 
point at one end. To leap with 
the pole, the athlete stands holding 




Pole Leaping — Second Position. 

it as in the first illustration, the arms 
being bent and the hands the dis- 
tance of the shoulders apart, the right 
hand toward the iron-shod end of 
the pole. Both palms may be up- 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



32 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



ward, or that of the right hand 
downward. The jumper then ad- 
vances the right foot, and places the 
shod end of the pole on the ground 
at as great a distance as he deems 
expedient without moving his feet or 
hands, as in the second position; 




Pole Leaping — ^Third Position. 

then, looking toward the end of the 
pole, he springs forward and passes 
on the left side of the pole, as figured 
in the third and fourth positions, 
his whole body being held as nearly 
as possible in a straight line. As 
his feet touch the ground he brings 




Pole Leaping — Fourth Position. 

the pole to the first position again. 
The leap may be made with the left 
foot and hand advanced, in which 
case the leaper passes the pole on 
the right. 

The high jump with the pole is 
made in like manner, save that when 



the athlete is directly above the barrier, 
he loosens his grasp on the pole, and 
pushing it back, allows it to fall on 
one side while he himself descends 
upon the other. 

To leap a distance or clear an ob- 
stacle, the jumper takes his position 
about 50 feet from the spot where 
he is to make his leap ; then, holding 
the pole directly in front of him with 
the pointed end raised a foot or more 
from the ground, advancing slowly 
at first, and then more quickly, he 
approaches the spot at a run, and 
keeping his eye fixed on the place 
where he has determined to plant his 
pole, sets it into the ground and 
makes his leap into the air at the 
same instant. The rules of the Na- 
tional Amateur Athletic Union for 
pole vaulting are similar to those for 
jumping. 

Putting the Shot. This contest 
consists in balancing the " shot," — 
usually an iron ball weighing sixteen 
pounds, — on the hand, held just over 
the shoulder, and then by throwing 
the weight of the body forward and 
straightening the arm, hurling the 
weight forward as far as possible. 

The rule of the National Amateur 
Athletic Union regarding this feat is 
as follows : 

The shot shall be a solid sphere, 
made of metal and weighing at least 
16 or 24 pounds, as the event may 
call for. 

It shall be put with one hand, and 
in making the attempt it shall be 
above and not behind the shoulder. 

The competitor shall stand in a 
circle seven feet in diameter, on four 
feet of the circumference of which 
shall be placed a board four inches 
high, at which the competitor must 
stand when the shot leaves his 
hand. 

A fair put shall be one where no 
part of the person of the competitor 
shall touch in front of the circle or 
on the board in making the attempt. 

A put shall be counted as foul if 
the competitor steps over the front 
half of the circle or on the board. 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



33 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



before the measurement of his put is 
made. 

The measurement of all puts shall 
be made from the nearest mark made 
by the shot to a point on the circum- 
ference of the circle, on a line with 
the object mark and the center of 
the circle. 

Foul puts and letting go the shot 
in making an attempt shall be counted 
as trial puts without result. 

A board similar to the one in front 
may be used at the back of the circle. 

The order of competing and num- 
ber of trials shall be the same as for 
the running broad jump. Shots shall 
be furnished by the Games Commit- 
tee. Any contestant may use his 
private shot, if correct in weight and 
shape ; in which case the other con- 
testants must also be allowed to use 
it, if they wish. 

Putting the shot is interesting as a 
display of strength, but no one should 
try it who has not developed his mus- 




Putting Shot— First Position. 

cles by other means, as the exertion 
required is very violent. 

Throwing the Hammer. This is 
an old Scotch game, and, like putting 
the shot, requires a large amount of 



strength and skill. The term " ham- 
mer" is rather misleading. It is 
simply a metal ball into which is 
fastened a supple hickory handle. 




Putting Shot— Second Position. 

The thrower grasps the handle near 
the end with both hands and whirling 
the ball around his head once or 
twice at arm's length, suddenly loos- 
ens his hold and allows it to fly 
through the air. 

The rules of the Amateur Union 
governing this event are as follows : 

The hammer-head shall be a metal 
sphere. The handle shall be of 
wood, the length of handle and head 
combined shall be four feet, and the 
combined weight shall be at least 
sixteen pounds. 

All throws shall be made from a 
circle, seven feet in diameter. 

The competitor may assume any 
position he chooses in making an at- 
tempt. 

A fair throw shall be one when no 
part of the person of the competitor 
shall touch outside of the circle in 
making the attempt. 

A throw shall be counted foul if 
the competitor steps over the front 
half of the circle before his throw is 
measured. 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



34 



ATHLETIC GAMEfS 



Foul throws and letting go of the 
hammer in an attempt, shall count as 
trial throws. 

The measurement of all throws 
shall be made from the nearest mark 
made by the head of the hammer, to 
a point on the circumference of the 
circle, on a line with the object mark 
and the center of the circle. 

The order of competing and num- 
ber of trials shall be the same as 
prescribed for the Running Broad 
Jump. 

Hammers shall be furnished by 
the Games Committee. Any con- 
testant may use his private hammer, 




Throwing Hammer. 

if correct in weight and shape ; in 
which case the other contestants 
must also be allowed to use it, if they 
wish. 

The thrower, in some contests, is 
allowed to run as far as he pleases 
before throwing the hammer, so long 
as he does not cross the " scratch 
line " from which the measurement 
is made. Sometimes he is allowed 
to run a fixed distance, as seven feet, 
and sometimes he is permitted to 
turn around once before throwing. 
Some throwers hold the hammer in 
one hand, and some in both. 



Throwing the 56-lbs. Weight* 

Like the hammer, this weight i? 
thrown with a handle, but instead of 
a straight stick, an iron ring or tri- 
angle, about six inches in diameter, 
is fastened to the weight by means of 
an iron staple. In this way the 
weight can be lifted and swung like 
a pail or a basket. In some contests 
the thrower is allowed to follow the 
weight on throwing it, and some- 
times a run is allowed. The weight 
is sometimes thrown from between 
the legs, and sometimes from the 
side. Sometimes the contest is to see 
how high, and not how far, the weight 
can be thrown, and it is then said to 
be " thrown for height." 

The Amateur Athletic Union rules 
for this event are as follows : 

Section i. The weight shall be a 
sphere made of metal, with a metal 
handle attached. Their combined 
w^eight shall be at least fifty-six 
pounds, and the combined height 
shall be sixteen inches, but no flexi- 
ble attachment will be allowed. 

All throws shall be made from a 
circle seven feet in diameter. 

The competitor may assume any 
position he chooses in making an 
attempt. 

Foul throws and letting go the 
weight in an attempt shall count as 
a trial throw without result. 

The order of competing and num- 
ber of trials shall be the same as 
laid down for the jumping contests. 

Sec. 2. Ill Throwing for Dis- 
tance. A fair throw shall be one 
where no part of the person of the 
competitor shall touch in front of 
the circle in making an attempt. 

A throw shall be counted foul if 
the competitor steps over the front 
half of the circle before his throw is 
measured. 

The measurement of all throws 
shall be made from the nearest mark 
made by the sphere of the weight, to 
a point on the circumference of the 
circle, on a line with the object mark 
and the center of the circle. 

Sec, 3. In Tkrowi?ig for Height^ 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



35 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



a barrel-head three feet in diameter 
shall be suspended in the air. 

A fair throw shall be one where 
no part of the person of the competi- 
tor shall touch in front of the circle 
in making an attempt, and where 
any part of the weight or handle 
touches any part of the barrel-head. 

A foul throw shall be one where 
the competitor touches outside the 
circle before letting go the weight. 

The measurement of all throws 
shall be from a point on the ground 
drawn directly under and parallel to 
the lowest point of the barrel-head. 

The order of competing and num- 
ber of trials shall be the same as for 
the running broad jump. Weights 
shall be furnished by the Games 
Committee. Any contestant may 
use his private weight, if correct in 
weight or shape ; in which case the 
other contestants must also be 
allowed to use it, if they wish. 

Besides these standard games, the 
following are sometimes included : 

Throwing the Base Ball. The 
thrower is generally allowed to run 
a certain distance before he throws, 
and the distance is measured from 
the line where he dehvers the ball to 
the place where it strikes. This 
contest is seldom found on the pro- 
grammes at athletic games of the 
present day. 

Kicking the Football also finds a 
place in many college athletic exhibi- 
tions. The competition is sometimes 
for accuracy and sometimes for dis- 
tance, and the ball is kicked either 
from the hand or from the ground 
according to agreement. When the 
contest is for accuracy, two tall posts 
are set in the ground twenty feet 
apart, and between these a cross- 
bar is fastened at a height of ten 
feet from the ground. The contest- 
ants then take their stand behind a 
line twenty-five or thirty yards from 
the poles, and the contest lies in see- 
ing who can cause the greatest num- 
ber of balls to pass between the posts 
and over the bar, in a given number 
of kicks. 



Tossing the Caber. This is a 
Scotch feat, and is a feature of 
Caledonian games. It is, however, 
seldom an event in the meetings of 
American athletic associations. 
The caber is the trunk of a young 
tree and is heavier at one end 
than at the other. The athlete 
holds it perpendicularly, large end 
upward, balanced against the chest, 
and running, endeavors to toss it 
so that it falls on the large end 
and turns over. It is usually made 
so large that at first none of the con- 
testants can perform the feat, and 
then a piece is sawn off each time, 
after all have tried, until some one 
succeeds. If more than one is suc- 
cessful, the one who tosses the caber 
farthest is the winner. 

The Sack Race is a race between 
contestants enveloped up to the neck 
in cloth bags or sacks. Such a race 
is usually held to furnish amusement 
for the spectators, but sometimes as 
a genuine athletic sport. 

High Kicking. A tin plate is sus- 
pended horizontally by three strings, 
like the pan of a balance, from an arm 
arranged to slide up and down an 
upright post. The pan is raised 
gradually higher and higher until 
only one of the contestants is able to 
touch it with his foot. A high kick 
may be made either running or stand- 
ing, and jumping may or may not be 
allowed. The conditions are fixed 
by the club holding the contest. 

A Threo-Legged Race. This race, 
like the sack race, is run chiefly for the 
amusement of the spectators. The 
athletes run in pairs, the left leg of 
one being fastened to the right leg of 
the other, both at the knee and ankle. 
The men are obliged to keep perfect 
step, and with practice are able to 
attain considerable speed. 

Wheelbarrow Race. Sometimes 
in games held for amusement merely, 
the contestants are required to wheel 
wheelbarrows. The sport is increased 
when the racers are blindfolded. 

Records. When a person has per- 
formed one of the standard athletic 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



3<5 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



feats and has been properly timed or 
his distance properly measured, such 
time or measurement is said to be his 
record. The athlete who has made 
the best record for a given feat is 
said to " hold the record." There is 
much difference of opinion as to 
what a " record " is, some thinking 
that the measurement of any feat at 
any time is enough to make it good, 
while others insist that the feat must 
be performed at a public meeting 
and under the superintendence of 
proper officers. Many so-called re- 
markable records are accounted for 
by the fact they were improperly 
timed or made on badly measured 



tracks. It is generally agreed, 
also, that a running record must 
be made at one of the standard 
distances (see above), and that it is 
absurd, for instance, to talk of the 
best record at 155 yards. Any one, 
if this were allowed, might make him- 
self a champion by running some 
particular distance which no one had 
been timed on before. A list of the 
usual championship games has al- 
ready been given. The record 
rules of the National Amateur Union 
are as follows : 

A new record at any distance in 
walking, running or hurdling, in or- 
der to stand, shall be timed by at 




Greek Foot Race. 



least three time-keepers, and a new 
record at jumping, pole vaulting, or 
in the weight competitions, shall 
be measured by at least three meas- 
urers. 

The Amateur Athletic Union will 
not recognize any new record, unless 
a report of it is made to the Secre- 
Jary of the Union, properly supported 
by the affidavits of the time-keepers 
or the measurers, as the case may 
be. 

History. Among the ancients 
athletics were held in high esteem. 
The grand athletic contests of the 
Greeks are described in C. P. P., in 



the article Olympia. (See also the 
history of Gymnastics.) 

Athletic games have always been 
in favor in England. In the reign 
of Henry II.. the youth of London 
had assigned them, near the city, 
fields where they practiced " leaping, 
wrestling, casting of the stone, and 
playing with the ball." 

Henry V. was fond of athletics, 
especially of running, and is said to 
have been " so swift a runner that 
he and two of his lords, without 
bow or other engine, could take 
a wild buck in a large park." 
Henry VIII. excelled in throwing 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



37 



ATHLETIC GAMES 



the hammer, and his secretary, 
Richard Pace, advised noblemen's 
sons to devote themselves to athletic 
sports, " and leave study and learn- 
ing to the children of meaner 
people." But with the rise of what 
is called " the new learning," some 
scholars began to speak slightly 
of athletics, and even Roger Ascham 
in his book on Archery says that 
" running, leaping, and quoiting be 
too vile for scholars." The upper 



classes became divided in opinion on 
the subject, but athletic sports con- 
tinued in favor with the common 
people. In a poem, published in 
1608, a shepherd is made to say : 

" I can both hurle and sling, 
I run, I wrestle, I can well throw the bar." 

The illustrations, taken from an 
old manuscript, show favorite trials 
of strength in the time of Queen 
Elizabeth. 

Athletic sports were usually prac- 




Sports in Queen Elizabeth's Time. 



ticed also on church festivals, but the 
Puritans objected to them and from 
that time became opposed to all 
such sports. James I. issued in 1617 
a " Book of Sports," in which he 
named those that were lawful on Sun- 
day. When this was re-published by 
Charles I. it was severely condemned 
by the Puritans. When the Stuarts 
were restored, however, foot racing, 
wrestling, and other such contests 
were revived. 

Great annual athletic meetings 
were held before the Norman con- 



quest in different parts of England, 
in very ancient times. One of 
these, at Bath, is described by Addi- 
son in the Spectator (Vol. II., 161). 
These meetings,which were generally 
in connection with fairs, lasted almost 
until the present time, and gave rise 
to modern athletic associations. In 
the 1 8th century, besides these rustic 
meetings, people began to walk and 
run on wagers or for prizes, and per- 
sons of high rank, who for many cen- 
turies had looked down on such exer- 
cises, sometimes took part in them. 



AUCTION 



38 



THE AUCTIONEER 



Many of the contests were ridiculous, 
as for instance when there was a race 
between cripples, or a man on stilts 
raced with a runner, or when a jockey 
bearing a man on his shoulders con- 
tended against a fat man. Some 
accounts of records made in those 
days are absurd. For instance, a 
man is said to have walked 102 miles 
in twelve hours. But athletic sports 
did not become popular with all 
classes till the present century, dur- 
ing which they have been reduced to 
a system, especially in England and 
the United States. 

There are now in the United States 
several thousand athletic societies, 
many of which have gymnasiums, 
some of them elegantly equipped. 
There are more than twenty such 
clubs in New York City alone. The 
New York Athletic Club, formed in 
1868, has a large club-house contain- 
ing bowling alleys, swimming tanks, 
and one of the largest and best gym- 
nasiums in the country. Nearly every 
college in the United States has its 
athletic association and gymnasium. 
The college clubs are united in the 
Intercollegiate Athletic Associa- 
tion, and this, with most other ath- 
letic associations in the country, is 
governed by the rules of the Ama- 
teur Athletic Union, which regulates 
nearly all the athletic contests held in 
the United States. 

The first association of the kind 
was the National Association of 
Amateur Athletes of America. A 
few years ago dissensions arose 
in this association, and in October, 
1887, a large number of the clubs 
withdrew and united under a new 
organization known as the Amateur 
Athletic Union. The two associa- 
tions continued thus for two years, 
but in the summer of 1889 they 
united, retaining the new name of 
the Amateur Athletic Union. 

AUCTION, a game played by any 
number of people with counters, rep- 
resenting money, and cards, on each 
of which is a picture of some article 
to be sold by auction, with its de- 



scription and supposed money value. 
One of the players is chosen for 
auctioneer, and the counters are dis- 
tributed equally among the others. 
The auctioneer then takes the cards 
and reads the description of the first 
article to be sold. The players bid 
for it, as in a real auction, and it is 
sold to the highest bidder, who puts 
the counters representing the price 
by themselves in front of him. The 
auctioneer then sells the next card 
and so on till all are sold. The 
player who has made the best bar- 
gains wins, and this is found out by 
counting the value of the articles he 
has bought, and that of the counters 
he has paid, which are in a pile in 
front of him. He wins, whose pur- 
chases exceed in value the price paid 
for them by the greatest amount. 
If a player bid more money than he 
has, it is a Bluff Bid. Unless he 
succeeds in getting the article, no 
notice is taken of it ; but if, when he 
is called upon to pay, he is unable to 
do so, he must return one of his 
cards to the auctioneer. If he have 
none, he must return the first one he 
purchases. 

AUCTIONEER, THE, a game 
played by any number of persons, one 
of whom acts as auctioneer. Each of 
the other players writes on a slip of 
paper the name of some article, and 
folds it once. The auctioneer then 
marks one of the slips, adds a blank 
one, and mixes them all in a hat. 
Each of the company draws a slip, 
and he who gets the blank slip is put 
up at auction by the auctioneer, 
each player bidding the article on his 
slip. The holder of the marked slip 
bids last, and the person bid for is 
sold to him. He may then require 
his purchase to perform some feat, 
and then the game is repeated. The 
auctioneer, instead of marking a slip, 
may simply open one and look at 
it, afterwards accepting the bid of 
the person who draws it when- 
ever it may be offered. One slip 
always remains in the hat. The 
auctioneer should look at it, and if 



AUNT SALLY 



39 



AUTHORS 



it be the blank or the marked slip, 
the players must draw again. The 
auctioneer should give a comical de- 
scription of the person to be sold, 
praising his appearance and good 
qualities. 

AUCTION PITCH. See All 
Fours. 

AUNTSALLY, a game played by 
any number of persons, who throw 
sticks at the head of " Aunt Sally," 
a block of wood shaped and painted 
to resemble the face of an old col- 
ored woman. This is placed upon a 




Aunt Sally. 

pole set into the ground, and decor- 
ated with an old woman's cap. A 
dress is then put upon the figure and 
a tobacco pipe is stuck into the 
mouth. Sometimes pipes are stuck 
into the ears also. 

The players stand about twenty- 
five feet from the figure, and, in 
turn, throw sticks, twenty inches to 
two feet in length, at Aunt Sally's 
head, trying to break the tobacco 
pipes. The side pipes count, each, 
one point, and the front one, two 
points. He who scores most points 



in a given number of throws is the 
winner. 

AUTHORS, a game played by any 
number of persons with cards, on 
which are printed or written the 
name of an author and the titles of 
several of his works. The printed 
cards may be bought at toy stores, 
but much amusement may be had 
by writing them out, introducing re- 
cent books and new authors. The 
same titles, including that of the au- 
thor, are on as many cards as there 
are titles, but arranged in different 
order, and the name at the top, 
which is in larger letters than the 
others, is called the name of the 
card. All the cards with the same 
words on them, taken together, form 
a book. Thus two of the cards in 
one book may appear as follows : 



MISS ALCOTT LITTLE WOMEN 



LITTLE WOMEN 

LITTLE MEN 

OLD-FASHIONED GIRL 

EIGHT COUSINS 



LITTLE MEN 

OLD-FASHIONED GIRL 

EIGHT COUSINS 

MISS ALCOTT 



In this book there would evidently 
be five cards. Sometimes there are six 
or more cards in a book, but all the 
books in the pack are of the same size, . 
and there are usually twenty books 
in a pack. Sometimes the cards have 
numbers at the top, which are the 
same for all of the same book. The 
cards are distributed evenly by any 
one of the players, and then the one 
on the dealer's left calls by name for 
any card he wants from some one of 
the other players. If the player asked 
has the card he must give it to him, 
and the first player then calls for 
another card, and continues thus to 
call for cards till he asks for one 
which the other player does not have ; 
then the privilege of asking passes to 
the next player at his left, and so on. 
As soon as any one succeeds in get- 



BACHELOR'S KITCHEN 



40 



BACKGAMMON 



ting into his hand all the cards in a 
book (which is the object of the 
calling), he lays them down together, 
near his place, and none of them can 
be called for any more. The calling 
goes on till all the pack is then dis- 
tributed into books, and then he who 
has most books wins. When the 
cards are numbered, the winner is 
determined sometimes by adding 
the numbers on the books taken, 
the one who has the highest sum 
winning. 

By listening attentively to the calls 
of the other players, one can generally 
get a very good idea of how the cards 
lie, and ask accordingly. If a player 
has called successfully for a card and 
has not laid aside the book containing 
it, the others know he still has it, and 
the next player, if he has been watch- 
ful, will call for the card. Again, 
if a player asks another for a card 
and is refused, all the others know 
that neither of them has it. In gen- 
eral, after calling for cards he is sure 
he can get, a player should try to 
complete the books in his hand that 
are most nearly full. 

History. Authors is possibly de- 
rived from an old English game 
called " Spade, the Gardener," played 
with a pack of ordinary cards, from 
which all cards below the tens have 
been thrown out. 

Each of the four kings is given a 
name, and the other cards of the 



suit are regarded as his family. Thus, 
the King of Spades is called Spade, 
the Gardener ; the Queen, Spade, 
the Gardener's Wife ; the Knave, his 
son; the Ace, his servant, and the Ten, 
his dog. In like manner, the King 
of Clubs is called Club, the Constable; 
the King of Hearts, the Good Natured 
Man, and the King of Diamonds, 
Vicar Denn. Each of these has also 
his wife, son, servant, and dog. The 
object is to get all the cards into 
one hand, and when all a player's 
cards are gone he retires from the 
game. 

The earliest similar game played 
with special cards seems to have 
been " Doctor Busby," where the 
cards had pictures representing num- 
bers of various " families, "each family 
constituting a book. The game of 
Doctor Busby is still sold at toy 
stores, but Authors, and similar 
forms of the game, are more popular. 
Among the similar games, all played 
in the same way, are " Famous Men" 
(where one book consists of Inven- 
tors, one of Soldiers, one of Artists, 
and so on), " Queens of Literature" 
(where all the authors named are 
women)," Poets," and "Gems of Art " 
(where each book contains the names 
of pictures in some famous art gal- 
lery). There are similar games in 
French and German, devoted not only 
to Authors but to familiar things to 
aid in learning the languages. 



B 



BACHELOR'S KITCHEN, a 

game played by any number of per- 
sons, who sit in a row, all except one, 
who goes from player to player, ask- 
ing each what he will give to the 
bachelor's kitchen. When all have 
answered, the leader asks each all 
sorts of questions. The one ques- 
tioned must give as his answer the 
name of the article he agreed to con- 
tribute. If he gives any other an- 
swer, or laugh, he must pay a forfeit. 



When the questioner has succeeded 
in making any one laugh, or is satis- 
fied that he cannot do so, he goes on 
to the next. 

BACKCAMMON, a game played 
by two persons, each with 1 5 pieces, 
or men, and 2 dice, on a board like 
the one shown below. The men, of 
two colors, are usually the same as 
those used in checkers, and a back- 
gammon board is generally made, 
for convenience sake, on the inside 



r>ACi:GAMMON 



4t 



BACKGAMMON 



of a checker board. The board is 
divided into two pairs of tables by a 
line through the middle called the 
bar (which is a raised partition when 
the game is played inside a checker- 
board), and each player has a home, 
or inner table, and an outer table. 
In the cut, A is Black's home or in- 
ner table, and B his outer table ; and 
C is White's home, or inner table, 
and D his outer table. Each table 
has six points in it, of two colors 
placed alternately, generally black 
and white or black and red. The 
points in the inner table, beginning 
at the edge of the board, are some- 
times given French names, as the 
ace, deuce, trois, quatre, cinq, and 





C D 

Backgammon Board. 

six points, but in the United States 
they are more commonly called by 
the numbers from one to six. For 
convenience sake, the numbers in 
the illustration are continued across 
the board to 12. The point num- 
bered 7 is sometimes called the bar 
point. The men are set as in the 
illustration, part of them being, it 
will be noticed, in the enemy's tables. 
The object of each player is to get 
his own men around into his own in- 
ner table, where he can play them 
oH, as will be shown hereafter. In 
doing this, the two move in opposite 
directions, Black from White's inner 
table into White's outer table, then 
across into his own outer table, and 



finally into his own inner table, or 
following the course C D B A in the 
cut, while White moves in the direc- 
tion A B D C into his home or inner 
table. The moves are decided by 
throwing DICE, of which each player 
has two. When a player makes his 
throw, he calls out the number of 
points on the top of the dice (as 4- 
2, 6-3, or double 4) and then plays 
any of his men a number of points on 
the board equal to the number 
thrown. He may play one man as 
many points as are on the two dice, 
or he may play each number with a 
different man. If he throws two 
like numbers (called doublets) he 
plays double what he throws. For 
instance, if he throws two 4's he has 
the right to play four 4's instead of 
two, and these moves may be made 
all together or separately. If the 
point at which any move ends is oc- 
cupied by two or more hostile men, 
that move cannot be made, and if the 
player cannot move at all, he must 
wait till his next turn. If the point 
has only one hostile man on it, it is 
called a blot, and the move can then 
be made (which is sometimes called 
hitting the blot). The man so hit, 
or captured, is taken from the board, 
or placed on the bar. Its owner can 
make no move till he has entered his 
piece again in his opponent's inner 
table, by playing it as if it were on a 
point just before the ace point. If 
each point on this table has two or 
more hostile men on it the player 
whose man is up cannot play at all 
till his opponent has moved some of 
them. Generally, leaving a man un- 
covered, that is, leaving only one 
man on a point, should be avoided, 
and when doublets are thrown, the 
men are usually moved in pairs for 
this reason ; but skillful players often 
make blots on purpose, either because 
they are willing to take, the risk in 
order to move their men quicker, or 
in order that the men, when taken 
up, may enter anew, and gain the 
enemy's rear so as to be able to cap- 
ture his men. When all a player's 



BACKGAMMON 



42 



BACKGAMMON 



men have reached his inner table, he 
begins to play them off the board, 
which is called casting off, throwing 
off, or bearing off. In casting off, 
the pieces count according to the 
point they are on. For instance, 
throwing 5 and 2 entitles a player to 
cast off one man from his five point 
and one from his two point, or one or 
both the numbers may be played as 
moves. It is an advantage to keep 
the points in the table covered as 
evenly as possible, so that every 
throw of the dice may be of use. If 
there are no men on the proper point, 
and no move can be made, men from 
a lower point may be thrown off. 
The player who first throws off his 
men wins the game. If his oppo- 
nent has thrown off any of his men, 
a victory counts as a single game, or 
hit ; if he has not thrown off any, it 
counts as a double game, or gam- 
mon ; and if he has a man up, or one 
in either of the winner's tables it 
counts as a triple or quadruple game 
(as agreed on), or backgammon. 
Skillful players will often make dif- 
ferent moves according as they wish 
to make a gammon or a hit. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. The first move is decided by 
lot ; each player throws a single die, 
and the one that gets the highest 
number plays first, having the privi- 
lege of moving from these throws, 
taken together, or of throwing as 
usual, as he pleases. 

2. If a man is taken from any 
point, it must be played, and when it 
has been placed on a point and left, 
the move cannot be made over again. 

3. If the owner of a man that has 
been taken up cast off another man 
before entering the one taken up, 
all the men so cast off must be 
treated as if they had been taken up. 

4. If a player throw and play out 
of turn, and his opponent has thrown, 
the move can be changed only by 
consent of both players. 

First Plays. 
The following, which are usually 



considered the best first moves in 
playing for a hit, will be understood 
by reference to the illustration at the 
beginning of the article. In all these, 
it will be seen that the object is, first 
to cover important points in the play- 
er's own tables, and then to get his 
men out of the enemy's tables. 

1. If double aces are thrown (the 
best of all first throws), two men 
should be moved from the player's 6 
to his 5 point, and two from his 8 to 
his 7 point, as it is desirable to pre- 
vent the enemy from gaining these 
points. 

2. Double 6's ; two men from i to 
7 in the opposite tables and two from 
the opposite 12 to the player's 7. 

3. Double 3's ; two from 8 to 5, 
and two from 6 to 3, in the player's 
tables, thus protecting the 5 and 3 
points. 

4. Double 2's ; two from 6 to 4 in 
the player's tables, protecting the 4 
point, and two from i to 2 in the 
opposite tables, thus advancing one 
step toward getting out of the ene- 
my's tables. 

5. Double 4*s ; two from i to 5 
in the opposite tables, and two from 
the opposite 12 to the player's 9. 

6. Double 5's ; two from the op- 
posite 12 to the player's 8 and then 
to his 3. 

7. 6 and ace ; one from opposite 
12 to the player's 7, and one from 8 
to 7, thus securing the bar point. 

8. 6-2; one from the opposite 12 
to the player's 5. (In this and simi- 
lar plays, where two moves are made 
at once, it must be remembered that 
the two are distinct, and that if one 
is blocked it cannot be made. But 
either number may be played first, 
and thus a block may often be 
avoided or a hostile man taken.) 

9. 6-3, 6-4, 6-5, and 5-4 ; in each 
case play one from the opposite ace 
point as far as it can go. 

lo- 5-3 ; one from 6 to 3, and one 
from 8 to 3 in the player's tables. 

II. 5-2; two from the opposite 
12 ; one to the player's 8, and one to 
his II. 



BACKGAMMON 



43 



BACKGAMMON 



12. 5-1 ; one from the opposite 12 
to the player's 8, and one from the 
opposite ace point to 2. 

13. 4-3; two from the opposite 12; 
one to the player's 9, and the other 
to his 10. 

14. 4-2 ; one from 8 to 4, and 
one from 6 to 4 in the player's 
tables. 

15. 4-1 ; one from the opposite 12 
to the player's 9, and one from the 
opposite ace point to 2. 

16. 3-2 ; two from the opposite 
12 ; one to the player's 10, the other 
to his II. 

17. 3-1; one from 8 to 5, one from 
6 to 5 in the player's tables. 

18. 2-1 ; one from the opposite 12 
to the player's 11, and one from the 
opposite ace point to 2. 

Russian Backgammon, or Trie- 
Trac, a kind of backgammon in 
which the men are not set on the 
board in the beginning, but are en- 
tered, as if they had been taken up. 
Both players enter in the same table 
and move in the same direction. 
The player may move before enter- 
ing all his men, but if a man be taken 
up, it must be entered before any 
other play can be made, and if this 
is impossible its owner loses his turn. 
If doublets are thrown, after playing 
them the numbers on the opposite 
sides of the dice are also played, and 
then the player is allowed another 
throw^ ; thus he can keep on playing 
so long as he throws doublets and 
can make his moves. But if he can- 
not make any move his play must 
stop. The privilege of playing the 
numbers on the opposite side of the 
dice is sometimes not given to the 
first throw of doublets. It is some- 
times extended by letting any one 
who throws an ace and a two play 
doublets of them and both of the 
opposite numbers (six and five), and 
then, after playing them, throw 
again. The rules are the same as 
for ordinary backgammon. 

Spanish Backgammon, or Jac- 
quet. In this form of the game there is 
no taking up, and a single man there- 



fore can hold a point. Each player 
places his men in five rows of three 
each in his opponent's inner table. 
The first man moved must be carried 
into the player's own inner table be- 
fore another is moved, but after that 




Abacus. 

the men can be moved in any order 
the player chooses. 

History. The origin of backgam- 
mon is unknown. It is said to have 
been invented about the loth century, 
though a similar game was played 
by the ancients on a board called an 
Abacus. It was first called Tables, 




Backgammon in the 13th Century. 

and is mentioned under this name 
by Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Bacon. 
In monkish Latin it was called Tab- 
tdarum Ludtts (Game of Tables). 
The tables were not always as they 
are now. In the illustration, show- 
ing two players of the 13th century, 



BAGATELLE 



44 



BAGATELLE 



the form at that time is plainly shown. 
There is no bar on the board and 
there seem to be but eight points. 
In the 14th century the board was 
divided like ours, but the points were 
of only one color. There were many 
ways of playing, in some of which 
three dice were used and the men all 
set in the opponent's inner table. 
Tables was one of the indoor games 
that James L recommended to his 
son Prince Henry in his book of 
advice called " Basilikon Dor on " 
(The Royal Gift). The word back- 
gammon is thought by some to be 
from the Welsh and to mean little 
battle. Others think it is Saxon and 
means back-game, from the setting 
back of the men when taken up ; and 
others still that it is Danish and 
means the tray game, from the shape 
of the board. In Germany it is 
called Puff (Clatter), probably from 
the rattling of the dice or the pieces 
on the board. The French Tric- 
Trac, which is the same in German, 
and was anciently called tick-tack in 
English, is named in the same way. 
In Germany, backgammon is also 
called Brettspiel (board-game), and 
so is draughts. 

BACK-HANDED EUCHRE. See 
Euchre. 

BADMINTON. See Lawn Ten- 
nis. 

BAGATELLE, a game played by 
any number of persons with cues and 
balls like those used in Billiards, 
but smaller, on a table something 
like a small Billiard table, cushioned 
only at the sides, or on a cloth cov- 
ered board, which can be laid on an 
ordinary table. Nine balls, two of 
which are colored, are used. At the 
lower end of the table are nine holes, 
numbered in order, and in front of 
the holes is a spot a on which one of 
the colored balls, often called the 
King Ball, is placed. At the upper 
end of the table is another spot, b, and 
between it and the holes a line called 
the string line, as in Billiards. Each 
player in turn plays his eight balls 
one by one, the colored one first, by 



placing each on the spot behind the 
string line and striking it with his 
cue, as in Billiards, 
toward the holes. 
The object is to 
place the balls, in- 
cluding the King 
Ball, in the holes, 
and the player scores 
the numbers of such 
holes as he can fill, 
the colored balls 
counting double. 
Thus the highest 
score would be 62, 
made by filling all 
the holes, the colored 
balls being in the 
Nine and Eight 
holes. Such a score 
is very unusual. He 
wins who scores most 
points in a number 
of rounds agreed up- 
on before the game. 
If any ball rebounds 
beyond the string line. 




Bagatelle 
Board. 



it must be 
removed from the board till the next 
player's turn. At 
the end of each turn 
the board is cleared, 
and the King Ball 
placed on its spot, 
as in the beginning. 
The three-ball game 
of Billiards may 
be played on a Baga- 
telle board, caroms 
counting one each, 
and each hole its 
proper number as in 
ordinary Bagatelle. 

Mississippi, a kind 
of Bagatelle played 
with a bridge or row 
of stalls which is 
placed on the board 
just in front of the 
holes. The stalls 
are numbered from 
one to nine, but no 
ball is allowed to 
hits the side of the 




Mississippi 
Board. 



score unless it 

board before entering them. 



BAGATELLE 



45 



BALANCING 



Tivoli, a simpler form of Bagatelle, 
played on a board about four feet 
long and eighteen inches wide, hav- 
ing a channel at one side up which a 
marble is shoved with a stick. The 
upper end of the board is curved, 
and this end is raised slightly during 
the game, so that the marble rolls 
down the board, and after bounding 
from the iron pins with which it is 




Tivoli. 

Studded, stops either in a hole in the 
board or in one of several compart- 
ments at the bottom. The holes and 
compartments are all numbered, so 
that the player must score some- 
thing. But in some forms of the game 
there is a channel on the other side 
of the board also, so that if the mar- 
ble is played with too much force it 



rolls around the rim and goes into 
the opposite channel, scoring noth- 
ing. There is often a King Ball also, 
which, if knocked down, increases 
the score. 

Railroad Bagatelle, a kind of Tivoli 
in which the balls are rolled down 
an inclined trough running from side 
to side of an upright frame by the 
side of the board, which is usually 
square, and contains numerous pins 
and several numbered holes or stalls, 
as in the common game. At the 
foot of the " railroad " a movable 
switch is sometimes placed, which 
delivers the ball in any desired direc- 
tion. A spiral tube of wire some- 
times takes the place of the trough or 
railroad. 

Tivoli is called in France Billard 
Anglais (English Billiards), and 
forms of it are also known as 
" Cockamaroo " and " German Bil- 
liards." The word Bagatelle is 
French, and means a trifle. Tivoli is 
the name of a place near Rome, where 
a stream rushes through a cave or two 
and is divided up so as to make many 
waterfalls. Possibly the eccentric 
course of the ball suggested the name. 

BALANCES. See Scales. 

BALANCING. In beginning to 
practice, balance at first a pole five 
to ten feet long on the end of the 
forefinger held horizontally, or on the 
outstretched palm of the hand. As 
the pole tips to one side, move the 
hand slightly to that side, so as to 
keep it always beneath the whole 
pole. The eye should be fixed on 
the top of the pole, where its motion 
is most easily seen. When the 
learner can balance one pole, he 
should try another of a different size. 
It will be found that the taller the 
pole, the more easily it is balanced. 
It is almost impossible, for instance, 
to balance a lead pencil for the reason 
that when the tall pole leans an inch 
to one side it is still almost verti- 
cal, while the lead pencil, in leaning 
an inch, inclines very perceptibly. 
Other objects may now be tried. In 
balancing an object of irregular 



BALANCING 



46 BALANCING EXPERIMENTS 



4 



shape, as a chair on one of its legs, it 
should first be supported with the free 
hand and moved about till the bal- 
ancer finds that the center of gravity 
is nearly over the point of support. 
Objects may be balanced also on the 
chin, the nose, or other parts of the 
body, the only difficulty being that 
these cannot be moved so easily and 
quickly as the hand. Balancing is 
excellent train- 
ing for the eye 
and muscles. 

Several per- 
sons with the 
same number of 
poles of equal 
size may play a 
balancinggame. 
At a signal each 
balances h i s 
pole on his right 
palm, and he 
who keeps his 
pole up longest 
scores a point. 
The players 
then balance on 
the left palm, 
then on the 
right and left 
forefingers, suc- 
cessively ; the 
other fingers, 
the nose, the 
chin, and on any 
other parts of 
the body they 
may agree upon. 
He who scores 
most points is 
the winner. 
Skilled balanc- 
ers, who make a profession of ex- 
hibiting their powers, perform 
many wonderful feats. The Jap- 
anese are especially skillful. Good 
balancers can poise many objects 
one above another, or several ob- 
jects at the same time on differ- 
ent parts of the body. The illus- 
tration from an old manuscript 
shows a skilled balancer in the 14th 
century. 




Ancient Balancer. 



BALANCINC EXPERIMENTS 
AND TOYS. These all depend on 
the principle that if the center of 
gravity of a body be below its point 
of support it cannot be overturned. 
I. Stick two penknives in a lead 




Fig. I. 

pencil, one on each side (Fig. i). The 
pencil may then be balanced on the 
finger. If disturbed, it will not fall, 




Fig. 2. 

but will rock backward and forward 
till it is at rest again. 

2. To balance a coin edgewise on 
the point of a needle. The needle is 
fastened in the cork of a bottle. The 
coin is firmly fixed in a slit cut in 



BALANCING EXPERIMENTS 47 BALANCING EXPERIMENTS 



another cork, in which two forks are 
stuck, as shown in Fig. 2. 

3. Fill a quart bottle with water and 




Fig. 3- 
place on the rim of the neck a cork 
in which two forks are stuck, as in 
Fig- 3. The water may now be 
poured out of the bottle, 
the cork remaining bal- 
anced. 

4. The Tumbler. 
This is a toy, consisting 
of the figure of a man, 
made of pith or some 
other light substance, 
standing on the flat side 
of a half bullet. This 
figure cannot be over- 
turned, but insists on 
standing upright. Fig- 
ures of soldiers called 
"Prussians," constructed in this 
way, were once sold in Paris (See 




Fig. 4. 




Fig. 5. 
Fig. 4). They were formed into 
ranks, and being made to bow down 



by passing a rod over them, would 
at once start up again. The figure 
of a dancing master thus mounted is 
called the " bowing beau." 

5. The Prancing Horse. This is 
a figure of a horse having fixed to it 
a weight by a bent wire, as in 
Fig. 5. If the horse's hind legs be 
placed on the edge of a table, the 
weight being beneath it, he will not 
fall forward but prance up and down, 
if rocked. The toy can be made by 
cutting the figure from light wood. 

6. The Dancing Glass. An ex- 
periment in balancing, performed 
with two bottles, two knives, and a 




Fig. 6. 

wine-glass. The corks of the bottles 
are sharpened at the top to an edge, 
and the knives and wine-glass of 
water are balanced on them as shown 
in Fig. 6, which can be done after 
a few trials. Any small, heavy ob- 
ject, such as a small key, is now 
tied to the end of a thread and low- 
ered into the water. The added 
weight will cause the wine-glass to 
descend, and, by moving the key up 
and down, the glass may be made to 
dance as it were on the blades of the 
knives. 

7. A weight may be balanced 



BALL JUGGLING 



48 



BALL JUGGLING 



with the aid of a nail and key, if ar- 
ranged as shown in Fig. 7. 




Fig. 7. 

BALL JUGGLING, tossing a ball 
from one hand to another in various 
ways, as an amusement, or a training 
for the eyes and muscles. The best 
balls for the purpose are of hollow 
brass, two inches in diameter. Any 
balls of about this size may be used, 
such as tennis balls, but they must 
all be exactly equal in size and weight. 
y^ By mastering each of the 
y^ following exercises before 
the next, any one who pos- 
sesses patience, and gives 
time to practice may be- 
come a good ball-juggler. 

I. Vertical Fall. (Fig. 
I.) This is simply throw- 
ing the ball up so that it 
will fall directly into the 
hand, which must not be 
moved sidewise. The ball 
must be thrown three or 
four feet into the air. Both 
hands must attain equal 
skill. 

2. Inside Fall. (Fig, 2,) Throw 
the ball with the right hand so that it 
will curve as if the left hand were to 
catch it, but, instead, move the right 




Fig. I. 



hand to the left to receive it. The ball 
should always fall in exactly the same 
place, so that it can be caught with 
the eyes shut. Repeat with the left 
hand, curving the ball to the right. 
3. Outside Fall. Same as the In- 




Fig. 2. 

side except that, the hand is held 
across the body and the ball curved 
to the outside, being caught with the 
hand in its natural position. The 
inside and outside falls should be 
practiced alternately. 
4. Parallel Fall. (Fig. 3.) The 
Vertical Fall is 
performed with 
the hand in its 
natural position, 
then in that of 
the other, that is, 
held across the 
body. The falls 
in the two posi- 
tions alternate. 

5. Outside and 
Inside Fall. 
(Fig. 4.) The 
ball is thrown 
in a curve from 
the right hand 
back, alternately. 
First, the curve is made three feet 
high, and then it is lowered gradu- 
ally till the ball moves in a straight 
line from one hand to the other, form- 
ing the Horizontal Pass (Fig. 5). 

6. Double Vertical Fall. (Fig. 6.) 
The Vertical Fall with both hands, a 
ball in each. They are first thrown 




BALL JUGGLING 



49 



BALL JUGGLING 



up alternately so as to keep one or 
the other always in air, and then 





Fig. 4. 

both at once, to exactly the same 
height. 

7. Double Inside Fall. (Fig. 7.) 
The Inside Fall with two balls one in 




Fig. 5. 

each hand. The tracks of the balls 
would naturally cross, and that they 
may not interfere that of the ball 
from the right hand 
is made higher than 
the other. 

8. Triple Pass. 
(Fig. 8.) The same 
as the last, with the 
addition of a third 
ball.which simply fol- 
lows in the path of 
the others. The in- 
troduction of a third 
ball will complicate 
matters and require 
even more practice 
than the preceding 
exercises. 

9. Triple Over 
and Under Pass. Like the last (Fig. 
9), except that one of the balls from 
the left hand to the right is sent 
higher than either of the others, so 




Fig. 6. 



that one ball is always seen moving 
from left to right above two others. 




Fig. 7. 

which are changing hands in a lower 
curve. 

10. Shower. (Fig. 10). The balls 



f,^^^\ 





Fig, 8. 

follow exactly the same path, going 
from one hand to the other by the 






Fig. 9. 

Inside Fall and back by the Horizon- 
tal Pass. Showers can be performed 



BALL JUGGLING 



50 



BALLS AND BALL GAMES 



with two, three, or four balls. A two- 
ball shower may be performed with 
one hand, in which case either the 



/ 




"*■ — «©" "W^ 



Fig. 10. 




Inside or Outside Fall is used, and 
one of the balls, after being caught, 
is carried by the hand back to the 




Fig. II. 



throwing place, while the other is in 
the air. 



.♦— 




i a 

» r 

Fig. 12. 




II. FountaiJis, combinations of 
the Inside and Outside Falls. In the 



Single Fountain (Fig. 11), a ball is 
used by each hand and with each the 
outside fall is performed. In the 
Double Fountain (Fig. 12), each hand 
showers two balls, and the balls do 
not pass from one hand to the other. 

The natives of the South Sea 
Islands are said to be very skillful at 
ball juggling, using small round 
fruits, or balls made of rolled leaves, 
and keeping as many as five in the 
air at once. Sometimes, also, a sort 
of bat, made of a stick of wood with 
a short cross-piece at the end, is 
used to strike the ball, instead of 
tossing it up with the hand. 

BALLS AND BALL GAMES. 
Games in which a ball is used have 
been played since the most ancient 
times. Greek and Roman writers 
tell different stories about the inven- 
tion of such games, but probably 
none of these are true. The ball is 
such a simple toy, and so easily made, 
that it has doubtless been used by all 
nations from the earliest times, and 
it is not necessary to suppose that it 
was derived by them all from one 
tribe or people. It was known to 
the Egyptians, and the picture, from 
an old wall-painting, shows a game 
played by them, in which two of the 
players sat on others' backs. Homer 
describes in the " Odyssey " a game 
of ball played by a Greek princess 
and her companions to the sound of 
music. The Greeks called the ball 
Sphaira, from which we get the word 
sphere, and the Roman name for it 
was Pila. Both nations were very 
fond of playing with it, and both had 
many games, in most of which a 
small ball was thrown from one 
player to another. The Greeks val- 
ued it so highly that they had special 
teachers of the game in their gymna- 
siums ; and the Athenians erected a 
statue to a skillful ball-player named 
Aristonicus. The Emperor Augus- 
tus was fond of the sport, and after 
his time it was commonly played just 
before taking a bath, in a room at- 
tached to the bathing house, The 
Romans also played with a large ball 



J 



BALLS AND BALL GAMES 



51 



BANDILORE 



like a foot-ball, called Follis, but 
they seem to have thrown instead of 
kicked it. In one game, called Har- 
pastum (from a Greek word meaning 
to snatch), each player tried to get 
possession of the ball, as in modern 
FOOT-BALL. In Brittany, a game like 
Harpastum was played till modern 
times with a son of foot-ball stuffed 
with hay, called Soule. Two com- 
munes usually fought for it, each try- 



ing to carry it home, and men were 
so often maimed and wounded in 
the struggle that the game was sup- 
pressed by law. The Australian na- 
tives have a similar game, where a 
ball of opossum skin is "hunted 
out" as in FOOT-BALL and then strug- 
gled for. They call it Mam Gook. < 
In another class of games, played with 
a large ball, the players try to put it 
across the enemy's boundary instead 





Egyptian Ball. 



of carrying it within their own. The 
Greek epikoinos (common ball) was 
of this class, as are the modern Hurl- 
ing and FOOT-BALL. The former, 
which is an Irish sport, consists in 
trying to carry by hand a large ball 
across the opposite boundary, which 




Roman Ball. 

may be distant by several rmles. The 
struggle for possession of the ball is 
often severe and the game is very 
rough. No ball game played with a 
stick, like HOCKEY, polo, or CRO- 
QUET, was known in Ancient Greece 



or Rome, and this kind of game 
seems to have originated in the East. 
The bat and ball games, such as 

CRICKET, BASE BALL, and CAT, 

seem to be still later, like the vari- 
ous TENNIS games, including Racket, 
Fives, and hand ball, where the 
ball is sent against a wall. But all 
these forms of Ball have so many 
points in common that it is difficult 
to trace their history, and authorities 
generally differ as to the exact course 
of their development. What is 
known of each is told in the separate 
article treating of it. The illustra- 
tion, from a painting in the baths of 
Titus, shows four persons playing 
some kind of a ball game before en- 
tering the bath. 

BANDILORE, a toy consisting of 
two discs joined at the center and 
having a string wound between them. 
The player takes one end of the 
string and allows the bandilore to 
fall, revolving as the string unwinds. 
Just before it reaches the end of the 



BARBERRY BUSH 



52 



BAROMETER 




string he gives it a quick jerk up- 
wards, and the spin it has acquired 
will then wind the string in the op- 
posite direction, and cause the toy to 
ascend. It can thus be kept moving 
up and down as long as the player 
pleases. 

History. The origin of the Bandi- 
lore is not certain- 
ly known, though 
some say it was 
invented to amuse 
an East Indian 
princess. It was 
brought in 1790 
from Bengal to 
England, where it 
became fashion- 
able under the 
name of the 
"Quiz." Thence 
it was taken to 
Normandy, where 
it was called "Jou- 
jou." Soon after- 
ward it became the 
fashion in Paris. 
The toys were made of all kinds of 
materials, from sugar to gold, and 
some of them were as large as dinner 
plates. The Duke of Orleans gave to 
a French lady a Bandilore set with 
diamonds, valued at 2400 livres. The 
toy is now known in France as Z'^;;^/- 
graiit (The Emigrant), because it was 
in favor with the nobility at the begin- 
ning of the French Revolution, when 
many of them were forced to emigrate 
to other countries. 

BANJO, Experiments with. See 
Violin. 

BARBERRY BUSH, a singing 
game played by any number of 
children. All join hands in a ring, 
and circle around, singing : 



Bandilore. 



They then stop, and rubbing their 
hands together to imitate the wash- 
ing of dishes, sing : 

This is the way we wash our clothes, 
Wash our clothes, wash our clothes, 
This is the way we wash our clothes, 
So early on Monday morning. 

The players then circle as before, 
singing the chorus with " Tuesday " 
substituted for Monday. So the 
game goes on, the successive verses 
being generally as follows : 

This is the way we iron our clothes, 
So early on Tuesday morning. 

This is the way we scrub our floor, 
So early on Wednesday morning. 

This is the way we mend our clothes. 
So early on Thursday morning. 

This is the way we sweep the house. 
So early on Fridaj' morning. 

This is the way we bake our bread. 
So early on Saturday morning. 

This is the way we go to church, 
So early on Sunday morning. 

The chorus is repeated before each 
verse, with the insertion of the proper 
day of the week. 

Sometimes the Mulberry bush is 
mentioned instead of the Barberry 
bush. The last line is also sung, 

All of a Monday morning, 

or 

All on a frosty morning. 

BAROMETER. The barometer 
and its history are told of in C. C. T. 
To make a mercury barometer, take a 
glass tube four feet long, and about 
a quarter of an inch in inside diame- 
ter, and bend it into a U shape, at 
about afoot from one end, so that the 
longer branch shall measure at least 
33 inches. Make the bend gradually, 
allowing several inches at the turn 
(see directions for glass working, 
under chemical experiments). 



Here we go round the bar-bar - ry bush, the bar - ber - ry bush, the bar-ber-ry bush. 



S=:ff 



:^=il:==' 



:ff=ilz=si 



Here we go round the bar-ber • ry bush so ear - ly on Mon - day morn-ing. 



BASE BALL 



53 



BASE BALL 



Seal the long end air-tight by melt- 
ing it, and then fill that end with 
mercury by pouring it little by little 
into the short end, then turning 
the tube so that the mercury will 
run around the bend. This will re- 
quire much patience, as the long end 
of the tube is full of air which finds 
difficulty in bubbling past the heavy 
mercury in a small tube. The tube 
and mercury should both be warmed 
so as to be dry, and the mercury 
must be perfectly clean. When the 
long end of the tube and the bend are 
full, hold the tube upright and the 
mercury in the long end will fall a 
little way, leaving an empty space 
at the top. If it does not, pour a 
little mercury out of the short end. 
The distance between the level of 
the mercury in the short end and that 
in the long end will be about 30 inches. 
To measure the height readily, and 
so tell whether the barometer is ris- 
ing or falling, fasten the tube to a 
smooth board by bands of cloth, 
tacked at the ends, and nail to the 
board, between the branches of the 
tube, a three-foot rule. Then if the 
mercury in one branch stands at 4 
inches, and the other at 33I inches 
the difference, in this case 29J inches, 
is the height of the barometer. 

BASE BALL, a game played by 
eighteen persons, nine on a side, on 
a field ijiarked with bases as in the 
diagram. 

The field and implements are fully 
described in the appended rules. 

The players on the side in the 
field are named the Pitcher and the 
Catcher (who together are often 
called the " battery "); the First, Sec- 
ond, and Third Base-keepers or Base- 
men ; the Short-Stop ; and the Right, 
Center, and Left Fielders. The three 
last mentioned are called the Out- 
field ; the others, the In-field. Be- 
fore the game the two leaders or cap- 
tains usually decide by lot which 
shall have the choice of innings, and 
the winner may choose to go to the 
bat or into the field. In match 
games the captain of the home club 



has choice of the innings. The 
players on the side that goes to the 
field, who are often called the "outs," 
take up the positions shown on the 
diagram. Each baseman generally 
stands near his base ; the other 
players may vary their positions con- 
siderably, except the Pitcher, who, 
while delivering the ball, must stand 
within certain limits, as shown in 
Rules 8 and 29 below. 

The Pitcher now throws the ball 
toward one of the other side, called 
the " Batsman," who stands at home 
base. If the Batsman strike at the 
ball without hitting it, he is said to 
have made a " strike. " If the ball is 
"good," — that is, passes over the 
home base not higher than the Bats- 
man's shoulder and not lower than 
his knee,— it is counted a "called 
strike," although he make no attempt 
to hit at it. A strike is also called, 
as a penalty, on the batsman in cer- 
tain other cases. (See Rule 43, be- 
low.) 

If the ball is not good and the 
player does not strike at it, it is said 
to be a " ball, " or a " called ball." 
All " strikes " and " balls " are called 
by an umpire, who stands near the 
Batsman and decides each point as 
it comes up. (Two umpires are 
sometimes necessary. See Rule 56, 
below.) If the player strike the 
ball and it fall within the lines in 
the diagram called the " foul lines," 
it is said to be a " fair ball," and 
the player becomes a " base-runner " 
and immediately starts toward the 
"first base." If the batted ball be 
a " ground hit " to the infield, the 
player getting the ball should throw 
it quickly to the First Baseman. 
Balls hit along the ground to the 
outfielders are seldom thrown to 
First Base, because the runner 
would reach the base long before the 
ball. It is oftentimes a better play 
to throw the ball to some other base 
when there are other runne^;s on 
base. This will be explained later. 

If the Batsman can touch first 
base before the Baseman standing 



BASE BALL 



54 



BASE BALL 



on the base catches and holds the 
ball, the former is said to have 
" made his base," and remains there ; 
otherwise he is said to have been 



" put out," and he does not bat 
again until the eight other players 
on his side have had their turn " at 
the bat." If, however, the ball. 




Catcher'.s Fence 



M 



Diagram of Field. 



when struck, instead of being fair, 
falls outside the foul lines it counts 
for nothing, unless it be caught on 
the " fly " by one of the other side, 
which puts the Striker out. The 
Striker cannot make his base on it. 



and it is neither a strike nor a ball. 
When a ball is just touched by the 
bat and flies directly back of the 
Batsman, it is called a " foul tip." 
Sometimes a foul tip is hard to 
tell from a simple strike. If three 



BASE BALL 



55 



BASE BALL 



strikes are called by the umpire, the 
Striker must run for his base, and the 
ball, after it passes the home plate, 
is treated just like a fair ball struck. 
If the Catcher catches it and holds 
it, or if he can get it to first base be- 
fore the Batsman, the latter is out. 
If four balls are called, the Batsman 
is allowed to " take his base " — that 
is, to run to first base without any 
hindrance. 

Sometimes the batsman soh'ts the 
ball that, although he is himself put 
out, he enables a base-runner to reach 
another base. He is then said to 
have made a " sacrifice hit." 

When a player either has been put 
out or has made his base, another 




Shoe Plate. 

one of the same side takes his place 
as Batsman. The striking order is 
decided before the game and re- 
mains the same throughout. When 
a base-runner has reached first base, 
his object is to pass in succession 
second, third, and home base, and if 
he succeed in reaching the last- 
named without being put out, he 
scores one run for his side. He can 
be put out, after he has reached first 
base by being touched with the ball 
in the hands of one of the opposite 
side while he is not touching a base, 
and in other ways as told in Rule 
50; but these do not often occur. 
He cannot be put out while he 
is standing on a base ; but as two 
players cannot occupy the same base 



at the same time, he must leave the 
base before the base-runner follow- 
ing him reaches it. When a player 
is thus compelled to leave his base, 
he is said to be " forced." A base- 
runner usually keeps close to his base 
while the ball is near him, but when 
it is in the hands of the Pitcher or 
the Catcher he " leads off " a short 
distance toward the next base, so as 
to be ready to run to it should the 
Batsman strike a fair ball. When a 
foul ball is struck, all base-running 
after the ball leaves the bat is void, 
and the runners must return to the 
bases from which they started, re- 
touching the bases they have just 
left. Sometimes a base-runner can 
make his next base by leading off 
and then running while the ball is 
being thrown by the Pitcher to the 
Catcher, hoping to reach the base 
before the latter can throw the ball 
to the Baseman. This is called 
" stealing a base." If the ball is 
thrown to the Baseman before the 
runner makes his base, he may then 
try to return to his former base, if it 
has not been occupied by another 
player. The basemen on each side 
of him then usually try to put him 
out by throwing the ball from one to 
the other, while they walk toward 
each other, keeping the runner be- 
tween them till one is near enough to 
touch him. This is called " run- 
ning out between bases," but it does 
not happen often with skillful play- 
ers. Sometimes, in such a case, 
the runner will manage to slip past 
one of the basemen and make his 
base. In any case where there is a 
dispute as to whether a man has been 
put out or not, the umpire decides, 
as he does in all disputed points 
throughout the game. Sometimes a 
baseman, after putting out a man, 
can get the ball to another base 
in time to put out someone else, or 
a fielder, after catching a fly and 
thus putting the striker out, may 
throw out a base-runner. These and 
similar cases are called "double- 
plays." If three men are thus put 



BASEi BALL 



5^ 



BASE BALL 



out, it is a "triple-play," but this 
occurs very seldorii. When the 
Catcher lets a ball from the Pitcher 
pass him (called a " passed ball "), 
and the back-stop is placed at ninety 
feet back of the home plate, the 
runner may take as many bases 
as he is able. When the back-stop 
is not so placed, only one base is al- 
lowed. Sometimes the Batsman will 
strike the ball so far that he can 
safely run to second or third base, or 
even around to home base. In the 
last case he makes a " home run," 
while at the same time sending in 
all the base-runners ahead of him, if 
any are on base at the time. Thus, 
by a skillful hit when the bases 
are " full," a Batsman may enable 
four runners to score. As soon as 
three players are out, the sides 
change places, and, if no one has 
reached home base, the score for 
that inning of the side that has just 
left the bat is nothing, no matter 
how many men may be on bases. 
The game goes on as before with the 
sides reversed, and when three men 
of the second side have been put out 
the first inning is ended. In any 
inning that man goes first to the bat 
whose name follows, in the batting 
order, that of the one who last com- 
pleted his time at the bat (not the 
one who was out last or the one who 
went to the bat last) in the previous 
inning. 

The game consists of nine such in- 
nings, and the side that scores the 
most runs is the winner. If the same 
number of runs has been scored 
by each side at the end of the ninth 
inning, a tenth must be played, or 
more, if necessary, till the game 
is decided. Each inning is divided 
into halves, during each of which a 
different side is at the bat. At the 
end of an entire inning, when the 
sides have been at the bat the same 
number of times, the innings are said 
to be " even" ; but when the side 
that struck first has been at the bat 
once more than the other, the innings 
are said to be " uneven." If the 



side that would go to the bat last is 
ahead at the middle of the ninth or 
any subsequent inning, the last half 
of that inning is omitted, as it could 
not affect the result of the game, but 
only increase the winners' score. 
Similarly, if the side last at bat scores 
the winning run before putting out 
its three men, the rest of the inning 
is omitted. 

If a player reaches his base, he 
does so either because he made so 
good a hit that the best fielding 
could not have put him out, or 
because one of the fielders did not do 
his duty. In the former case, the 
Batsman is said to have made a base- 
hit, or a two-, three-, or four-base hit, 
as the case may be ; in the latter case, 
the fielder is said to have made an 
" error." Likewise, a fielder that 
allows a base-runner to make a new 
base, when he might have stopped 
him, makes an error. A run made 
entirely without the aid of errors 
on the opposite side is called an 
" earned run." Errors, base-hits, and 
earned runs are scored, not because 
they count in deciding the results, 
but because they serve to show 
whether a game is won by the skill 
of the winners or the carelessness 
or bad playing of the losers ; and 
they also show which are the best 
players on a side. They are more 
carefully considered under Scoring. 

The Catcher. This player usually 
wears gloves, made for the purpose, 
to protect his hands, a cage, or 
mask, of strong steel wire over his 
face, and sometimes a padded 
body protector, as in Figure i. 
When there are no men on bases, 
and the batsman has less than two 
strikes, the Catcher usually stands 
back and takes the Pitcher's balls on 
the first bounce, or allows them to 
strike the high board fence at his 
rear without trying to catch them. 
When the Batsman has two strikes, 
the Catcher stands close to him 
(called playing close to,or behind, the 
bat), so that at the next strike he 
may catch the ball on the fly, and so 



Base ball 



^1 



Base ball 



put the striker out. When there 
is a man on third base, he also 




Catcher. — Fig. i. 

plays close to the bat, so as to give 
the base-runner no chance to reach 




Catcher. — Fig. 2. 

home. He keeps on the lookout to 
see that no men " steal " bases, and 



tries to " throw them out " if possi- 
ble. He tries to catch those foul 
balls that are struck to the Batsman's 
rear, and any fair balls that fall but 
a short distance in front of the 
Home-plate. When a fair ball falls 
between Catcher and Pitcher, or in 
any other case where it is doubtful 
which player should take a ball, the 
captain of the side calls out the 
name of the one he wishes to catch 
it. Besides these duties, the Catcher 
generally acts as Home-Baseman. 




Pitcher. 

Tke Pitcher. His chief duty is to 
throw his ball so that the Batsman 
will find difficulty in striking it. For 
this purpose he often throws the ball 
in a curve, so that the Batsman is 
puzzled to know just where it will 
cross the home-plate. This is done 
by giving the ball a twist as it 
is thrown. A swiftly moving ball 
pushes the air in front of it into 
a sort of elastic cushion, and if the 
ball is twisting at the same time the 
cushion will be a little more elastic on 



BASE BALL 



58 



BASE BALL 



one side than on the other, pushing 
the ball slightly sideways, and thus 
making its path a curve. By mak- 




Straight Delivery. 

ing the ball twirl in one direction or 
another, the skillful Pitcher can curve 
it to the right or to the left upward 




In-Curve. 

or downward, so that only a bats- 
man of equal skill can strike it at all. 
The illustrations show the positions 
of the hand and body for various 
curves. It requires 
much judgment to 
make a curved ball 
pass over the 
Home-plate, for 
when it leaves the 
Pitcher's hand it 
seems as if it were 
going to pass to 
one side. That the 
Catcher may not 
be puzzled as well 
as the Batsman, 
the Pitcher makes 
signals, usually by 
moving his hand or 
head, to tell the 
Catcher how the 
ball is to be curved. When he is 
pitching the ball, he must not step 




Straight Delivery. 




outside of the lines that determine 

his position, as laid down in the 

rules. While engaged in pitching the 

ball the Pitcher must also keep close 

watch of the base-runners, trying to 

put them out by throwing the ball to 

the bases when 

they are off 

their guard. 

He should also 

be ready to 

" back up" the 

Catcher, or 

stand behind 

him, when the 

ball is thrown 

in from the field 

to put a runner 

out at home. 

Sometimes he 

backs up the 

First Baseman 

in like manner. 

The Pitcher 

must not pre- 
tend to deliver 

the ball without 

does, he is said 

" balk," and the Batsman is allowed 

to go to first base. (See Rule 32.) 
The Baseuian. 
The principal duty 
of the Baseman is 
to guard his base 
and be ready to 
put out any base- 
runner who is try- 
ing to make it. 
The First Base- 
man usually does 
this simply by 
catching the ball 
and touching his 
base before the 
runner — the 
others, in most 
cases, put the run- 
ner out by touch- 
ing him with the 
ball before he 
reaches the base. 

When, however, the runner is 

" forced " the basemen need only 

touch the base before the runner 



In-Curve. 

doing so. If he 
to have made a 




Out-Curve. 



BASE BALL 



59 



BASE BALL 



while holding the ball. The base- 
men also act as fielders, and render 
assistance, when 
they can, in back- 
ing up other 
players. 

The Fielders. 
The duty of the 
fielders is to catch 
all fair and foul 
balls they can " on 
the fly," and to 
" field " or throw 
all balls as quickly 
as possible to the 
proper place. This 
place varies ac- 
cording to the 
state of the game 
and the position 
of the fielder. If 
there is no man on Third Base, 
and there is one on First and 
on Second Base, the ball goes 
either to Second or Third Base, ac- 




Drop. 




Fielder. 

cordmg to the chances for inter- 
cepting the runner. If there is a 
man on Third, the ball is usually 
thrown to Home Base, for it is 
of the first importance to prevent 



a man's scoring. But if the fielder 
sees he cannot possibly get the ball 



to Home Base in time, he throws 




Short Stop. 

it to one of the other bases. Or, if 
there are already two out, he may 
throw it to First Base, knowing 
that no matter if there is a man on 




Batsman. 



Third Base his run cannot count after 
the third out. It requires careful 
judgment in the fielder to know ex- 






^ASE BALL 



60 



BASE BALL 



actly what to do in many cases, and 
he must decide instantly, as a sec- 
ond's delay might lose the game. An 
out-fielder may be idle during a great 
part of the game, but he must be 
ready to act at any moment, and on 
no account allow a ball to pass him. 
.The Short Stop is an in-fielder, 
placed where batsmen are very apt 
to strike their balls, as experience 
shows. 



The Batsman. The Batsman 
strives to strike his ball in the place 
where it is least expected, or where 
it will be hardest to reach. If he sees 
that the Pitcher is giving him a good 
ball, he usually strikes at it, for it will 
be counted as a strike whether he 
does so or not ; but a bad ball he lets 
pass him, unless he sees that he can 
make a good hit with it. As soon as 
the Batsman strikes a ball he runs. 



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without waiting to see whether it be 
foul or fair, returning to his bat if the 
umpire decides it to be foul. In 
striking, some batsmen swing the 
bat and others merely push it against 
the ball. Usually the striker steps 
forward just as he hits, to give more 
force to his stroke. 

The Base Runner is usually aided 
by the advice of a " coach," one of 
the men on his own side, who must 



stand outside the 50 foot line (see 
diagram.) When running for a base a 
good player often finishes by throw- 
ing himself at full length, and sHding 
toward it, either feet-foremost or 
head-foremost, thus avoiding the 
touch of the baseman. Skillful base 
runners have signals by which they 
inform the batsman when they are 
going to " steal " a base, thus en- 
abling him to hit to better advantage. 



BASE BALL 



6i 



BASE BALL 



For instance, if a runner on First 
Base tries to steal Second Base, the 
Second Baseman will run to protect 
his base, leaving the field open, and 
a hit between the two bases will be 
a good one. Much of the success of 
the game depends on skillful base- 
running. 

Score. The principal duty of the 
Scorers, of which there are generally 
two, — one for each side, — is to keep 



record of all the runs and outs as 
they occur, so as to be able to tell 
at any time the state of the game. 
They usually do still more than this, 
keeping a complete record of the 
progress of the game, as will be shown 
below. The score is kept in a blank 
book prepared for the purpose, of 
which there are various forms. One 
page of one of them is represented 
below. It will be seen that the names 



YALE. ll 


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of the players, in the order in which 
they come to the bat are arranged in 
the first column. Opposite them, in 
the second, are abbreviations show- 
ing their positions. These differ 
with different Scorers, but those given 
below are Catcher, H ; Pitcher, P ; 
1st baseman, A ; 2d baseman, B ; 3d 
baseman, C ; Short-stop, S ; Right 
fielder, R ; Left fielder, L ; Center 
fielder, M. Each of the next ten col- 



umns is devoted to the runs and outs 
of an inning. In the other columns, 
in order, are recorded the total runs 
of each player, his base hits, the men 
he has put out, the men he assisted 
to put out (called " assists "),and his 
errors. As soon as the first Batsman 
leaves the Home-plate, the Scorer's 
work begins. If the Batsman is put 
out the Scorer writes in the first 
inning-column, opposite the player's 



BASE BALL 



62 



BASE BALL 



name, what looks like a fraction. 
Below the line is the number of the 
out (in this case, i). Above is an 
abbreviation telling how he was put 
out. If he was put out by one of the 
players throwing the ball to a base- 
man, the letters denoting those play- 
ers are used, separated by a dash ; 
thus, P — B means that the Pitcher 
threw the ball to the 2d baseman. 
K means *' struck out " ; f., a fly 
catch ; 1, f., a foul fly ; and b. b., first 
base taken on called balls. If, in- 
stead of going out, the Striker makes 
a base, he must have made a base 
hit, or someone, on the opposite 
side, made an error. If the former, 
the mark + is put down for a single 
base, ± for a two-base hit, or i for 
a three-base hit. If the latter, a dot 
is put opposite the erring player's 
name in the error column on the 
other page. When a player scores, 
a dot is put opposite his name in the 
inning column. At the close of the 
game the total runs, base hits, put- 
outs, and assists are summed up 
from the score and entered in their 
respective columns. To sum up the 
put-outs, the number of times a 
man's letter appears, after a dash, is 
entered in the put-out column on the 
opposite page, for if R — B for in- 
stance appears opposite a man's 
name, that man was put out of 
course by the Second Baseman on 
the opposite side. The total num- 
ber of put-outs for each side in an 
even nine-inning game is 27, and if 
they foot up more or less, there has 
been some mistake. The " assists " 
are summed up by treating, in like 
manner, the letters before the dashes. 
The assists need not number 27 
altogether, for some men are put out 
without assistance, as when a fly is 
caught. When the score is published 
only the columns that are lettered 
at the top are given. Often two 
columns of base hits are entered ; 
one of "base hits" simply, the 
other of " totals." In the former 
each hit is counted as one, whether 
for one or more bases ; in the latter 



a two-base hit is counted as 2, and a 
three-base hit as 3. This is all that 
a young scorer will care to do, but 
the National League rules require 
still more. When the score is an- 
nounced to the public, as by printing 
it in a newspaper, of course only final 
figures are given. The standard 
method is to give the players' names 
in one column, and then in succes- 
sive columns the number of times 
at bat, runs, base hits, sacrifice hits, 
put-outs, assists, and errors. This 
is followed by a summary giving the 
score in each inning, and a large num- 
ber of particulars, such as bases 
stolen, home-runs, double and triple 
plays, called balls, wild pitches, etc. 
What are called the batting and field- 
ing percentages of the players are 
often calculated at the end of a series 
of games. The former is the percent- 
age of base hits in the total number 
of times at the bat ; the latter the 
percentage of " chances accepted " 
in the total number of " chances 
offered." The chances offered to a 
fielder are found by adding his put- 
outs, assists, and errors ; the chances 
accepted, by subtracting the errors 
from this sum. Thus, if a player 
has put out 25 men, assisted to put 
out 18, and made 9 errors, he has 
had 52 chances, of which he has 
accepted 43, and his fielding per- 
centage is|f X 100, or nearly 83 per 
cent. 

The proper scoring of errors is 
very difficult, especially as there the 
scorer has no time to wait and think. 
Good scorers often differ as to 
whether a base has been gained by 
a hit or an error, and their scores 
would therefore read differently in 
this respect. The rules given below 
contain some directions on this 
point. To be able to take the score 
of a ball game properly adds much 
to its enjoyment, and spectators 
often amuse themselves in this way. 
The score given above is that of a 
game between the Yale and Harvard 
university nines, and from it may be 
read a very good account of the 



BASE BALL 



63 



BASE BALL 



game. The reader will see that the 
first Harvard player made a run, 
though not on a base hit. The 
second struck a ball to the second 
baseman, who threw it to first base, 
putting him out ; the third struck to 
third base with a like result, and the 
fourth struck to the first baseman, 
who picked up the ball and made 
the third out, ending the inning. 

J^u/es of the Game. The rules 
given below are substantially those 
adopted by the National League and 
the American Association of Profes- 
sional Base Ball Clubs. Those parts 
which refer to matters of discipline 
are omitted. Many of the rules 
apply to match games between or- 
ganized clubs, and therefore do not 
apply to cases where sides are chosen 
just before the game, but it can be 
seen at a glance which rules thus 
apply. 

THE BALL GROUND. 

Rule i.— The Ground must be 
an inclosed field, sufficient in size to 
enable each player to play in his posi- 
tion as required by these rules. 

Rule 2. — To lay off the lines 
governing the positions and the play 
of the game known as Base Ball, 
proceed as follows : 

From a point, A, within the 
grounds, project a right line out into 
the field, and at a point B, 154 
feet from point A, lay off lines B C 
and B D at right angles to the line 
A B ; then, with B as center and 
63.63945 feet as radius, describe 
arcs cutting the lines B A at F and 
B C at B G D at H and B E at I. 
Draw lines F G, G E, E H and H F, 
and said lines will be the containing 
lines of the Diamond or infield. 

THE CA TCHER'S LINES. 

Rule 3. — With F as center and 
90 feet radius, describe an arc cut- 
ting line F A at L, and draw lines 
L M and L O at right angles to F 
A ; and continue same out from F 
A not less then 90 feet. 

THE FOUL LINE. 

Rule 4. — From the intersection 
point, F, continue the straight lines 



F G and F H until they intersect 
with the lines L M and L O, and 
then from the points G and H in the 
opposite direction until they reach 
the boundary lines of the grounds. 

THE PLA VERS' LINES. 

Rule 5.— With F as center and 
50 feet radius, describe arcs cutting 
lines F O, F M at P and Q ; 
then, with F as center again and 75 
feet radius, describe arcs cutting F 
G and F H at R and S; then from 
the points P, Q, R and S draw lines 
at right angles to the lines F O, F 
M, F G and F H.and continue same 
until they intersect at the points T 
and W. 

THE CAPTAIN AND CO A CHER'S 
LINE. 

Rule 6.— With R and S as cen- 
ters and 15 feet radius, describe arcs 
cutting lines R W and S T at X and 
Y, and from the points X and Y 
draw lines parallel with lines F H 
and F G, and continue same out to 
the boundary lines of the ground. 

THE THREE-FOOT LINE. 

Rule 7. — With F as center and 
45 feet radius, describe an arc cut- 
ting line F G at I, and from i out to 
the distance of 3 feet draw a line at 
right angles to F G, and marked 
point 2 ; then from point 2, draw a 
line parallel with the line F G to 
a point 3 feet beyond the point G, 
and marked 3 ; then from the point 
3 draw a line at right angles to line 
2, 3, back to and intersecting with 
line F G, and from thence back 
along line G F to point i. 

THE PITCHER'S PLA TE. 

Rule 8.— With point F as center 
and 60.5 as feet radius, describe an 
arc cutting the line F B at a point 4, 
and draw a line 5, 6, passing through 
point 4 and extending 12 inches on 
either side of line F B ; then with 
line 5, 6, as a side, describe a paral- 
lelogram 24 inches by 6 inches. 

THE BASES. 

Rule 9.— Within the angle F, 
describe a square the sides of which 
shall be 12 inches, two of its sides 
lying upon the lines F G and F H, 



I 



BASE BALL 



64 



BASE BALL 



and within the angles G and H 
describe squares the sides of which 
shall be 15 inches, the two outer 
sides of said square lying upon the 
lines F G and G I and F H and H I, 
and at the angle E describe a square 
whose sides shall be 15 inches and 
so described that its sides shall be 
parallel with G I and I H and its 
center immediately over the angular 
point E. 

THE BA TSMAN'S LINE. 

Rule 10. — On either side of the 
line A F B describe two parallelo- 
grams 6 feet long and 4 feet wide 
(marked 8 and 9), their length being 
parallel with the Hne A F B, their dis- 
tance apart being 6 inches added to 
each end of the length of the diagonal 
of the square within the angle F, 
and the center of the length being 
upon said diagonal. 

Rule ii.— The Home Base at F 
and the Pitcher's Plate at 4 must be 
of whitened rubber, and so fixed in 
the ground as to be even with the 
surface. 

Rule 12. — The First Base at G, 
the Second Base at E,and the Third 
Base at H must be of white canvas 
bags, filled with soft material and 
securely fastened in their positions 
described in Rule 9. 

Rule 13. — The lines described in 
Rules 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 10 must be 
marked with lime, chalk, or other 
suitable material, so as to be dis- 
tinctly seen by the umpire. 

THE BALL. 

Rule 14. Section i.— Must 
not weigh less than five nor more 
than five and one-quarter ounces 
avoirdupois, and it must measure 
not less than nine nor more than 
nine and one-quarter inches in cir- 
cumference. 

Sec. 2. For each championship 
game two regulation balls shall be 
furnished by the home club to the 
umpire for use. When the ball in 
play is batted to foul ground and 
out of sight of the umpire, the other 
ball shall be immediately brought 
into play. As often as one of the 



two in use shall be lost a new one 
must be substituted. 

THE BA T. 

Rule 15.— Must be entirely of 
hard wood, except that the handle 
may be wound with twine or a 
granulated substance supplied, not 
to exceed eighteen inches from the 
end. 

It must be round, and it must not 
exceed two and three-quarter inches 
in diameter in the thickest part, nor 
exceed forty-two inches in length. 

THE PL A VERS AND THEIR 
POSITIONS. 

Rule 16. — The players of each 
club in a game shall be nine in num- 
ber, one of whom shall act as cap- 
tain, and in no case shall less than 
nine men be allowed to play on each 
side. 

Rule 17. — The players' positions 
shall be such as may be assigned 
them by their captain, except that 
the pitcher, while in the act of de- 
livering the ball to the bat, must 
take the position as defined in Rules 
8 and 29. 

Rule 18. — Players in uniform 
shall not be permitted to occupy 
seats on the stands, or to stand 
among the spectators. 

Rule 19. Section i. — No player 
shall attach anything to the sole 
or heel of his shoes other than the 
ordinary base ball shoe plate. 

Sec. 2. The catcher and first 
baseman are permitted to wear a 
glove or mitt of any size, shape, or 
weight. All other players are re- 
stricted to the use of a glove or mitt 
weighing not over ten ounces, and 
measuring in circumference, around 
the palm of the hand, not over four- 
teen inches. 

PL A VERS' BENCHES. 

Rule 20. — The players' benches 
must be furnished by the home club 
and placed upon a portion of the 
ground outside of and not nearer 
than 25 feet to the players' lines. 
One such bench must be for the ex- 
clusive use of the visiting club, and 
one for the exclusive use of the 
home club. 



BASE BALL 



65 



BASE BALL 



THE GAME. 

Rule 21. Section i. — Every 
championship game must be com- 
menced not later than two hours 
before sunset. 

Sec. 2. A game shall consist of 
nine innings to each contesting nine, 
except that 

(«.) If the side first at bat 
scores less runs in nine innings than 
the other side has scored in eight 
innings, the game shall then ter- 
minate. 

(^.) If the side last at bat in 
the ninth inning scores the win- 
ning run before the third man is out, 
the game shall terminate. 

A TIE GAME. 

Rule 22. — If the score be a tie at 
the end of the nine innings, play shall 
be continued until one side has 
scored more runs than the other in 
an equal number of innings, pro- 
vided, that the side last at bat scores 
the winning run before the third man 
is out, the game shall terminate. 

A DRAWN GAME. 

Rule 23. — A drawn game shall 
be declared by the umpire when 
he terminates a game on account of 
darkness or rain, after five equal 
innings have been played, if the score 
at the time is equal on the last even 
innings played ; except when the side 
that went second to bat is then at the 
bat, and has scored the same num- 
ber of runs as the other side, in 
which case the umpire shall declare 
the game drawn without regard to 
the score of the last equal innings. 

A CALLED GAME. 

Rule 24. — If the umpire calls 
" Game" on account of darkness or 
rain at any time after five innings 
have been completed, the score shall 
be that of the last equal innings 
played, except, that the side second 
at bat shall have scored one or 
more runs than the side first at 
bat, in which case the score of the 
game shall be the total number of 
runs made. 

A FORFEITED GAME. 

Rule 25. — A forfeited game shall 
be declared by the umpire in favor 



of the club not in fault, at the request 
of such club, in the following cases : 

Section i. If the nine of a club 
fail to appear upon the field, or being 
upon the field, fail to begin the game 
within five minutes after the umpire 
has called " Play " at the hour ap- 
pointed for the beginning of the 
game, unless such delay in appearing, 
or in commencing the game, be un- 
avoidable. 

Sec. 2. If, after the game has 
begun, one side refuses or fails to 
continue playing, unless such game 
has been suspended or terminated 
by the umpire. 

Sec. 3. If, after play has been 
suspended by the umpire, one side 
fails to resume playing within one 
minute after the umpire has called 
" Play." 

Sec. 4. If a team resorts to dila- 
tory movements to delay the game. 

Sec. 5. If, in the opinion of the 
umpire, any one of the rules of the 
games is willfully violated. 

Sec. 6. If, after ordering the re- 
moval of a player, as authorized by 
the Rules, said order is not obeyed 
within one minute. 

Sec. 7. If, because of removal 
of players from the game by the 
umpire, there be less than nine 
players in either team. 

Sec. 8. If, when two games are 
scheduled to be played on the same 
afternoon, the second gaine be not 
commenced within ten minutes of 
the time of completion of the first 
game. The mnpire of the first 
game shall be the timekeeper. 

NO GAME. 

Rule 26. — " No game " shall be 
declared by the umpire if he shall 
terminate play on account of rain or 
darkness before five innings on each 
side are completed. Except in a 
case when the game is called, and 
the club second at bat shall have 
more runs at end of its fourth 
innings than the club first at bat 
has made in its five completed 
innings; in such case the umpire 
shall award the game to the club 



BASE BALL 



66 



BASE BALL 



having made the greatest number of 
runs. 

SUBSTITUTES. 

Rule 27. Section i. — In every 
championship game each side shall 
be required to have present on the 
field, in uniform, a sufficient number 
of substitute players to carry out the 
provision which requires that not 
less than nine players shall occupy 
the field in any innings of the game. 

Sec. 2. Any such player may be 
substituted at any time by either 
club, but a player thereby retired 
shall not thereafter participate in the 
game. 

Sec. 3. The base-runner shall 
not have a substitute run for him 
except by the consent of the captains 
of the contesting teams. 

CHOICE OF INNINGS— CONDITION OF 
GROUND. 

Rule 28. — The choice of innings 
shall be given to the captain of the 
home club, who shall also be the 
sole judge of the fitness of the 
ground for beginning a game after 
rain, but, after play has been called 
by the umpire, he alone shall be the 
judge as to the fitness of the ground 
for resuming play after the game has 
been suspended on account of rain. 

THE PITCHER'S POSITION. 

Rule 29. — The pitcher shall take 
his position facing the batsman with 
both feet square on the ground, and 
in front of the pitcher's plate; but in 
the act of delivering the ball to the 
bat, one foot must be in contact 
with the pitcher's plate, defined in 
Rule 8. He shall not raise either 
foot, unless in the act of delivering 
the ball to the bat, nor make more 
than one step in such delivery. 

A FAIRLY DELIVERED BALL. 

Rule 30. — A Fairly Delivered 
Ball to the bat is a ball pitched 
or thrown to the bat by the pitcher 
while standing in his position and 
facing the batsman, the ball so 
delivered to pass over any portion of 
the home base not lower than the 
batsman's knee nor higher than his 
shoulder. 



AN UNFAIRLY DELIVERED BALL. 

Rule 31. — An Unfairly Delivered 
Ball is a ball delivered by the pitcher, 
as in Rule 30, except that the ball 
does not pass over any portion of the 
home base, or does pass over the 
home base, above the batsman's 
shoulder or below the line of his 
knee. 

BALKING. 

Rule. 32. — A Balk shall be : 

Section i. Any motion made 
by the pitcher to deliver the ball 
to the bat without delivering it. 

Sec. 2. Any delivery of the ball 
to the bat while his (pivot) foot 
is not in contact with the pitcher's 
plate, as defined in Rule 29. 

Sec. 3. Any motion in deliver- 
ing the ball to the bat by the pitcher 
while not in the position defined 
in Rule 29. 

Sec. 4. The holding of the ball 
by the pitcher so long as, in the 
opinion of the umpire, to delay the 
game unnecessarily. 

Sec. 5. Standing in position <a!«^ 
snaking any motion to pitch without 
having the ball in his possession, ex- 
cept in the case of a " block-ball," 
as provided by Rule 35, section 2. 

When the pitcher feigns to throw 
the ball to a base he must resume 
the above position and pause mo- 
mentarily before delivering the ball 
to the bat. 

If the pitcher fails to comply with 
the requirements of this rule the 
umpire must call " A balk." 

Sec. 6. The making of any mo- 
tion the pitcher habitually makes in 
his method of delivery, without his 
immediately delivering the ball to 
the bat. 

Sec. 7. If the pitcher feigns to 
throw the ball to a base and does 
not resume his legal position and 
pause 7nomentarily before delivering 
the ball to the bat. 

DEAD BALLS. 

Rule 33. — A Dead Ball is a ball 
delivered to the bat by the pitcher 
that touches any part of the bats- 
man's person or clothing while 



BASE BALL 



67 



BASE BALL 



standing in his position without be- 
ing struck at, or that touches any 
part of the umpire's person or cloth- 
ing while he is standing on foul 
ground without first passing the 
catcher. 

Rule 34. — In case of a foul strike, 
foul hit ball not legally caught out, 
dead ball, or base-runner put out for 
being struck by a fair-hit ball, the 
ball shall not be considered in play 
until it is held by the pitcher stand- 
ing in his position and the umpire 
shall hare called play. 

BLOCK BALLS. 

Rule 35. Section i. — A Block 
is a batted or thrown ball that is 
touched, stopped, or handled by any 
person not engaged in the game. 

Sec. 2. Whenever a block occurs 
the umpire shall declare it and 
the base-runners may run the bases 
without being put out until the ball 
has been returned to and held by the 
pitcher standing in his position. 

Sec. 3. In the case of a block, if 
a person not engaged in the game 
should retain possession of the ball, 
or throw or kick it beyond the reach 
of the fielders, the umpire should 
call " Time " and require each base- 
runner to stop at the last base 
touched by him until the ball be re- 
turned to the pitcher standing in his 
position and the umpire shall have 
called " Play." 

THE BA TSMAirS POSITION— ORDER 
OF BA TTING. 

Rule 36. — The batsmen must 
take their position within the bats- 
man's lines, as defined in Rule 10, in 
the order in which they are named 
in the batting order, which batting 
order must be submitted by the 
captains of the opposing teams to 
the umpire before the game, and 
this batting order must be followed 
except in the case of a substitute 
player, in which case the substitute 
must take the place of the original 
player in the batting order. After 
the first inning the first striker in 
each inning shall be the batsman 



whose name follows that of the last 
man who has completed his turn — 
time at bat — in the precedmg inning. 

Rule 37. Section i. — When 
their side goes to the bat the players 
must immediately return to the 
players' bench, as defined in Rule 
20, and remain there until the side 
is put out, except when called to the 
bat or they become coachers or sub- 
stitute base-runners ; provided, that 
the captain or one player only, 
except that if two or more base- 
runners are occupying the bases 
then the captain and one player, or 
two players, may occupy the space 
between the player's lines and the 
captain's lines to coach base-runners. 

Sec. 2. No player of the side " at 
bat," except when batsman, shall 
occupy any portion of the space 
within the catcher's lines, as defined 
in Rule 3. The triangular space 
behind the home base is reserved for 
the exclusive use of umpire, catcher, 
and batsman, and the umpire must 
prohibit any player of the side " at 
bat" from crossing the same at any 
time while the ball is in the hands 
of, or passing between, the pitcher 
and catcher, while standing in their 
positions. 

Sec. 3. The players of the side 
" at bat " must occupy the portion 
of the field allotted them, but must 
speedily vacate any portion thereof 
that may be in the way of the ball, 
or any fielder attempting to catch or 
field it. 

THE BA TTING RULES. 

Rule 38. Section i.— A Fair 
Hit is a ball batted by the batsman 
— while he is standing within the 
lines of his position — that first 
touches " fair " ground, or the per- 
son of a player, or the umpire, while 
standing on fair ground, and then 
settles on fair ground before passing 
the line of first or third base. 

Sec. 2. A Foul Hit is a similarly 
batted ball that first touches " foul " 
ground, or the person of a player, or 
the umpire while standing on '* foul " 
ground. 



I 



( 



BASE BALL 



68 



BASE BALL 



Sec. 3. Should such " fair hit " 
ball bound or roll to foul ground, 
before passing the line of first or 
third base, and settle on foul ground, 
it shall be declared by the umpire a 
foul ball. 

Sec. 4. Should such " foul hit " 
ball bound or roll to fair ground and 
settle there before passing the line 
of first or third base, it shall be 
declared by the umpire a fair ball. 

Rule 39. — A foul tip is a ball 
batted by the batsman while stand- 
ing within the lines of his position 
that goes foul sharp from the bat to 
the catcher's hands. 

Rule 40. — A bunt hit is a ball 
delivered by the pitcher to the bats- 
man who, while standing within the 
lines of his position, makes a deliber- 
ate attempt to hit the ball so slowly 
within the infield that it cannot be 
fielded in time to retire the batsman. 
If such a " bunt hit " goes to foul 
ground a strike shall be called by 
the umpire. 

BALLS BATTED OUTSIDE THE 
GROUND. 

Rule 41. —When a batted ball 
passes outside the grounds, the 
umpire shall decide it Fair should it 
disappear within, or Foul should it 
disappear outside of the range of the 
foul lines, and Rule 38 is to be con- 
strued accordingly. 

Rule 42.— A fair batted ball that 
goes over the fence shall entitle the 
batsman to a home run, except, that 
should it go over the fence at a less 
distance than two hundred and 
thirty-five (235) feet from the home 
base, when he shall be entitled to 
two bases only, and a distinctive line 
shall be marked on the fence at this 
point. 

STRIKES. 

Rule 43. — A Strike is : 

Section i. A ball struck at by 
the batsman without its touching 
his bat ; or, 

Sec. 2. A fair ball legally de- 
livered by the pitcher, but not struck 
at by the batsman. 

Sec. 3. Any intentional effort to 



hit the ball to foul ground, also in 
the case of a " bunt hit," which 
sends the ball to foul ground, either 
directly, or by bounding or rolling 
from fair ground to foul ground, and 
which settles on foul ground. 

Sec. 4. A ball struck at, if the 
ball touches any part of the bats- 
man's person. 

Sec. 5. A ball tipped by the 
batsman, and caught by the catcher, 
within ten feet from home base. 

Rule 44. — A Foul Strike is a ball 
batted by the batsman when any 
part of his person is upon ground 
outside the lines of the batsman's 
position. 

THE BATSMAN IS OUT. 

Rule 45.— The Batsman is Out : 

Section i. If he fails to take 
his position at the bat in his order of 
batting, unless the error be dis- 
covered and . the proper batsman 
takes his position before a time " at 
bat " is recorded, and, in such case, 
the balls and strikes called must be 
counted in the time " at bat " of the 
proper batsman, and only the proper 
batsman shall be declared out, and 
no runs shall be scored or bases run 
because of any act of the improper 
batstnan, provided, this rule shall 
not take effect unless the out is 
declared before the ball is delivered 
to the succeeding batsman. Should 
batsman declared out by this rule be 
stifficient to retire the side, the 
proper batsman the next innings is 
the player who would have come 
to bat had the players been out by 
ordinary play. 

Sec. 2. If he fails to take his 
position within one minute after the 
umpire has called for the batsman. 

Sec. 3. If he makes a foul hit 
other than a foul tip, as defined in 
Rule 39, and the ball be momen- 
tarily held by a fielder before touch- 
ing the ground ; provided, it be not 
caught in a fielder's hat or cap, or 
touched by some object other than a 
fielder before being caught. 

Sec. 4. If he makes a foul strike. 

Sec. 5. If he attempts to hinder 



BASE BALL 



60 



BASE BALL 



the catcher from fielding or throw- 
ing the ball by stepping outside the 
lines of his position, or otherwise 
obstructing or interfering with the 
player. 

Sec. 6. If, while the first base 
be occupied by a base-runner, three 
strikes be called on him by the 
umpire, except when two men are 
already out. 

Sec. 7. If, after two strikes have 
been called, the batsman obviously 
attempts to make a foul hit, as in 
Rule 43, section 3. 

Sec. 8. If, while attempting a 
third strike, the ball touches any 
part of the batsman's person, in 
which case base-runners occupying 
bases shall return as prescribed in 
Rule 49, section 5. 

Sec. 9. If he hits a fly ball that 
can be handled by an infielder while 
first and second bases are occupied, 
or first, second and third with only 
one out. In such case the umpire 
shall, as soon as the ball is hit, 
declare infield or outfield hit. 

Sec. 10. If the third strike is 
called in accordance with section 4, 
Rule 43. 

Sec. II. The moment a bats- 
man is declared out by the umpire, 
he (the umpire) shall call for the 
batsman next in order to leave his 
seat on the bench and take his posi- 
tion at the bat, and such player of 
the batting side shall not leave his 
seat on the bench until so called to 
bat, except as provided by Rule 37, 
section i, and Rule 52. 

base-running rules. 

Rule 46. — When the Bats- 
man Becomes a Base-runner. 

The Batsman becomes a Base- 
runner : 

Section i. Instantly after he 
makes a fair hit. 

Sec. 2. Instantly after four balls 
have been called by the umpire. 

Sec. 3. Instantly after three 
strikes have been declared by the 
umpire. 

Sec. 4. If, while he be batsman, 
without making any attempt to 



strike at the ball, his person or cloth- 
ing be hit by a ball from the pitcher 
unless, in the opinion of the umpire, 
he plainly avoids making any effort 
to get out of the way of the ball 
from the pitcher, and thereby permits 
himself to be so hit. 

Sec. 5. Instantly after an illegal 
delivery of a ball by the pitcher. 

An illegal delivery of the ball is 
made if the pitcher's pivot foot be 
not in contact with the rubber plate 
at the time of the delivery of the 
ball, or if he takes more than one 
step in delivery, or if, after feign- 
ing to throw to a base, he fails to 
pause momentarily before deliver- 
ing the ball to the bat. 

BASES TO BE TOUCHED. 

Rule 47. — The base-runner must 
touch each base in regular order, 
viz., first, second, third and home 
bases, and when obliged to return 
(except on a foul hit) must retouch 
the base or bases in reverse order. 
He shall only be considered as 
holding a base after touching it, 
and shall then be entitled to hold 
such base until he has legally 
touched the next base in order or 
has been legally forced to vacate it 
for a succeeding base-runner. How- 
ever, no base-runner shall score a 
run to count in the game until the 
base-runner preceding him in the 
batting list (provided there has been 
such a base-runner who has not 
been put out in that inning) shall 
have first touched home base with- 
out being put out. 

ENTITLED TO BASES. 

Rule 48. — The base-runner shall 
be entitled, without being put out, 
to take the base in the following 
cases : 

Section i. If, while he was bats- 
man, the umpire called four balls. 

Sec. 2. If the umpire awards a 
succeeding batsman a base on four 
balls, or for being hit with a pitched 
ball, or in case of an illegal delivery 
— as in Rule 46, section 5 — and the 
base-runner is thereby forced to 
vacate the base held by him. 



BASE BALL 



70 



BASE BALL 



Sec. 3. If the umpire calls a 
"Balk." 

Sec. 4. If a ball, delivered by 
the pitcher, pass the catcher, and 
touch the umpire, or any fence or 
building within ninety feet of the 
home base. 

Sec. 5. If, upon a fair hit, the 
ball strikes the person or clothing of 
the umpire on fair ground. 

Sec. 6. If he be prevented from 
making a base by the obstruction of 
an adversary, unless the latter be a 
fielder having the ball in his hand 
ready to meet the base-runner. 

Sec. 7. If the fielder stop or 
catch a batted ball with his hat or 
any part of his uniform except his 
gloved hand. 

RETURNING TO BASES. 

Rule 49. — The base-runner shall 
return to his base, and shall be en- 
titled to so return without being put 
out : 

Section i. If the umpire de- 
clares a foul tip (as defined in Rule 
39), or any other foul hit not legally 
caught by a fielder. 

Sec. 2. If the umpire declares a 
foul strike. 

Sec. 3. If the umpire declares a 
dead ball, unless it be also the fourth 
unfair ball and he be thereby forced 
to take the next base, as provided in 
Rule 48, section 2. 

Sec. 4. If the person or clothing 
of the umpire interferes with the 
catcher, or he is struck by a ball 
thrown by the catcher to intercept a 
base-runner. 

Sec. 5. The base-runner shall 
return to his base if, while attempt- 
ing a strike, the ball touches any 
part of the batsman's person. 

WHEN BASE-RUNNERS ARE OUT. 

Rule 50. — The Base-runner is 
Out: 

Section i. If, after three strikes 
have been declared against him 
while batsman and the catcher fail 
to catch the third strike ball, he 
plainly attempts to hinder the 
catcher from fielding the ball. 

Sec. 2. If, having made a fair 



hit while batsman, such fair hit ball 
be momentarily held by a fielder 
before touching the ground, or any 
object other than a fielder; 
Provided, it be not caught in a 
fielder's hat or cap. 

Sec. 3. If, when the umpire has 
declared three strikes on him while 
batsman, the third strike ball be 
momentarily held by a fielder before 
touching the ground ; PROVIDED, it 
be not caught in a fielder's hat or 
cap, or touch some object other 
than a fielder before being caught. 

Sec. 4. If, after three strikes or a 
fair hit, he be touched with the ball 
in the hand of a fielder before he 
shall have touched first base. 

Sec. 5. If, after three strikes or a 
fair hit, the ball be securely held by 
a fielder while touching first base 
with any part of his person be- 
fore such base-runner touches first 
base. 

Sec. 6. If, in running the last 
half of the distance from home base 
to first base, while the ball is being 
fielded to first base, he runs outside 
the three-foot lines, as defined in' 
Rule 7, unless to avoid a fielder 
attempting to field a batted ball. 

Sec. 7. If, in running from first 
to second base, from second to 
third base, or from third to home 
base, he runs more than three feet 
from a direct line between such 
bases to avoid being touched by the 
ball in the hands of a fielder ; but in 
case a fielder be occupying the base- 
runner's proper path in attempting 
to field a batted ball, then the base- 
runner shall run out of the path, and 
behind said fielder, and shall not be 
declared out for so doing. 

Sec. 8. If he fails to avoid a 
fielder attempting to field a batted 
ball, in the manner described in 
sections 6 and 7 of this rule, or if 
he, in any way, obstructs a fielder 
attempting to field a batted ball, or 
intentionally interferes with a thrown 
ball ; Provided, that if two or more 
fielders attempt to field a batted 
ball, and the base-runner comes in 



BASE BALL 



71 



BASE BALL 



contact with one or more of them, 
the umpire shall determine which 
fielder is entitled to the benefit of 
this rule, and shall not decide the 
base-runner out for coming in con- 
tact with any other fielder. 

Sec. 9. If, at any time while the 
ball is in play, he be touched by the 
ball in the hands of a fielder, unless 
some part of his person is touching 
a base he is entitled to occupy ; Pro- 
vided, the ball be held by the 
fielder after touching him. 

Sec. 10. The base-runner in 
running to first base may overrun 
said base, without being put out for 
being off said base, after first touch- 
ing it, provided he returns at once 
and retouches the base, after which 
he may be put out as at any other 
base. If, in overrunning first base, 
he also attempts to run to second 
base, or after passing the base he 
turns to his left from the foul line, 
he shall forfeit such exemption from 
being put out. 

Sec. II. If, when a fair or foul 
hit ball (other than a foul tip as 
referred to in Rule 39) is legally 
caught by a fielder, such ball is 
legally held by a fielder on the 
base occupied by the base-runner 
when such ball was struck (or the 
base-runner be touched with the ball 
in the hands of a fielder), before he 
retouches said base after such fair 
or foul hit call was so caught ; 
Provided, that the base-runner 
shall not be out, in such case, if, 
after the ball was legally caught as 
above, it be delivered to the bat by 
the pitcher before the fielder holds 
it on said base, or touches the base- 
runner with it ; but if the base-run- 
ner, in attempting to reach a base, 
detaches it before being touched or 
forced out, he shall be declared 
safe. 

Sec. 12. If, when a batsman 
becomes a base-runner, the first 
base, or the first and second bases, 
or the first, second and third bases, 
be occupied, any base-runner so 
occupying a base shall cease to be 



entitled to hold it, until any follow- 
ing base-runner is put out, and may 
be put out at the next base, or by 
being touched by the ball in the 
hands of a fielder in the same man- 
mer as in running to first base at any 
time before any following base- 
runner is put out. 

Sec. 13. If a fair hit ball strike 
him before touching the fielder, and, 
in such case, no base shall be run 
unless forced by the batsman becom- 
ing a base-runner, and no run shall 
be scored or any other base-runner 
put out. 

Sec. 14. If, when running to a 
base, or forced to return to a base, 
he fail to touch the intervening base, 
or bases, if any, in the order pre- 
scribed in Rule 47, he may be put 
out at the base he fails to touch, or 
being touched by the ball in the 
hands of a fielder in the same man- 
ner as in running to first base ; Pro- 
vided, that the base-runner shall not 
be out in such case if the ball be 
delivered to the bat by the pitcher 
before the fielder holds it on said 
base, or touches the base-runner 
with it. 

Sec. 15. If, when the umpire 
calls " Play," after any suspension of 
a game, he fails to return to and 
touch the base he occupied when 
"Time " was called before touching 
the next base ; Provided, the base- 
runner shall not be out, in such case, 
if the ball be delivered to the bat by 
the pitcher before the fielder holds it 
on said base or touches the base- 
runner with it. 

WHEN BA TSMAN OR BASE-RUNNER 
IS OUT. 

Rule 51. — The umpire shall 
declare the batsman or base-runner 
out, without waiting for an appeal 
for such decision, in all cases where 
such player is put out in accordance 
with these rules, except as provided 
in Rule 50, sections 10 and 14. 

COACHING RULES. 

Rule 52. — The coacher shall be 
restricted to coaching the base- 
runner only, and shall not be allowed 



BASE BALL 



72 



BASE BALL 



to address any remarks except to the 
base-runner, and then only in words 
of necessary direction ; and shall 
not use language which will in any 
manner refer to, or reflect upon a 
player of the opposing club, the 
umpire or the spectators, and not 
more than one coacher, who may be 
a player participating in the game, 
or any other player under contract to 
it, in the uniform of either club, shall 
be allowed at any one time, except, 
that if base-runners are occuping two 
or more of the bases, then the cap- 
tain and one player, or two players 
in the uniform of either club, may 
occupy the space between the 
players' lines and the captains' lines 
to coach base-runners. To enforce 
the above the captain of the opposite 
side may call the attention of the 
umpire to the offense, and, upon a 
repetition of the same, the offending 
player shall be debarred from further 
participation in the game, and shall 
leave the playing field forthwith. 

THE SCORING OF RUNS. 

Rule 53. — One run shall be scored 
every time a base-runner, after hav- 
ing legally touched the first three 
bases, shall touch the home base 
before three men are put out. 
(Exception) — If the third man is 
forced out, or is put out before 
reaching first base, a run shall not 
be scored. 

GENERAL DEFINITIONS. 

" Play " is the order of the umpire 
to begin the game, or to resume play 
after its suspension. 

" Time " is the order of the umpire 
to suspend play. Such suspension 
must not extend beyond the day of 
the game. 

" Game " is the announcement by 
the umpire that the game is ter- 
minated. 

An " Inning" is the term at bat of 
the nine players representing a club 
in a game, and is completed when 
three of such players have been put 
out, as provided in these rules. 

A '* Time at Bat " is the term at 
bat of a batsman. It begins when 



he takes his position and continues 
until he is put out or becomes a base- 
runner ; except when, because of 
being hit by a pitched ball, or in case 
of an illegal delivery by the pitcher, 
or in case of a sacrifice hit purposely 
made to the infield which, not being 
a base-hit, advances a base-runner 
without resulting in a put-out, except 
to the batsman, as in Rule 45. 

" Legal " or " Legally " signifies as 
required by these rules. 

SCORING RULES. 
BA TTING. 

No time at bat shall be scored if 
the batsman be hit by a pitched ball 
while standing in his position, and 
after trying to avoid being so hit^ 
or in case of the pitcher's illegal 
delivery of the ball to the bat which 
gives the batsman his base, or when 
he intentionally hits the ball to the 
field, purposely to be put out, or if he 
is given first base on called balls. 

A base-hit should be scored in the 
following cases : 

When the ball from the bat strikes 
the ground within the foul lines and 
out of reach of the fielders. 

When a hit ball is partially or 
wholly stopped by a fielder in 
motion, but such player cannot 
recover himself in time to handle the 
ball before the striker reaches first 
base. 

When a ball is hit with such force 
to an infielder that he cannot handle 
it in time to put out the batsman. 
(In case of doubt over this class of 
hits, score a base-hit and exempt the 
fielder from the charge of an error.) 

When a ball is hit so slowly 
toward a fielder that he cannot 
handle it in time to put out the 
batsman. 

That in all cases where a bas6^ 
runner is retired by being hit by a 
batted ball, the batsman should be 
credited with a base-hit. 

When a batted ball hits the per- 
son or clothing of the umpire. In 
no case shall a base-hit be scored 
when a base-runner has been forced 
out by the play. 



BASE BALL 



73 



BASE BALL 



FIELDING. 

Where a batsman is given out by 
the umpire for a foul strike, or where 
the batsman fails to bat in proper 
order, the put-out shall be scored to 
the catcher, hi all cases of " out " 
for interference, running out of 
line, or infield fly dropped, the 
" out " should be credited to the 
player who would have made the 
play but for the action of the base- 
runner or batsman. 

An assist should be given to each 
player who handles the ball in assist- 
ing a put-out or other play of the 
kind. 

And generally an assist should be 
given to each player who handles or 
assists in any manner in handling 
the ball from the time it leaves the 
bat until it reaches the player who 
makes the put-out, or in case of 
a thrown ball, to each player who 
throws or handles it cleanly and 
in such a way that a put-out results, 
or would result if no error were 
made by the receiver. 

ERRORS. 

An error shall be given for each 
misplay which allows the striker or 
base-runner to make one or more 
bases when perfect play would have 
insured his being put out, except 
that " wild pitches," " bases on 
balls," bases on the batsman being 
struck by a " pitched ball," or in 
cases of illegal pitched balls, balks 
and passed balls, all of which com- 
prise battery errors, shall not be 
included in said column. 

One Old Cat, a kind of base ball 
played by any number of persons. 
The Home base is the only base, and 
the positions of the players are Bats- 
man, Catcher, Pitcher, and any num- 
ber of fielders, called First Field, 
Second Field, and so on. The 
striker keeps his place till he is put 
out. He is out if a fair fly or a foul 
bound is caught, all balls being fair 
that strike in front of the base, or if 
the Catcher catch, the ball after his 
third strike. If the ball is not caught 
at the third strike he has three more, 



and no strikes are counted except 
those actually made. When the 
striker is put out he takes the place 
of the lowest fielder. Each fielder 
then rises one step in rank, and First 
Field becomes Pitcher, while Pitcher 
takes the Catcher's place, and 
Catcher goes to the bat. Some- 
times, when a fair ball is caught, 
the fielder who makes the catch 
is allowed to go to the bat at once. 
The Batsman takes the lowest place 
as before, but only those lower than 
the successful fielder rise in rank. 

One Old Cat is sometimes varied 
by having two bases. Home and 
First Base, and making the Bats- 
man run to the latter and back when 
he strikes a fair ball. If he does so 
without being put out at Home, 
he scores a run. There is no First 
Baseman. 

Two Old Cat. This differs from 
One Old Cat only in having two 
Batsmen, to whom the ball is pitched 
alternately, the Catcher for one act- 
ing as Pitcher for the other. The 
fielders are partly behind one Bats- 
man and partly behind the other. 

Single-handed Base, a kind of 
Base Ball resembhng One Old Cat, 
with a First Base, except that there 
is a First Baseman, who can put the 
striker out as in the regular game. 
No count is kept of runs ; but if the 
Batsman reaches his base safely the 
Baseman goes to the bat, and the 
two thus alternate till one of them is 
put out. When there is an out, the 
players change positions as in One 
Old Cat, except the Baseman, who 
continues at his post, and alternates 
with the new Batsman. 

History. Games of ball in which 
a feature is running from one base or 
goal to another have probably been 
played for a long time, and games of 
some sort in which a bat is used are 
still older (see Cricket). The illus- 
tration, from an old manuscript, 
shows a game of " club ball " in the 
14th century. In 1748 the family of 
the Prince of Wales are said to have 
played " Base Ball," and in 1798 



BASE BALL 



74 



BATTLEDORE, ETC. 



Miss Austen in one of her novels 
speaks of a game of the same name 
as being played by girls. A game of 
" Base Ball " is still played in Eng- 
land, by little girls, in which the 
striker hits the ball with her hand, 
and then runs from one goal to 
another, while those on the opposite 
side strive to hit her with the ball by 
throwing it while she is between 
bases. Another English game of 
Base Ball, played by boys or men, is 




Club Ball in the 14th Century. 

called Rounders. It has been said 
many times that American Base 
Ball is derived from Rounders, but 
some writers deny this, and the only 
ground for the assertion seems to be 
the similarity of the games, which 
have, very likely, a common origin. 

Similar games are favorites in other 
European countries. In Deutches 
Balhpiel (German ball) the field is 
nearly square and the striker stands 
on one of the sides. There are but 
two bases, and the striker runs from 
one to the other and back. If the 
ball is thrown at him and hits him, 
while running, he is out. The last 
one out can call for three strikes, as 
in Rounders. The French " Balle 
au Camp " (Camp Ball) is also like 
Rounders, except that the ball is 
struck with the hand, no bat being 
used. The shape of the field (called 
the Camp) and the number of bases 
vary in different places. In a form 
of the same called Balle Empoisonde 
(Poisoned Ball), the base-runner may 
kick the ball out of his way, but must 
not touch it with his hands, it being 
considered " poisoned." 

The first regular Base Ball club 
in the United States is believed 



to have been the " Knickerbocker " 
of New York, formed in 1845. 
Others soon followed, a uniform 
set of rules was adopted by a 
convention of clubs in 1857, and in 
1858 " The National Association of 
Base Ball Players " was organized. 
In 1859 a rule was passed forbidding 
paid players to take part in matches, 
but this was often broken, and in 
1868 it was repealed. In 1871 the 
first association of paid or " profes- 
sional " players was formed, and 
now there are several such. The old 
" National Association " is not now 
in existence, and the principal asso- 
ciations of amateur players are the 
various college associations. Base 
Ball is now widely known as the 
American national game, and it is the 
only outdoor game that is played al- 
most exclusively in the United States. 
The principal difference between the 
present game and its earlier forms 
is that while at first the pitcher was 
compelled to pitch or toss the ball 
to the striker, as his name shows, he 
is now allowed to throw it. The 
result is that the ball is harder to hit 
and fewer runs are made. For- 
merly, in a match game, it was not 
unusual for each side to make thirty 
or forty runs. 

BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLE- 
COCK, a game played by any num- 
ber of persons. The implements 
are shown in the accompanying 
figures. The Shuttlecock is usually 
made of cork loaded with lead, or 
sometimes of rubber, and crowned 
with feathers. The Battledore is 
sometimes made entirely of wood, 
but better of parchment stretched 
over a wooden frame, and it is often 
strung with twine or catgut, like a 
lawn TENNIS racket. The object of 
the game is simply to prevent the 
Shuttlecock from falling to the 
ground by striking it from one 
player to another with the Battledore. 
The shuttlecock has in the air a spin- 
ning motion caused by the feathers. 
In whatever direction it is struck, it 
always turns so that the cork goes 



BEAN BAGS 



75 



BELL AND HAMMER 



foremost, for the same reason that a 
vane points toward the direction 
from which the wind is blowing. 
The Germans call this game Feder- 
ball (Featherball). As they play it, 
he who lets the Shuttlecock fall loses 
a point, and when thirty points have 
been lost the game is ended ; he who 
has lost fewest points being the win- 
ner. The French call the game le 
volajtt (The Flyer). The Chinese, 
who are very skillful players, strike 
the shuttlecock with the sole of their 




Battledores and Shuttelcocks. 

feet. Badminton, a game played 
also with Battledores and a Shuttle- 
cock, is noticed at the end of the 
article on lawn tennis. 

History. The game was played 
at least 500 years ago. In the 17th 
century it was a fashionable game. 
In a comedy printed in 1609 occur 
the words, " To play at shuttlecock 
methinks is the game now." The 
Battledore is named after a similar 
instrument once used for beating 
clothes in washing. The word 
(sometimes spelled Battledoor) is 
thought by some to be the Spanish 
batallador, a combatant, but it is 
more probably related to the words 
bat and beat. The Shuttlecock is 
so called because it is driven back- 
ward and forward like a shuttle in 
weaving. Some think it is for 
Shuttle cork, and some that it is called 
a cock on account of its feathers. 

BATTLE GAME, THE. See 
Fox AND Geese. 

BEAN BAGS, a game with cloth 



bags, partially filled with beans, 
played by any number of persons. 
After choosing sides, the players 
stand in two lines facing each other. 
Each line has a chair or table, at 
each end, on one of which are piled 
half the bean bags. At a signal, the 
player in each line nearest his pile of 
bags seizes them one by one and 
passes them along the line ; as they 
reach the other end of the line they 
are placed on the chair or table at 
that end, and the side which first 
transfers all its bags wins the game. 
Each player must have hold of only 
one bag at a time, and must hold 
that in only one hand at a time, 
passing it from one hand to the other 
and from that to the next player in 
order. If a player pass a bag 
wrongly, or drop it, his side loses 
the game. There should be an um- 
pire to decide all disputed questions. 
This game of bean bags is more 
amusing when it is played with bun- 
dles of clothes-pins loosely tied to- 
gether, as it is difficult to hand the 
clothes-pins down the line without 
dropping some of them. 

BELL AND HAMMER, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
with counters, dice, and five cards, 
which bear respectively the figures 
of a White Horse, an Inn, a Bell, a 
Hammer and a Bell and Hammer 
together. The dice bear not only 
numbers, but also blanks and the 
figures of a bell and hammer. One 
of the players is chosen as cashier, 
who distributes an equal number of 
counters to each. He then sells by 
auction, to the one who bids the 
highest number of counters, the five 
cards, separately. The counters thus 
paid are placed in the middle of the 
table to form the pool, to which each 
player pays four counters more. The 
players then throw the dice in order, 
the cashier first and then the others 
in any order he may choose, but the 
same order must be preserved dur- 
ing the game. If any one throw all 
blanks, each player must pay one 
counter to the holder of the White 



BEZIQUE 



1^ 



Bl&ZIQUE 



Horse, but if with the blanks the 
Bell or Hammer, or both, be thrown, 
the holder of the corresponding card 
must pay one to the White Horse. 
When numbers are thrown with the 
Bell or Hammer the cashier pays 
their sum in counters from the pool 
to the holder of the corresponding 
card ; when numbers and blanks are 
thrown, the cashier pays the amount 
of such numbers from the pool to the 
thrower. Where the sum of the 
numbers thrown exceeds the number 
of counters in the pool, nothing is 



paid from the pool, but the player 
who would otherwise have received 
pay pays the excess to the holder of 
the Inn. After the Inn has begun 
thus to receive, if all blanks are 
thrown, the players do not pay, as 
before, but the White Horse pays 
one to the Inn. If Bell or Hammer, 
or both, be thrown with blanks after 
the Inn begins to receive, the holder 
of the corresponding card pays one 
to the Inn. The game is won by the 
player having the largest number of 
counters at the close of the game. 




Bell and Hammer Implements. 



The game ends when some player 
takes all the counters in the pool, 
and such player acts as cashier for 
the next game. Bell and Hammer 
is much played in Germany, where it 
is called Glocke und Hammer (Bell 
and Hammer) or Schzmmel (Horse). 
BEZIQUE, a game of CARDS 
played by two, three, or four persons, 
with as many euchre packs as there 
are players. The two-handed game 
will be described first. The cards 
rank as follows: Ace, Ten, King, 
Queen, Knave, Nine, Eight, and 
Seven. The players cut for deal and 
the highest deals eight cards to each ; 
three, two, and three at a time. The 
cards that are left are called the 
stock, and are placed where each 
player can reach them. The dealer 
turns up the top card of the stock 
as a trump and lays it near the stock. 
Should it be a seven, he scores ten. 
The non-dealer now leads any 



card he chooses, and his opponent 
follows, but he is not obliged to fol- 
low suit nor to win the trick. The 
winner of the trick scores ten for 
every Ace and every Ten in the trick, 
and may also lay on the table in 
front of him any group of cards 
that is named in the list given below, 
scoring the proper number of points 
for it. This is called making a decla- 
ration, and the cards so laid down 
are said to be declared. They are 
still part of his hand, though they 
remain on the table, and he may 
play them like the others. After 
the declaration, if there is any (other- 
wise immediately after the trick is 
taken), the winner adds to his hand the 
top card of the stock, and his oppo- 
nent takes the next one; thus each has 
eight cards as at first. The winner 
of the last trick leads, and the play- 
ing, declaring, and drawing go on 
till the stock is exhausted. After 



b:6zique 



n 



BlfiZIQUE 



this no more declarations may be 
made, and each player takes into his 
hand those of his cards that still lie 
on the table. In the subsequent play 
suit must be followed, and the second 
player in each trick must take it if 
he can. The winner of the last trick 
scores ten. 

The cards are then dealt again and 
the game goes on as before, till one 
of the players has scored the winning 
number of points. This is agreed 
on before the game, but is usually 

lOOO. 

The groups of cards that may be 
declared, and the points that may be 
scored for each, are as follows : 
Seven of trumps counts lo 

[This card may be exchanged for 
the trump card, if the holder choose, 
instead of being laid on the table.] 
A Common Marriage (King and 

Queen of any suit but trumps) 

counts 20 

A Royal Marriage (King and 

Queen of trumps) counts 40 

Bezique (Queen of Spades and 

Knave of Diamonds) counts 40 
Double Bezique (two beziques) 

counts 500 

Four Aces count 100 

Four Kings " 80 

Four Queens " 60 

Four Knaves " 40 

A Sequence (Ace, Ten, King, 

Queen, and Knave of trumps) 

counts 250 

Players are not obliged to make a 
declaration if they do not wish to do 
so. The same card can be declared 
more than once if the second group 
so declared is of a different kind 
from the first. Thus, if a Bezique 
is lying on the table, a King of 
Spades may be laid down and mar- 
ried to the Queen that forms part of 
it, and afterward four Kings may be 
declared by putting down three 
more Kings, but a King or Queen 
can count in only one marriage, and 
an ace or face card in only one group 
of four ; a Double Bezique counts as 
a group of a different kind from 
a Bezique, and therefore may be 



formed by adding one Bezique to 
another already declared. At least 
one card of a group must be laid on 
the table for the first time when it 
is declared ; thus, if four Kings and 
a Bezique lie already on the table, 
one of the Kings cannot be married 
to the Queen in the Bezique. So, 
also, cards may be added to a Royal 
Marriage to form a Sequence, but 
if a Sequence is declared first, the 
Royal Marriage it contains may not 
be declared afterward. Any number 
of groups may be declared at once 
when they are entirely separate, but 
not M^hen one or more cards appear 
in more than one group. When the 
Seven of trumps is exchanged for the 
trump card as explained above, the 
latter is placed among those of the 
player's cards that are held up, and 
must not be declared till he has won 
another trick. Of course no card 
can be declared that has been played 
in a trick. 

In playing, the beginner must 
think of two things ; the value of 
his cards in making declarations, and 
their power to take Aces and Tens. 
If the player has no declaration to 
make and cannot take an Ace nor a 
Ten by winning a trick, it is rather 
a disadvantage to him to win it. As 
suit is not followed, except at the 
end of the game, it is unsafe to lead 
an Ace or a Ten, as they will prob- 
ably be trumped. Yet it is often 
better to do this than to play a 
King or Queen that has not yet 
been married. By carefully watch- 
ing his opponent's play, especially 
that from the declared cards, a 
player may often judge correctly the 
strength of his hand. 

Scoring the Aces and Tens is often 
left till the end of the hand, when 
each player, gathering up the tricks 
he has taken, reckons them all at 
once ; but it is simpler to score for 
them as they are taken. The score 
may be kept with pencil and paper, 
but score cards like the one in the 
illustration are commonly used, hav- 
ing three pointers, for tens, hundreds. 



BEZIQUE 



78 



BEZIQUE 



and thousands. In the figure the 
score marked is 3520. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

I. If either player is dealt less than 
eight cards the number must be 




Bezique Marker. 

made up from the stock, or the non- 
dealer may call for a new deal, if he 
has not seen his hand. 

2. If the dealer gives his adversary 
more than eight cards, the latter must 
not draw till he has played all but 
seven. If the dealer gives himself 
more than eight, the other may draw 
the surplus cards and place them on 
the stock. 

3. If the dealer shows a card in 
dealing, the other player may call for 
a new deal. 

4. If a player draw out of turn, his 
opponent may add twenty to his own 
score, or take twenty from that of 
the offender, unless he has drawn his 
own card before noticing the mistake. 

5. If a player draw two cards at 
once, his opponent may look at their 
faces and give the offender whichever 
he pleases, 

6. There is no penalty for showing 
the wrong card by mistake, or for 
leading out of turn, but, if the other 
player has not followed such a lead, 
he may correct it if he wishes. 

7. Neither player may look at the 
tricks already played. 

8. If a player revoke after the cards 
on the table have been gathered up, 
or if he refuse to take a card that is 
led, when he can do so, his opponent 
shall score all Aces and Tens in the 
last eight tricks. 

9. A mistake in scoring, or an 



omission to score, may be corrected 
at any time during the hand. 

Three-Handed Bezique. Three 
EUCHRE-packs are used, and each 
one plays for himself. Triple Bezique 
(three Queens of Spades and three 
Knaves of Diamonds) counts 1500, 
and the game is usually for 2000 
points. 

Four-Handed Bezique. Four 
packs are used, and the players may 
play as partners or each for himself. 
In the former case a player may de- 
clare when his partner takes a trick, 
and Beziques in the hands of part- 
ners may be declared as Double or 
Triple Beziques. In playing the 
last eight tricks in Four-Handed 
Bezique the winner of the previous 
trick and his left-hand opponent 
sometimes play by themselves, and 
then the other two play in like man- 
ner. The players should agree be- 
forehand whether this is to be done. 

In Three and Four Handed Be- 
zique the rules are the same as in the 
two-handed game, except that if a 
player lay a card on the table by 
mistake or lead out of turn he must 
leave the exposed card on the table, 
and cannot use it in declaring. But 
if all the other players follow a 
wrong lead, it cannot be changed, 
and there is no penalty, 

Bezique Panache. In this form 
of the game, four Aces, four Kings, 
four Queens, or four Knaves, do not 
count when two or more of them are 
of the same suit, 

Bezique is also played sometimes 
without turning up any trump, and 
the trump suit is that of the first 
Marriage that is declared, which is 
thus necessarily a Royal Marriage. 

Bezique probably originated in 
France, where the name is spelled 
Besigue. It was introduced into 
Paris in 1826, but had been a favor- 
ite in some of the French provinces 
for a long time before. The word 
Besigue is derived by some from the 
German besiegen (to conquer) ; and 
by others from the Latin bijugum (a 
yoke), from the yoking together of 






BEZIQUE 



79 



BEZIQUE 



two cards in the Bezique and the 
Marriages. 

Sixty-Six, a kind of Bezique. In 
the two-handed game one pack is 
used, from which all cards below the 
Nine are left out. Each player is 
dealt six cards, three at a time, and 
the only groups that can be de- 
clared are Common and Royal 
Marriages, which count as in ordi- 
nary Bezique. A player who de- 
clares a marriage must lead one of 
the declared cards. The cards 
count as follows to the winner of 
the trick containing them : 
Ace ... II Queen ... 3 
Ten ... 10 Knave . . 2 
King ... 4 Nine . . . o 

When a player has scored 66 it 
counts him one point toward game, 
and the remaining cards in hand are 
not played. If he makes 66 before 
his opponent scores 33 it counts him 
two points, and if before his oppo- 
nent wins a trick, three points. The 
scoring must be done mentally. He 
who first makes seven points wins 
the game. When a player thinks he 
can make 66 without drawing any 
more cards, he may turn down the 
trump, if he has the lead, and draw- 
ing ceases. This is called closing, 
and may take place even at the open- 
ing of the game, before a card has 
been drawn. After the trump is 
turned down, the cards are played 
as if the stock were exhausted, suit 
being followed and the second player 
being obliged to take the trick if 
he can. In closing, the last trick 
counts nothing. If the player who 
closes fails to make 66, his opponent 
scores two points, and if a player 
close before his opponent has won 
a trick, and fails to make 66, his 
opponent scores three points. When- 
ever a player announces that he has 
made 66 his opponent may look at 
the cards to see whether he is cor- 
rect. It will be seen that the two 
together cannot make less than 130. 
If this is evenly divided, so that each 
has 65, neither scores, but the win- 
ner of the next hand scores an extra 



point. In all other respects Sixty 
Six is played like Bezique, and the 
rules are the same. The Nine of 
trumps can be exchanged for the 
trump card, like the seven in Be- 
zique, but counts nothing. 

Three-Handed Sixty-Six. The 
dealer gives each of the other players 
six cards, but none to himself, and 
when the hand is played scores the 
same number of points as the win- 
ner of the round, but the dealer is 
not allowed to score his seventh 
point. The game is frequently 
played thus in Germany. 

FourHanded Sixty-Six. The 
sevens and eights are added to the 
pack, and partners are decided upon 
by dealing the cards, face upward, 
until aces have fallen to two of the 
company, who must play together. 
The player who received the first 
ace deals first. The whole pack is 
dealt, and the last card, which is 
turned as trump, is the dealer's prop- 
erty. There is thus neither drawing 
nor closing, and there is also no de- 
claration of marriages. The players 
must follow suit if possible ; other- 
wise, they must trump if they can ; 
and when trumps are led, each must 
try to take the trick. The last trick 
counts ten. If at the end of the 
round the winning partners have 
scored 66 it counts them one 
point toward game, if 100, two 
points, and if they have won every 
trick, three points. He who takes 
the Ten of trumps scores a point at 
once, thus winning the game if he 
have six points, though his opponents 
may be ahead in other respects. In 
Germany there are forms of this 
game called Mariage (Marriage) and 
Sechsundsechzig (Sixty-six) and the 
four-handed game is called Kreutz- 
mariage (Cross-marriage). 

Pinocle, a kind of Bezique played 
with two packs from which all the 
cards but the Aces, Tens, Kings, 
Queens, Knaves, and Nines have 
been discarded. In the two-handed 
game each player receives twelve 
cards, four at a time. The game is 



BILLIARDS 



80 



BILLIARDS 



1000 points, toward which the cards 
that are won in tricks count as in 
Sixty-Six, and the groups of cards 
that are declared, as in Bezique, with 
the additions and exceptions noted 
below. In this game Bezique is 
called Pinocle, a group is called a 
Meld, and declaring is called meld- 
ing. 

Double Pinocle counts 300 



A Sequence 
Eight Aces 
Eight Kings 
Eight Queens 
Eight Knaves 



150 

count 1000 

800 

" 600 

400 



The Nine of trumps is treated like 



the Seven in Bezique, and when the 
stock is exhausted the last twelve 
tricks are played like the last eight 
in Bezique. Only one Meld can be 
made at a time, and a Pinocle, if 
melded, cannot be used as part of a 
Double Pinocle. In all other respects 
the game is played like Bezique. 

Three-Handed and FourHanded 
Pinocle. The cards are all dealt, 
four at a time; suit must be fol- 
lowed, and the trick taken, if possible. 
At the beginning of the game, each 
player in order, beginning at the 
dealer's left, melds what he has, and 
the meld is noted, but oannot be 




Position in Playing Billiards. 



added to his score till he has taken a 
trick. In the four-handed game 
each plays his first card before thus 
melding. When four play the game, 
they may play as partners or each 
for himself. 

BICYCLING. See Cycling. 

BILLIARDS. Billiard tables origi- 
nally were six feet wide by twelve 
feet long, with openings cut through 



the cushion rails at each corner and 
at the centers of each side rail. 
Pockets of worsted network were 
attached to these openings, into 
which the balls would drop. The 
table now generally in use, however, 
is the carom table, without pockets. 
Tables five feet by ten are used by 
the great experts in their match con- 
tests, while public rooms, hotels, 



BILLIARDS 



BILLIARDS 



clubs, and private houses are mostly 
fitted with four and a half by nine 
tables. Pocket tables of both these 
sizes are still used for pool. Smaller 
tables are built to order to suit pur- 
chasers. 

Billiard balls are usually made of 
ivory, but sometimes of a patent 
composition. Composition balls are 
cheaper than ivory but are little used 
for billiards, though generally for 
pool. Standard billiard balls are 2f 
inches in diameter. Pool balls vary 
in size from 2^ to 2f inches. 

Cues are from 4 feet 6 inches to 4 
feet 9 inches in length, and are from 
i:^ inches to i^ inches in diameter at 
the butt, and vary from -^ to f of an 
inch in size at the top ; and varying in 
weight from 12 to 21 ounces. Figs. 
I, 2, and 3 show the various ways 
of holding the cue, which should be 




Fig. 2. An Alternate Position of Left 
Hand. 

held loosely when preparing for the 
stroke, and never " grabbed " except 
when making a " draw " (see below). 
In billiards proper, there are 
four balls, two white, one being 
distinguished from the other by a 
black spot, and two red, one dark 
and the other light ; but experts 
and professional players usually 
play games in which only three balls 
are needed, two white and one red. 
Each carom table has on it two 
spots, along an imaginary line drawn 
lengthways through the centre from 
the middle nails or " sights " in 
the head and lower cushions : the 
first, opposite the second "sight," 
is sometimes called the light red 



spot, the second, opposite the sixth 
" sight," the dark red spot, because 
they mark the positions of those 
two balls in the opening of the 
American four-ball game. On 
pocket tables there is a third spot 
three inches from the lower cushion, 
on which the white ball not played 
is placed on opening the game and 
after being pocketed ; and other spots 
are used for playing pool and the 
English game. A line supposed to 
be drawn across the table through 
the light red spot is called the 
string-line, because it is used in 
" stringing " for lead — that is, choice 
of balls and first play : each player 
plays a ball from within this line 
at the head of the table against 
the cushion at the foot, and he whose 
ball stops nearest the head cushion 
on the return wins the choice. 

Four Ball, or American Camei 
This game is now played on a carom 
table for 34 points up. But the 
game may be for any number of 
points agreed upon. The leader 
plays his ball from within the string 
line, so as to pass the dark red ball, 
but not rebound past it or strike it. 
His opponent then plays his ball in 
like manner, attempting to strike the 
white ball, and one of the red balls. 
If he strike the two balls, it is called 
a carom, and counts one point. If 
he strike all three balls, he counts 
two. The striker's ball may rebound 
from a cushion any number of times 
before the carom is completed. As 
long as the striker can carom he can 
continue his hand or inning. The 
obligation to hit the white ball first 
holds only in the opening stroke, and 
afterwards during the game each may 
play his ball at any of the other 
balls. 

Three-Ball Billiards, or French 
Caroms. There is but one red ball, 
which is " spotted " on the lower 
spot. One white ball is placed on 
the upper spot, and the player who 
has first turn places his ball not 
more than six inches from it and 
within the string. The first player 



BILLIARDS 



82 



BILLIARDS 



must hit the red ball with his own 
before striking his opponent's ball 
(though only at the opening stroke, 
as in the four-ball game). In other 
respects the game is like the four- 
ball game. 

The best recorded run at the three- 
ball carom game is 1531, made by 
Maurice Vignaux in Paris, France, in 
1880, in a match contest played with 
George F. Slosson of New York. 

Harvey McKenna, in playing an 
exhibition game in Boston, Mass., in 



1887, made a run of 2572, but the 
critics and experts of the world do 
not accept this as a record. The 
best run at the four-ball carom 
game, 1483, was made by I. McDev- 
itt in New York, in 1868. 

In match games, a space 4^ inches 
square at each corner of the table 
is called the " crotch," and when the 
centers of both object-balls are 
within a crotch, the player is not al- 
lowed to make more than three 
caroms unless he force one of the 







■ 




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P 


1 






^^iBi^ 




^^H 


m 






Wm 


^^^^^^^^^K^ 


w 


li^S 


^^^^K- 


^^^ 


^ 


^^^^^ 


'^^■11 H 


^MS;;;;^-^ 


^^^^^^^ 


^/m^ls^' 


^^ 


^^^H 




'^0 


^^^^^B 


^^^^^S 


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^^^^^^^^^ 




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Fig. 3. Using the Bridge. 



balls out of the crotch. This rule is 
to prevent players from making long 
runs in the corner of the table, as 
can be done by one of moderate 
skill. 

Balk Line Game. Four lines 
are drawn on the table each at a 
distance of eight to fourteen inches, 
as may be agreed, from one of the 
cushions, forming eight compart- 
ments or spaces. Not more than 
two successive caroms can be made 



on object balls the centers of which 
are within any one of these spaces. 

All these games can be played by 
three persons, if they use alternate 
white balls, or four if they are di- 
vided into sides, those on the same 
side using the same ball in turn. 

Pocket Game. This game is 
played on a six-pocket or a four- 
pocket table, the side pockets being 
sometimes omitted. If the cue-ball 
strikes the ob^ct-ball so as to drive 



BILLIARDS 



83 



BILLIARDS 



it into a pocket, or " pocket " it, it is 
a " winning hazard " and counts a 
point. If a player tries to pocket a 
ball and fails and does not carom, 
his inning comes to an end. Car- 

O 




oms count as in the ordinary game, 
and the winner must make 100 
points. 

Practical Suggestions. The art 
of playing billiards is not so much 




the art of making the balls go as 
they are aimed, as of overcoming 
their tendency to go as they are 
aimed. If a ball strikes another ball 




Fig. 6. 

or a cushion, its natural tendency 
is to rebound at the same angle that 
it struck on; for instance, (See Fig. 4) 
if the ball strikes the cushion on the 
line AO, its natural tendency is to 



go off to A' \ if struck along BO it 
goes to B' , and if along CO to C; 
but suppose that while your ball is 
at B another ball that you want to 
hit after striking the cushion is at A\ 
then you must strike the ball at B on 
its right side, as to give it a spinning 
motion which will prevent its run- 
ning out as far as B' . Or if you 
wanted it to come nearer the mid- 
dle of the table, say to C, you should 
give it the opposite spinning motion 
by striking it on its left side. The 




Fig. 7. 

same would be true if the cue-ball 
were to first strike another ball in- 
stead of striking the cushion. The 
effect of side twist on the rebound of a 
ball, either from another ball or from 
a cushion, is to make it bound farther 
to the side on which the cue struck 
it. In addition to the twists toward 
the side, a ball can be given a twist 
forward or backward. If a ball is 
struck by the cue square in the cen- 
ter, as at A (Fig. 5) and strikes the 
object-ball square in the center, the 



BILLIARDS 



84 



BILLIARDS 



cue-ball will part with all its motion 
to the object-ball and will stop still, 
the object-ball going on in the same 
line. But if the cue-ball is struck 
above the center, as at C, it gets an 
extra twist forward which will make 
it follow the object-ball, and if it is 
struck on one side as well as above 
the center, it will not follow straight, 



but will follow toward that side, so 
that it may strike a second ball on 
that side of the table of the object- 
ball ; thus (See Fig. 6), A being 
twisted forward and to the right 
does not stop at B, but follows on 
to the right to A' , and the object 
ball B goes on to B' . 

The reverse of this is true when A 




Fig. 8. 



instead of being struck above the 
center is struck below, as at B (Fig. 
5), but not pushed. It gets a 
backward twist. The ball B in 
Fig. 6 would go on to B' and A 
would roll back to its original posi- 
tion at A. This stroke needs prac- 
tice, however, as, if the cue does 




not leave the ball as soon as it has 
struck it, but pushes it a little, the 
twist will be destroyed. This back- 
ward twist is generally termed a 
"draw," and the forward one a 
"follow." The side twist is some- 
times termed "English." 

It is very seldom that the balls 
are in such positions that strokes can 
be made without follow, draw, or 
twist. The art of playing billiards 
is not so much the art of starting the 
cue-ball straight for the object, as of 
starting it with just the proper twist 
to make it behave as you wish after 
it has struck the object. 



Fig. 9. 



If the cue is held as in D (Fig. 
5), it makes a " jump " stroke and 
causes the ball to bound into the 
air. The position marked E is 
called 7nassi and makes the ball roll 
backward, or move on a curve. The 
manner of holding the cue in the inasse 



is shown in Fig. 7. Both jump and 
masse are too difficult for beginners. 
If the cue-ball strikes the object- 
ball squarely in the center, it is called 
a " full ball "; if it barely scrapes the 
edge it is a " fine ball," and balls 
between these extremes are called 



BILLIARDS 



S5 



BILLIARDS 



" half ball," " quarter ball," and so on. 
(See Fig. 8). The dotted lines show 
how the object-ball will move after 
each of these shots. In general, the 
more widely the object-ball, after 
being struck, departs from the first 
direction of the cue-ball, the less the 
cue-ball will depart from its first 
direction, but the force with which 
the cue-ball is struck has much to do 
with the result. The harder the cue- 
ball is struck, the more will it depart 
from its first direction, as in Fig. 9, 
where i shows the hardest stroke, etc. 

These strokes should all be prac- 
ticed by the beginner, who will learn 
by experience the result of each. 

The diagrams. Figs. 10, 11, 12, and 
13, show various shots, which, in 
some shape or other, are constantly 
offering. The full lines show the 
path of the cue-ball before it strikes 
the object-ball ; and the broken line, 
its course after it has bounded from 
the object-ball. 

Fig. 10 shows two shots : in the 
left hand one, the ball a must be 
struck forcibly above the center and 
just graze b. In the right hand one, 
the cue-ball d must strike e half-ball. 
In Fig. II, the cue-ball g on the left 
must be struck sharply on the left 
side below the center. The one in 
the middle (a simple " follow shot ") 
shows how a carom can be made, 
even when the three balls are in a 
straight line ; the cue-ball a must be 
played forcibly at b, the merest shade 
to one side. Then b will strike c 
on the other side and pass to that 
side of it ; <: will go to the cushion 
and come back to meet a, which 
will follow on to it. In the shot on 
the right, d must be played high on 
the left side, full at e. 

In Fig. 12, the cue-ball a on the 
right hand must be played low on 
the right side. The cue-ball on the 
left, d, must be played forcibly on 
the right side below the center. 

In Fig. 13, the ball <a: on the left 
must be played high on the right side, 
striking /^ as a three-quarters ball; 
the cue-ball on the right must be 



played very low on the right side so 
as to hit between e and the cushion, 
striking both at nearly the same in- 
stant. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

These are usually changed slightly 
for each particular match. The ones 
given below are simplified from those 
generally observed. 

1. In stringing for lead, if a 
player's ball touch his opponent's 
after the latter has stopped, the 
former loses choice and lead. If the 
balls strike while both are moving 
the players must string again. In 
stringing, one ball must not reach 
the bottom cushion before the other 
is in motion. 

2. In the lead, if the ball led do 
not pass the dark red ball, or if it 
bound back past it, or if it jump 
from the table, or strike either red 
ball, the leader's opponent may take 
the lead instead, or he may place 
the offender's ball five inches from 
the center of the lower cushion, or 
require him to lead over again. 

3. Should the first player fail to hit 
the white ball first, or if any player 
during the game fail to hit a ball, a 
point is added to his opponent's score. 

4. If a player's ball goes off the 
table, a point may be added to his 
opponent's score, and the ball re- 
mains off the table until its next turn. 
But, in the three ball game, no forfeit 
is required, and the ball is " spotted." 
If possible it is placed on the spot at 
the head of the table ; if that be oc- 
cupied, on the spot at the foot, and, if 
the latter be occupied, in the center 
of the table. 

5. Balls forced off the table shall 
be spotted as above, but each ball 
must be placed on its own spot if 
possible. The cue-ball if it go off 
the table must be played from the 
string, as at the opening of the game. 
When the cue-ball is thus played 
it must not be played directly at any 
ball or cushion behind the string line. 

6. Should a player play with the 
wrong ball, he cannot count, and the 
position of balls must be transposed, 



BILLIARDS 



86 



BILLIARDS 



unless the player has made his sec- 
ond stroke before the error is dis- 
covered ; in which case he may con- 
tinue to play with the same ball, or 
have the balls changed. But at the 
end of the run the position of the 
balls must be transposed. 

7. Should both white balls be off 
the table together and a player pick 



up the wrong one, and play with it, 
the stroke is good. 

8. The striker must not play till 
every ball on the table is at rest. 

9. The cue must be withdrawn 
before the cue-ball touches the object- 
ball. 

10. The cue must touch the ball 
but once. 




Fig. 10. 



Fig. II. 



11. The player must keep at least 
one foot on the floor while playing. 

12. No player can score by a play 
violating any of the four preceding 
rules. 

13. If the cue-ball is touching 
another ball the player must play 
first upon some other ball than the 
one the cue-ball touches. 

In the Three Ball game the balls 



are generally "spotted" when the 
cue-ball touches another, and the 
striker plays as in opening the game. 
14. If the cue-ball touch two balls 
or more so that it is impossible to 
play first on some other ball, the 
balls must be spotted as at the begin- 
ning of the game, and the player 
whose turn it is may choose whether 
he or his opponent shall lead. 



BILLIARDS 



87 



BILLIARDS 



Pool, a game played on a pocket- 
table, in which the object is not to 
carom, but to pocket the balls. 
There are several kinds. 

Fifteen Ball Pool. There are fif- 
teen object-balls, colored, and marked 
with numbers from i to 15. The 
deep-red ball, which bears the highest 
number, is placed on its usual spot. 



and the others are placed close to- 
gether to form a triangle of which it 
is the point, the base of the triangle 
being toward the lower cushion. 
Any number of persons may play, 
all using the same white ball, in an 
order decided by lot before beginn- 
ing. The first player plays the 
cue-ball from within the string line; 




Fig. 12. 



after that it is played from wher- 
ever it may be, unless it leaves the 
table, when it must be played from 
within the string line. A player 
scores the number of the ball or 
balls that he pockets, unless he 
pocket one or more object balls and 
the white ball, in which case the 
object-balls must be placed on the 
dark-red spot or directly behind it. 



while three points are deducted 
from the player's score. Three 
points also are deducted from the 
score of any one who misses a ball, 
or plays his ball so that it leaves 
the table. As in ordinary Billiards, 
an inning ends only when the player 
fails to score. A player may play 
against any object-ball, even when 
the cue-ball touches it, and the cue 



BILLIARDS 



BILLIARDS 



need not leave the cue-ball before it 
strikes the object-ball. Every pocket- 
ed ball remains pocketed except the 
white, as described above, so 120 is 
the highest number of aggregate 
points that can be made. 

Rules of the Game. Billiard rules 
8, 10, II, and 12 apply to this game, 
and in addition the following : 

1. When the cue-ball is played 
from within the string line, it can 
be played directly at no ball in the 
string. But if all the object-balls 
are in the string, the one nearest 
the line may be spotted and played 
on. 

2. If the player move his ball be- 
fore making his stroke, it shall be 
considered a stroke. If he move an 
object-ball, either before or after a 
stroke, he loses his hand and the 
moved ball must be replaced. 

3. If a player play out of turn, the 
balls shall be replaced; and he can- 
not count unless he make more than 
one stroke before the mistake is dis- 
covered, when the play is good. 

Pyramid Pool. This differs from 
Fifteen Ball Pool only in the manner 
of counting. Each ball pocketed 
counts one point, and 15 is therefore 
the highest score that can be made. 
The rules are the same as those of 
Fifteen Ball Pool. The score is 
often kept by placing each ball, as it 
is pocketed, in a frame, containing 
a sort of trough for each player. 
Whenever a player pockets the white 
ball, or misses a shot, one of the 
balls in his trough is replaced on 
the table. 

Pin Pool. Five small wooden pins 
are set up in the centre of the table; 
each having a number marked on the 
table beside it, as in the figure. 

4« 
3. 5. 2. 

The pins are placed about lyi 
inches apart so that the balls can pass 
between them without touching. 
The object of the players is to over- 
turn the pins, or move them at least 
two inches from the spots where 



they were placed. Two white balls 
and one red are used ; the red ball is 
spotted about five inches from the 
lower cushion and one of the white 
balls is placed on the dark red spot. 
After the order of play has been 
determined by lot, each player draws 
a little ball from a bag, or is given 
one by some person not a player. 
These balls are numbered in order, 
and are called the private balls. 
Each player keeps secret the num- 
ber on his private ball till he has 
overturned pins the sum of whose 
numbers, with that on his ball, 
exactly equals 31, when he wins 
the game. But if the sum is more 
than 31, he is said to be "burst " 
and is out of the game, unless he 
claim what is called "the privilege." 
In this case he draws a new private 
ball, and, after choosing between the 
old and new, discards one of them 
and continues in the game. 

The game is begun thus. After 
the white and red ball have been 
spotted, as explained above, the lead- 
er plays at either with the remain- 
ing white ball from within the string 
line, or he may place his own ball 
upon the spot at the head of the 
table, and the next player must then 
play. The second player and the 
others after him may play at or with 
any of the three balls, red or white. 
Pins must not be played at directly, 
but must be overturned by a rebound 
of the cue-ball from a cushion or an 
object-ball, except when two balls 
are in contact, when either may be 
played directly at the pins. If a 
player knock down the four outside 
pins in one shot, leaving the middle 
one standing, he wins the game at 
once, no matter what his score is. 
All pins knocked down are replaced 
before the next shot. 

Rules of the Game. I . No player 
may claim privilege after the next 
stroke has been made. 

2. When a player claims privilege, 
his order in playing is not changed. 

3. If a player miss, pocket his ball, 
or cause it to leave the table, it must 



BILLIARDS 



89 



BILLIARDS 



be spotted five inches from the cen- 
ter of the lower cushion ; or, if that 
spot is occupied, on the dark-red 
spot ; or, if that spot is occupied, on 
the Hght-red spot. 

4. If a pin be knocked down, and 
a ball roll into its place, the pin must 
not be replaced till the ball is moved 
in course of play. 

5. A pin is considered knocked 
down when it has been moved two 
inches, even though it remain upright. 

6. Pins must be knocked down by- 
rebound of the cue-ball from a cush- 
ion or an object-ball ; or by an ob- 
ject-ball so set in motion, except 
when two balls are in contact, when 
either can be played directly. 

History. Little is known of the 
origin of Billiards, some authorities 



saying that it was invented in France, 
others in Germany, and still others in 
England. It seems to have been 
derived from BOWLS or Pall Mall 
(see Croquet) ; and it is said that 
Henrique Devigne, who lived in the 
time of Charles IX. of France, first 
gave it form and rule. Louis XIV. 
was advised by his physician to prac- 
tice the game after eating, to aid di- 
gestion, and since his time it has 
been a favorite in France. It was 
played in England certainly as early 
as the 1 6th century, for Shakespeare 
in "Antony and Cleopatra," makes 
Cleopatra say, " Let us to bilhards." 
In the earliest times the game was 
played by driving a ball through a 
ring which turned on a pin fastened 
in a table or on the floor. A game 




Ancient Billiards. 



called Rural Billiards is still played 
thus in England. When it began to 
assume the present form, the balls 
were struck or pushed with a sort of 
mace, but about 1789 the cue came 
into general use. When the game 
was first played in the United States, 
the use of the cue was forbidden to 
all but skillful players, lest the cloth 
on the table should be injured. This 
was before the introduction of leather 
cue tips which are now used every- 
where. The top of the table, now of 
slate or marble, covered with cloth, 
was formerly of wood. The cush- 
ions were first stuffed with list, then 
made of india rubber, and now they 
are generally of a combination of 
various substances as suggested by 
Michael Phelan, an American player 
and billiard-table manufacturer. In 
the old form of cushions the ball 



sank in a little way, so that it never 
bounded correctly; but the modern 
cushions are comparatively hard on 
the outside, with an elastic backing. 
A table was once made in this coun- 
try with cushions stuffed with curled 
hair. 

The game was introduced into the 
United States in the first years of 
this century,and it is nowplayed more 
here than in any other country in the 
world. The early tables all had 
pockets ; pocketing a red ball counted 
3, a white ball 2 ; caroming on the 
2 reds counted 3, and on a red and 
a white, 2, so that it was possible, 
and not unknown, for a single stroke 
to count 13. The game was 100 
points up. This game began to go 
out of use about i860, as cushions 
were improved by Phelan, and con- 
sequently longer rolls and more com- 



BILLIARDS 



90 BILLIARD BALL AND CUES 



plex caroms were possible. First the 
side pockets were left off the tables, 
and, by about 1870, the corner pock- 
ets disappeared too. Meantime how- 
ever, the French, the best players 
in the world, had used smaller tables, 
without pockets, so as to make com- 
plex caroms. 

The games already described are 
those now generally played in the 
United States. The English game em- 
ploys not only caroms but winning and 
losing hazards, as in the old Ameri- 



can game, but both kinds of hazards 
score in the player's favor. Other 
games played in England are the 
White winning game, the White los- 
ing game, the Red winning game,and 
the Red losing game, in all of which 
caroms do not count at all. In Ger- 
many a kind of pool is played called 
Wurst Partie (The Sausage Game), 
because the balls are placed in a line 
supposed to look like a sausage. 
The Russians have a kind of billiards 
called Carline or Caroline which re- 




Billiards in 1610. 



sembles the American game, and 
very many other kinds are played 
in different countries. 

The word Billiards (French Bil- 
lard) is from the French bille, a 
ball. Carom or Carrom is from the 
French Carambole, meaning the 
same thing. The origin of this last 
word is unknown, but some think it 
is a corruption of Quatre Boules 
(four balls). In England a carom is 
called a cannon. The word cue is 
the same as the French queue, which 
means a tail or handle. 



BILLIARD BALL AND CUES, ex- 

periment with. Place two billiard 
cues side by side on the table, so as 
to make a railway on which a billiard 
ball may roll. The small ends of 
the cues should touch, while the 
large ends are so far apart that the 
ball may be just placed between 
them. If a ball be now placed on 
the cues at the small ends, it will run 
to the large ends, apparently rolling 
up hill, though it really descends 
slightly, as will be seen by observing 
it closely. 



BIRDS FLY 



91 



BLIND MANS BUFF 



BIRDS FLY, a game played by 
any number of persons, generally 
young children. One of the players 
calls out " Robins Fly " or " Cats 
Fly " (using the name of any bird or 
animal he chooses), at the same 
time holding up both his hands. If 
the creature mentioned be one that 
can fly, all the others raise their 
hands also, but if it cannot fly, all 
keep their hands down. Those who 
raise their hands when they ought 
not, or keep them down when they 
should raise them, pay forfeits. In 
France this game is called Pigeon 
Vole (The pigeon flies), and in 
Germany its title is Alles was 
Federn hat fiiegt hock (Everything 
which has feathers flies high). 

BLACK ART. See Guessing 
THE Sign. 

BLACKNESS, Experiment on. 
No paint nor substance in the world 
is perfectly black, for they all reflect 
a little light ; but a design or figure 
may be made as follows, which will 
be nearly so, appearing even darker 
than the surface of black velvet. 
Paint a pasteboard box black on the 
inside, or cover the inside with dead- 
black cloth. Cut a small hole in the 
cover, not larger than one-tenth its 
area, and then holding the box so 
that no light enter the hole directly, 
it will appear intensely black. If 
the hole be shaped to represent 
some figure, an imp, for instance, 
and the outside of the cover coated 
with black cloth or painted black, 
*he figure will appear dark in con- 
trast even with its black background. 
The reason is that almost no light 
at all reaches the inside of the box, 
which is accordingly nearly quite 
black. This kind of black is called 
" Chevreul's Black," after a French- 
man who invented the method of 
producing it. 

BLACK PETER, a game of 
CARDS played by any number of per- 
sons, not exceeding twelve. At the 
beginning, if necessary, one or more 
small cards are thrown out of the 
pack, so that those that remain may 



be divided evenly among the players. 
They are then dealt, one at a time, 
and the last is turned up as trump. 
The cards rank as in WHIST. The 
object of the game is to take neither 
Black Peter (the Knave of Spades) 
nor the last trick in the hand, and 
with these exceptions it makes no 
difference who takes any of the 
tricks, except to decide the lead. 
Each player's score is credited with 
10 points in the beginning, and at the 
end of each hand one point is sub- 
tracted from the score of the player 
who took Black Peter, and one from 
him who took the last trick. He 
whose score is first reduced to noth- 
ing is the loser, and is also called 
Black Peter, while he who has the 
highest score is the winner. Some 
amusing penalty for Black Peter to 
pay may be agreed on beforehand. 
(See Forfeits.) 

BLIND MAN'S BUFF, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
one of whom is blindfolded by tying 
a handkerchief over his eyes. The 
object of the blind-man is to catch 
one of the others. If he guess cor- 
rectly the name of the one caught, 
that one must take his place as bHnd- 
man ; if the guess be wrong, he must 
try to catch some one else. The 
players usually try to mislead the 
bHnd-man and turn his attention in 
various ways. 

RULES OF THE GAME, 

1. One who has been caught may 
be touched by the blind-man any- 
where above the waist, but must not 
be pinched nor made in any way to 
utter a sound. 

2. The blind-man must make his 
guess in one minute, or let the cap- 
tive go. 

3. No capture shall count that is 
made while looseness of the hand- 
kerchief allows the blind-man to see, 
no matter how little. 

4. If any player is fairly held, even 
for an instant, he is caught, and must 
not try to get away, but a mere touch 
does not count. 



BLIND MAN'S BUFF 



92 



BLIND MAN'S BUFF 



Still Pond, a kind of Blind Man's 
Buff in which the players do not run 
about, but keep each in one place, 
without making the slightest noise. 
The blind-man gives them time to 
take what positions each wishes, and 
then cries " Still Pond ! " (or, some- 
times, " Still Proving, no Moving,") 
after which no one but him may 
move, or make a noise. The players 
generally prefer to hide under tables 
or on chairs, but one may often stand 
still in the middle of the room with- 
out being found. The rules are the 
same as for common BUnd Man's 
Buff. 

Seven Steps, a variation of Still 
Pond, in which each of the players is 
allowed to take not more than seven 
steps to escape from the blind-man. 
The steps may be taken at any time 
after he calls " Still Pond ! " In 
other respects the game is played like 
Still Pond. 

French Blind Man's Buff. The 
players form a ring, hand in hand, 
and the blind-man stands in the 
middle holding a wand, or cane. 
The players dance around him till he 
raps on the floor. When they stop, 
he holds out the cane, and the one 
to whom it points must grasp the 
end. The blind-man then asks any 
three questions he pleases, all of 
which must be answered in a 
changed voice. The blind-man 
guesses who is talking ; if he is right, 
the two change places ; but if he is 
wrong, the players dance about him 
again, and the game goes on. This 
is also called Blind Man's Wand, 
Buff with the Wand, Indian Buff, 
and, in New York, Peggy in the 
Ring. 

Blind Man's Buff with Numbers, 
a form of the game in which the 
players, who are all numbered, sit 
around the room, while the blind- 
man stands in the middle. He calls 
out two numbers, and their owners 
must change places, the blind-man 
trying to catch them as they do so. 
No one can be caught after he has 
taken his seat. In this game the 



blind-man does not have to guess 
the name of the one that he catches. 
Sometimes, instead of numbers, the 
players take the names of towns, 
and the blind-man calls out, for 
instance, " Let New York go to 
Chicago," when he wishes the players 
with these names to change places. 

Jingling, a kind of Blind Man's 
Buff, played by any number of per- 
sons in a square place, inclosed by 
ropes, tied to corner-stakes. One of 
the players, who is chosen " Jingler," 
or " Bell man," has his hands tied 
behind his back and a bell fastened 
around his neck, while all the others 
are bhndfolded. The blind-men try 
to catch the Jingler, guided by his 
bell, and the Jingler tries to deceive 
them in every way he can. Two 
blind-men often seize each other, 
each believing the other to be the 
Jingler. When any player succeeds 
in catching the Jingler, the two 
change places. In England, Jin- 
gling matches are popular at country 
fairs. If the Jingler can avoid his 
pursuers for a given time, he is the 
winner, otherwise the prize is given 
to the blind-man who catches him. 
The size of the space or " ring " in 
which the game is played, depends 
on the number of players and their 
agility. A few trials will usually 
determine the proper size. If the 
Jingler keeps too long from being 
caught, it is too large ; if he is 
caught too soon, it should be larger. 

In some parts ofEngland a pig is 
placed in the ring instead of the 
Jingler, and the blind-men are 
armed with whips. He who hits 
the pig becomes its owner. The 
sport is usually more amusing to the 
spectators than to the contestants, 
as they are apt to give each other a 
sound beating before any one suc- 
ceeds in hitting the pig. 

Spoons, a kind of Blind Man's 
Buff in which the blind-man holds a 
large tablespoon in each hand. The 
other players circle around him till 
he cries " spoons ! " when he ad- 
vances and tries to guess who any 



BLIND MAN'S BUFF 



93 



BLIND MAN'S BUFF 



player is, by touching him with the 
spoon only. If he guesses correctly 
the player takes his place, otherwise 
the players circle around him as be- 
fore. 

History, — Blind Man's Buff is a 
very old game. The Greek youths 



played it, calling it muia chalkS 
(brazen fiy). The old English name 
for it was Hoodman Blind. People 
often wore head-dresses called hoods, 
and the blind-man turned his over his 
face, while the others used theirs to 
strike him with, as shown in the illus- 




Hoodman Blind. 



tration, taken from an old manuscript 
in the Bodleian library at Oxford. 
It was also sometimes called Harry- 
racket and Hoodwink. The English 
had other blindfold games, one of 
which is shown in the second illus- 
tration. The French call it Colin 



Maillard, which, it is said, was the 
name of a warrior in the loth cen- 
tury, who continued to fight in a 
battle after both his eyes were put 
out. His full name was Jean Colin, 
and he \yas surnamed Maillard 
(Mallet-wielder) from his favorite 




An Old English Blindfold Game. 



weapon. The Germans have several 
names for the game, among which 
are Blinde Kuh (Blind Cow), and 
Maus iyn Finstern (Mouse in the 
Dark). The Italians call it Mosca 
Cieca (Blind Fly) ; the Norwegians, 
Blind Thief, and the Poles, Blind old 



Man. French Blind Man's Buff is 
called in Germany Blinde Kuh im 
Kreise (Blind Cow in the Ring), or 
"Piep." The name Blind Man's 
Buff is probably from the blows, or 
buffets, that the blind-man gets from 
his companions. 



BLIND MAN'S SINGING 



94 



BLOWPIPE 



BLIND MAN'S SINGING 
SCHOOL, a game played by any 
number of persons, one of whom is 
blindfolded and takes the part of 
teacher, while the others personate 
scholars. The scholars sing the 
scale, each singing one note, in or- 
der, to the syllable " Ah." They 
can sing correctly or not, as they 
please. When the teacher thinks 
he recognizes a voice, he says 
" Stop ! " and, calling the scholar 
by name, makes some correction or 
criticism. If the name is given in- 
correctly the singing goes on ; but 
if it is right, the scholar and 
teacher must change places. After 
the new teacher is blindfolded, the 
pupils must change seats, so that 
they cannot be recognized by the 
directions from which their voices 
come. 

BLOCKADE, a solitaire game 
of CARDS, played with two full packs. 
The Kings and Aces are placed in 
two rows as they come from the 
pack. On the Kings, families are 
built by piling downward, and on the 
Aces, upward. Cards which cannot 
be so used are placed in rows of ten 
each, face upward, on the table, one 
row directly below another. Any 
card in the upper or lower row may 
be used in building, or any card 
having an empty space above or 
below it. Those having other cards 
above and below them are said to be 
blockaded, and cannot be used. 
When all the possible cards have 
been played at any time, the spaces 
must be filled in regular order from 
the pack. The player has the privi- 
lege of using one blockaded card in 
building, after the pack is exhausted. 
BLOTTING-PAPER, Experiment 
with. Fill a goblet to overflowing 
with water, lay over it a thick sheet 
of blotting-paper, and on this place a 
pane of glass, or a plate. After the 
water has soaked a httle into the 
paper the goblet will adhere to it so 
strongly that it may be picked up by 
the glass and even made to stand out 
sidewise from it. The reason is that 



the blotting-paper soaks out some of 
the water from the inside of the 
glass, reducing the pressure there, 
and so the pressure of the air outside 
holds goblet and glass together. 

With care the glass or plate can 
be dispensed with and the experi- 
ment performed with the paper alone. 
BLOWPIPE, Experiments with 
the. The ordinary blowpipe is a 
metal tube shaped as shown in the 
illustration. When the short end 
(which is usually made of platinum 
to prevent its melting) is 
placed in a flame and the 
mouth applied to the other 
end, a long, pointed, very 
hot tongue of flame is pro- 
duced by blowing. The 
flame may be that of a 
candle, an alcohol lamp, or 
a gas burner. If a candle 
is used, the wick is bent 
over at right angles so as 
not to interfere with the 
blowpipe. If gas is used, 
a flat brass tube is slipped 
over the burner as shown 
in Fig. 2. Fig. 3 represents 
the blowpipe flame. Blowpipes, 
burners, and everything needed for 
the experiments described in this 
article can be bought 
of any dealer in 
chemical supplies. 
The flame, as shown 
in Fig. 3, consists 
of a central blue 
part, B, and an 
outer part A, of an- 
other color. Either 
of these parts may 
be made larger at 
the expense of the 
other by varying the 
force of the breath, as will be found 
by experiment. 

Blowing. It is often necessary to', 
keep the flame steady for several 
minutes. In order to do this, the 
operator must be able to take breath 
through his nose, while blowing. 
The effort should be simply to keep 
the cheeks constantly distended, 



Fig. I. 

Blow- 
pipe. 




Fig. 2. 
Burner. 



BLOWPIPE 



95 



BLOW THE FEATHER 



letting their elasticity drive the air 
out through the pipe. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

I. Melting. Take a small platinum 
wire or a bit of lime, and hold it in 
various parts of the blowpipe flame. 
(Objects may be so held by a pair of 
platinum forceps.) The wire will shine 
more brightly in some places than 




others, and it will thus be found that 
the hottest part of the flame is just at 
the tip A (Fig. 3), v^here it is almost 
invisible. Hold various substances, 
bits of glass, stone, or metal in this 
part of the flame, and it will be found 
that some melt easily in it, while 
others do not. 

2. Oxydizing. Near the end of a 
strip of fine charcoal make a cavity 
by pressing the edge of a coin on it 
and turning it around. Put in the 
cavity a bit of lead or antimony and 
hold it in the tip of the flame A. 
The heat will oxydize it, that is, 
cause it to unite with the oxygen of 
the air. A colored film or coating 
of the oxide will form around the 
metal. Other metals may be tried 
in the same way. Some will form 
colored films and others will not. 

3. Reducing. Mix together small 
equal qualities of dry washing soda 
and lead oxide. Put a little in the 
charcoal cavity, and heat it in the 
inner blue part of the flame, near the 
tip B, regulating the flame so that 
the mixture is surrounded by it. 
After a time little globules of lead 
will be seen in the mass. It may 
then be cooled, put with water into 
a little mortar and broken up, when 
the beads of lead can be picked out. 



The lead came from the lead oxide, 
whose oxygen left it to unite with the 
gases of the blue flame. This is 
called reducing and the blue flame is 
called the reducing flame. Oxides 
of other metals may be treated in like 
manner. 

Borax Beads. Fix a piece of 
platinum wire in a cork for a handle, 
and make a little loop at the end 
of the wire. Heat the loop red hot 
and dip it into powdered borax, some 
of which will stick to it. The borax 
may now be melted to a transparent 
bead, which wiU remain on the wire 
loop. This bead has the property of 
dissolving many of the oxides of 
metals, which give it different colors, 
as may be seen by trial, A minute 
speck of oxide is sufficient. If the 
bead be then held in the reducing 
flame, the metal may often be ob- 
tained from the oxide, forming a glob- 
ule in the center of the bead, whence 
it may be taken out, when cool, by 
breaking with the hammer. 

BLOW THE FEATHER, a game 
played by any number of persons 
sitting in a square around a stretched 
sheet, which they hold just below 
their mouths. On the sheet is placed 
a feather, which each must try to 
keep away from him by blowing it 
toward some one else. If it touches 
any one he pays a forfeit. The 
game is played also by persons sit- 
ting around a table and trying to 
keep the feather in the air by blow- 
ing it. If any player allow it to fall 
to the table in front of him, or to 
touch him, he pays a forfeit. 

The game is sometimes called 
"French and English," in which 
case the players divide into two 
parties, which sit on opposite sides 
of the room. The room is divided 
into two "Camps " by a line drawn 
through the middle. Each side 
chooses a champion, who strives to 
blow the feather so that it will fall 
to the ground in the opposite Camp. 
When one succeeds, the other be- 
comes a prisoner and leaves the 
game. He is replaced by a second 



BLUE VITRIOL 



96 



BOAT-BUILDING 



champion, and the game goes on till 
all on one side have been taken 
prisoners. 

BLUE VITRIOL, Experiments 
with. Blue Vitriol, or Sulphate of 
Copper, is described in C. C. T. under 
VITRIOL. If the blue liquid left in 
the flask in making sulphur di- 
oxide be evaporated over a v^ater 
bath, crystals of blue vitriol will 
finally appear. 

1. If a crystal of blue vitriol be 
heated in a test-tube, it will turn to 
a white powder, and water will con- 
dense in the upper part of the tube. 
A drop of water on the powder will 
at once restore the original blue 
color. 

2. Make a strong solution of blue 
vitriol, and dip into it a knife-blade, 
carefully cleaned and free from 
grease. In a few minutes, copper 
will be deposited on the blade, mak- 
ing it look as if made of that metal. 

BOAT-BUILDING. Toy boats 
may either have hulls built of sep- 
arate pieces or be cut out of a solid 
block. The latter method, being the 
easier, will be described first. The 
best wood to be used is even- 
grained, well-seasoned yellow pine. 
The dimensions of the block used for 
making a cutter yacht may be two 
feet long, five inches wide, and five 
inches deep, but the size and pro- 
portions may of course be varied to 
suit the builder. The block is first 
planed and squared, and then 
straight lines are drawn from end to 
end along the middle of two oppo- 
site sides. The ends of these are 
connected by similar Hnes across the 
ends of the block. All these lines 
must be carefully measured and 
drawn. On the side chosen for the 
deck a line is drawn across the mid- 
dle at right angles to the long line, 
and then the deck plan is laid out as 
in the diagram. The curved lines 
must pass through the ends of the 
cross line, but their shape may be 
varied to suit the builder, provided 
the sides are exactly alike. 

The first part to be shaped should 



be the " counter," or overhanging 
stern, which is made as shown in 
the diagram at the place marked 
" After end of the block of timber." 
Curves representing sections across 
the hull at different points are now 
drawn on paper, and pieces of card- 
board called section molds are cut out 
to fit them. The block is turned deck 
downward, and the wood cut away 
with chisel and gouge till it fits the 
proper piece of cardboard at each 
place. As the wood nears its final 
shape care should be taken not to 
cut away too much, and the molds 
should be applied frequently. Be- 
sides these cross sections, lengthwise 
sections may also be used, which will 
make the work still more accurate. 
Both sections are shown in the dia- 
grams, and others may be tried exper- 
imentally by the builder, or copied 
from the lines of large yachts. The 
diagrams at the top and bottom of the 
page show a method of laying them 
off from a drawing. The lowest fig- 
ure show? the sweep of the lines from 
bow to stern at different levels, the 
outside fines denoting their shape at 
the top and the inside ones near the 
keel. A set of horizontal lines for the 
different levels are then made as 
shown in the square figure to the 
left, which must be just as high as 
the block used. To find the shape 
of the cross section at any place, for 
instance the third vertical line from 
the right (marked C in the upper- 
most figure), measure off the dis- 
tance of each curved fine from the 
center, on the same line at the bot- 
tom of the page, and lay off the 
respective distances on their corre- 
sponding levels at the left. When the 
points so formed are joined, a curved 
line will result Hke that marked C in 
the small figure at the top, and this 
will be the shape of the section at C. 
In the same way the sections at the 
other vertical lines may be found 
and molds made from them. 

The fullest part of the hull should 
be at the " midship section," or just 
half way between the stem and stern. 



i 



BOAT-BUILDING 



97 



BOAT-BUILDING 




erecT.ioN.Moui:o 



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N. 1 




How to Plan a Boat. 



BOAT-BUILDING 



98 



BOAT-BUILDING 



The hull is now turned over and 
hollowed out with gouges, leaving 
the sides thick at first, and thinning 
them gradually. The upper half 




Arrangement of Masts. 

inch of the sides should be made 
very thin, for bulwarks, and a ledge 
should be left just below for the 
deck to rest upon. This is made of a 
thin piece of pine, cut to the proper 
shape. Some boats require a false 
keel to make them float properly. 
This is of lead, shaped in a mold 
made of three laths nailed together 
to form a narrow channel, which 
with the dimensions given above 
must be an inch and a half in depth 
and three-eighths of an inch thick. 
The channel is stopped at the ends 
with wood, so as to be exactly the 
length of the boat's keel. Six or 
eight nails are driven into the bot- 
tom of the mold, so that they will 
project from the lead keel when 
molded, and enable it to be fast- 
ened to the boat. The bottom of the 
mold should therefore be thin, so 
that it can easily be pulled away 



from the nails. The mold is now 
filled with melted lead, which is 
taken out when it has hardened, and 
may then be shaped with a plane, as 
if it were of wood. The lower end 
of the false keel, at the bow, should 
be rounded. 

Before nailing down the deck, holes 
must be bored in it for the mast and 
rudder. The hole for the mast in a 
boat of the size described should be 
half an inch in diameter, and eight 
inches from the bow. A similar 
hole must be bored part way through 
the bottom of the hull to fix the 
lower end. The mast should be 
half an inch in diameter, and is best 
made of pine. It is made in two 
parts, the lower of which must meas- 
ure, between the deck and the top- 
mast, just three times the greatest 
width of the vessel, in this case fif- 
teen inches. Adding four inches for 
the part below the deck, and two and 
a half for the mast-head, the total 
length becomes twenty-one and a 
half inches. The mast must be 
rounded with a plane, or by whit- 
tling, and the mast-head (the upper 
two and a half inches) must be whit- 
tled down to half its diameter, to join 
it to the topmast. A quarter of an 
inch at the top must be made still 
smaller. The topmast is fastened to 




Ribs, Keel, and Keelson. 

the lower mast by two "caps," seen 
in the illustration, the lower one rest- 
ing on the lower part of the reduced 
portion, and the upper one fitting 



i 



BOAT-BUILDING 



99 



BOAT-BUILDING 



the narrowest part. These may be 
made of hard wood or of brass. Be- 
fore fixing the mast in the place pre- 
pared for it, about a dozen brass 
rings are placed on it. A cross-tree 
of flattened brass wire equal in length 
to the width of the boat is fastened 
at the top of the lower cap, and, 
through holes drilled in the ends, 
cords pass from the top of the mast 
to the bulwarks. These are called 
stays. The arrangement of these 
and other parts of the rigging for a 



cutter yacht is shown in the figure. 
(For definitions of the various terms 
used, and hints on rigging different 
styles of boats, see the article on 
SAILING.) The bowsprit should have 
a length of about twice the beam, 
and a notch should be cut in the stem 
of the boat to receive it. 

Instead of having a hull hollowed 
out of a block of wood, the boat 
may be built up like a real one. The 
keel is first made, then the stem and 
stern posts are set up, and then the 




1. Mast. 

2. Topmast. 

3. Bowsprit. 

4- Ji^- ., 

5. Foresail. 

6. Mainsail. 

7. Topsail. 

8. Gaff. 

9. Boom. 
10. Shrouds. 



Topmast Shrouds. 
Runner. 
Preventer. 
Topmast Stay. 
Forestay. 
Bobstay. 
Boom Lifts. 
Ensign Halyards. 
Mainsail Halyards. 
Throat of Mainsail. 



CI. Crosstree. 

22. Leech of Mainsail. 

23. Mainsheet. 

24. Tiller. 

25. Companion. 

26. Bulwarks. 

27. Hull. 

28. Ensign. 

29. Burgee. 

30. Foresheet. 



ribs, which are sawed out of wood 
with a scroll saw, in curves, which are 
given by the cardboard models de- 
scribed above. The ribs are fitted in 
notches in the keel, held in place by 
glue, and then a strip of wood called 
the keelson is laid along the inside 
and nailed down to both ribs and 
keel, as shown in the figure. Then 
flexible boards, not more than one- 
eighth of an inch thick, are nailed 



over the ribs with fine brads, to form 
the planking, the cracks between be- 
ing tilled in with putty. The rest of 
the construction is the same as with 
hollowed-out boats. 

Sails. Patterns should first be 
cut from paper and adjusted in place, 
and, when these have been cut to the 
proper shape, they should be copied 
in white muslin. Each sail should 
be hemmed around the edges. The 



L.ofC. 



BOBECHON 



loo 



BOILING 



luff of the mainsail is sewed to the 
rings on the mast, and its upper edge 
is fastened to the gaff by cords. The 
lower edge is fastened to the boom 
only at the corners. 

BOAT RACING. See Rowing. 

BOBECHON, a game played by 
any number of persons with the toy 
shown in the illustration, which is 
made as follows : Make a tight 
roll of flannel or cloth, about three 
inches high and half an inch in di- 
ameter, and secure it by winding 
thread around it. Sew this to the 
center of a circular piece of fur or 
very thick cloth, an inch and a 
half in diameter, so that it will stand 
upright on this circle as a base. 
This toy is called the Bobechon. It 




Bobechon. 

is placed upright in the center of an 
ordinary dinner plate, and a small 
coin is laid on the top of the flannel 
roll. The object is to remove both 
Bobechon and coin from the plate 
with a flexible rod or cane, like the 
end of a fishing rod. The coin need 
not keep its place on the flannel roll, 
so long as both it and the Bobechon 
fall clear of the plate. The players 
take turns, and he who succeeds 
most times, in a number previously 
agreed upon, is the winner. 

The task seems an easy one, but 
it is really very difficult, as will be 
seen on trial. If the rod be applied 
near the base, the Bobechon with its 
coin may be slid along till it reaches 
the sloping edge of the plate, and if it 



is then given a push, the coin will fall 
off into the plate. If, on the other 
hand, the rod be now applied to the 
upper part of the toy, it will tip over, 
throwing the coin outside, but itself 
falling on the plate. The proper 
way is to press the end of the rod on 
the farther edge of the plate so that 
it curves downwards, as shown in 
the second figure, the lower part of 
the curve touching the flannel roll 
just where it is sewed to the circle. 
The Bobechon is then pushed slowly 
along till it reaches the sloping edge, 
when by a peculiar twist of the rod, 
learned only by practice, both it and 
the coin can be thrown without the 
plate. The toy is shown in the up- 
per part of the cut ; the way of re- 
moving it in the lower. 

Bobechon is a French game, and 
is said to be much used by sharpers 
in that country, who, being prac- 
ticed, can always succeed, while their 
victims, who think the task very easy, 
always fail. 

BOILING, Experiments in. i. 
The boiling of water is described in 
C. C. T. in the article Steam. It is 
best observed by filling a test-tube 
(see Chemical Experiments) a 
quarter full of cold water, and hold- 
ing the lower end in the flame of 
an alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner. 
Little bubbles will first form and 
stick to the sides of the tube. By 
and by these will disappear, and 
other little bubbles, like white specks, 
will form in the lower part of the 
liquid, and rise toward the top, but 
will disappear before they get there. 
These rapidly increase in numbers 
and size and go higher and higher, 
till finally they burst from the top, 
when it is seen that they consist of 
steam. When they vanish before 
reaching the top a simmering or 
" singing " noise is heard. After- 
ward the noise is the bubbling sound 
of boiling. The first formed bubbles, 
which stick to the sides, are com- 
posed of air, which was dissolved 
in the water. The others are com- 
posed of steam, but as fast as they 



BOILING 



loi 



BOILING 



get further away from the heat of 
the flame they condense back to 
water, making the sound of simmer- 
ing. By and by the water gets so 
hot all the way through that they 
can rise out of the top. 

2. Buy a small chemical thermo- 
meter, which is simply a thermome- 
ter without any tin case, so that it 
can be put into liquids to get their 
temperature. The scale is marked 
directly on the glass tube. One can 
be made by taking an ordinary ther- 
mometer, scratching the divisions of 
the scale on the tube with a diamond, 
or a sharp file, and then removing 
the bulb and tube from the case. 
Put the thermometer into water be- 
fore it begins to boil, being careful 
that it does not touch the bottom or 
sides of the vessel. As the water 
gets hotter, the mercury will rise 
until it boils, when the thermometer 
will stand at about 212'', if it has a 
Fahrenheit scale, or at 100° if it is 
Centigrade (See Thermometer, in 
C. C. T.). Chemical thermometers 
usually have the Centigrade scale, 
but if the one used has been made 
from an ordinary thermometer it will 
probably be Fahrenheit. This tem- 
perature is called the boiling point. 
If you now try to make the thermo- 
meter rise higher by continuing to 
hold it in the boiling water, you will 
find it impossible. No matter how 
much the heat is increased, the mer- 
cury will not rise any more, but the 
water will simply boil away faster. 
The reason is, that as soon as the 
water begins to boil all the heat is 
used in turning it to steam and not 
in raising its temperature. 

3. Boil some water for ten or fif- 
teen minutes ; let it cool and then 
heat it again with the thermometer 
in it. By keeping it very still, you 
will probably find that it can be 
raised several degrees above the boil- 
ing point, without causing it to boil. 
If some scraps or filings of metal be 
now cast into it the water will at 
once begin to boil, and the mercury 
will fall to the boiling point. The 



reason is that water with air dis- 
solved in it boils sooner than pure 
water, and by boiling it once the air 
is driven out, so that at the second 
heating it rises higher than 212*^. 
But when scraps of metal are 
dropped in they carry air with them, 
and boiling begins. 

4. Find the boiling point of water 
with various substances — for instance 
salt or sugar — dissolved in it. In all 
cases it is higher than the boiling 
point of pure water. The reason is 
that it takes some heat to separate 
the water from the salt or sugar 
when it is turning to steam. 

5. Boil water in a glass flask, and 
while it is boiling cork the flask 
tightly, and remove it at once from 
the flame. When it stops boihng 
pour cold water over the flask, and 
it will begin to boil again. This 
may be done several times. The 
same result will follow if the flask be 
plunged into cold water. The rea- 
son is that when a flask of boiling 
water is corked the space above the 
water is filled with steam, when thi: 
steam is turned to water by being 
cooled some of the pressure is re- 
moved from the surface of the water, 
which, accordingly, begins to boil 
again, since it is easier for the bub- 
bles of steam to get out of the water. 

6. Some time when you go up on 
a high mountain, take with you a 
chemical thermometer and an alco' 
hoi lamp, and find the boihng point 
of water there. It will be lowei* 
than 212''. This is because not so 
much air is pressing on the water on 
the summit as in the valley below. 
Sometimes the height of mountains 
is measured by finding the boiling 
point of water on their summits. On 
a mountain 6000 feet high, water 
boils at about 200° Fahrenheit, in- 
stead of 212". 

7. Find the boiling points of other 
fluids than water. It will be found 
that some are higher and some are 
lower, and that it is impossible to 
boil some of them at all — oils for 
instance. 



BOOKBINDER 



BOOK NOTICES 



8. Pour a little ether into a test-tube 
and hold it in the hand. The heat of 
the hand will cause it to boil, its boil- 
ing point being only 99'^ Fahrenheit. 

9. Mix together water and bisul- 
phide of carbon, both previously 
heated to 113'* Fahrenheit. The 
mixture will at once begin to boil. 
This is because, contrary to the 
usual rule, a mixture of these two 
liquids boils at a lower temperature 
than either of them separately. 

10. Weight a piece of ice as large 
as the tip of the Httle finger, by tying 
a bit of lead to it, so that it will sink 
to the bottom of a test-tube of water. 
Incline the tube and hold it in a flame 
so that the upper part of the water 
will be heated. The water above 
the ice may thus be boiled while the 
ice remains unmelted. The reason 
is that the water is a poor conductor 
of heat. If the ice be above the 
place where the heat is applied, the 
experiment does not succeed, because 
hot water, being lighter than cold, 
ascends and melts the ice. 

BOOKBINDER, a game played 
by any number of persons, who sit 
in a circle, each holding a book on 
the back of his clenched fists. One, 
who has been chosen bookbinder 
and stands in the middle of the 




Manner of Holding Book. 

circle, goes to any player and seizing 
that player's book attempts to rap 
his knuckles, which the holder of the 
book tries to avoid by pulling back 
his hands quickly. If the book- 
binder succeed in this, the player 
whose knuckles he raps changes 
places with him ; otherwise, he re- 



places the book and tries to do the 
same with some one else. The book- 
binder may pretend to seize a book 
without actually doing so, and if the 
holder pulls away his hands so that 
the book fall, he must take the lead- 
er's place as if his knuckles had been 
rapped. The leader can make this 
game very exciting if he run quickly 
from one to another, pretending to 
take up one book and then seizing 
another, thus keeping the players 
constantly on the lookout. 

BOOK NOTICES. A game played 
by any number of persons, each of 
whom has a pencil and sheet of 
paper. The players usually sit 
around a table, and each begins the 
game by writing at the top of the 
paper the pretended title of a book. 
The papers are then folded so as to 
hide what has been written, and 
passed to the left. Each then writes, 
just under the hidden title, the word 
" or " and follows it by a pretended 
sub-title. After this, the following 
are written in like manner, the pa- 
pers being folded and passed, after 
each writing, as before. (3) The 
word " by," followed by a person's 
name (generally that of one of the 
players); (4) the words "author 
of," followed by another title; (5) 
the word "or" followed by another 
sub-title ; (6) a pretended critical 
notice of the book ; (7) the name 
of a newspaper or magazine. 

The number of titles and notices 
may be increased at the pleasure of 
the company. When the papers are 
finished they are passed to the left 
again, and read aloud, one by each 
player ; or one of the company may 
be chosen to read them all. An ex- 
ample of one of the papers thus writ- 
ten is as follows : " The Witch's 
Fate; or, A Treatise on Soap Boil- 
ing, by James M , author of The 

Heavenly Bodies ; or. What I Found 
in My Hat. This work, by its pro- 
found learning and fascinating style, 
can scarcely fail to place the author 
in the same rank with Shakespeare. 
London Times." 



BOOMERANG 



103 



BOOMERANG 



BOOMERANG, a flat curved piece 
of wood, used as a missile. When 
held by one end and thrown, it 
moves in a curve, and if thrown 
skillfully can be made to return to 
the place from which it started. 
Several boomerangs can be made, as 
shown in the illustration, from a 
pieceof hickory wood, 1, half an inch 
thick, by steaming- it thoroughly, 
and then bending it so that the sides 





Making Boomerang. 

are nearly at a right angle. The wood 
can be held in shape by tying it, till it 
is dry, and then strips about a quarter 
of an inch thick may be sawed from 
it, each of which when shaped with a 
knife will be a boomerang. The 
shape is shown at 2, and the end- 
wise view, when it is sawed across 
the middle, at 3. A single boom- 
erang may be cut or sawed from 
a flat piece of wood, but it will 
be apt to spHt. A small boom- 



erang may be cut from pasteboard, 
and sent by placing it on a book 
with one end projecting over the 
right edge. The book is held in 
the left hand and the end of the 
boomerang struck with a ruler or 
paper-cutter held in the right hand. 
The best pasteboard boomerangs are 




Sending a Paper Boomerarg. 
about an inch long, and can be 
snapped with the forefinger from the 
edge of a book. To throw a wooden 
boomerang accurately requires great 
skill, and can be learned only by 
practice. The instrument is held 
like a club in throwing it, the con- 
vex side outward. A large open 




Australian Throwing a Boomerang. 

space should be taken for the trial, 
since the boomerang may curve in an 
unexpected direction. 

The boomerang is used as a 
weapon by the natives of Australia, 
who throw it with great skill, making 
it strike an enemy in the back, while 
he is advancing toward them. 



BOSTON 



164 



BOSTON 



BOSTON, a game of cards, 
played by four persons with a full 
pack. The cards rank as in Whist. 
The pack is usually shuffled only at 
the beginning of the game. Before 
each succeeding deal it is cut, each 
player having the right to do so once, 
the dealer last. Shuffling is omitted 
that cards of the same suit may be 
kept together. The dealer gives each 
player thirteen cards, four, four, and 
five at a time. The eldest hand may 
now say " I pass," or undertake to 
win five or more tricks (called " bid- 
ding"). Each player, in turn, has 
the same privilege, but each must 
pass if he cannot bid to take more 
tricks than any one before him. 
When a player bids, the one that 
bid just before him may bid higher 
if he can, before the next one to the 
left has the privilege. If all the 
players pass, there is a new deal. 
Otherwise the bidding goes on 
around the table till all but one pass, 
but no one that has already passed 
may bid. The remaining bidder 
names the trump, and playing be- 
gins, the eldest hand leading. If the 
bidder wins as many tricks as he bid, 
or more, he scores the number of 
points shown in the table given be- 
low ; otherwise each of the other 
players scores that number. In- 
stead of bidding to take a certain 
number of tricks, a player may bid 
" Great Misery " or " Little Misery," 
and he may do this when he has al- 
ready passed. He who bids Great 
Misery must play his cards so as not 
to take a single trick. If he take 
one, he loses. He who bids Little 
Misery must discard one card, and 
play the other twelve without taking 
a trick. In either case there is no 
trump. A player may bid either 
Great or Little Misery Ouverte 
(French for Open), in which case he 
must lay his cards face upward on 
the table and play them in that man- 
ner. These bids rank differently, as 
is shown in the following list of bids, 
where they are given in their order, 
beginning with the lowest : 



13- 

Slam. 



Five Tricks, or Boston. 

Six Tricks. 

Seven Tricks. 

Little Misery. 

Eight Tricks. 

Nine Tricks. 

7. Great Misery. 

8. Ten Tricks. 
Eleven Tricks. 
Little Misery Ouverte, 
Twelve Tricks. 
Great Misery Ouverte. 
Thirteen Tricks or 



9. 
10. 
II. 
12. 



Grand 



When all the players pass, instead 
of having a fresh deal, what is called 
Misery Partout (Misery All) is some- 
times played by agreement. In this 
case there is no trump, and each 
tries to take as few tricks as he can. 
Each scores 10 for every trick he has 
less than each of the others. Thus, 
if A takes four tricks; B the same; 
C three and D two, since D has one 
less than C, two less than B, and 
two less than A, he scores 50. C 
scores 20, in like manner, and A and 
B score nothing. 

The following table shows the 
number of points to be scored by a 
player taking all the tricks he bid, or 
more : 



U5 










-e 




Tricks Taken. 






.^ 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


5 


12 


12 


13 


13 


14 


14 


14 


15 


15 


6 




15 


16 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


20 


7 






iB 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


2b 


8 








23 


24 


26 


28 


29 


31 


9 










32 


34 


36 


39 


41 


10 












42 


45 


48 


52 


II 














63 


68 


72 


12 
















106 


114 


13 


















166 



If a player does not take as many 
tricks as he bid, he is said to be " put 
in for " the number of tricks that are 
wanting, and each of the other play- 
ers, all whom play against him, score 
the number of points he is " put in 
for." The following table shows 
what his opponents score in each 
case : 



BOSTON 



105 



BOSTON 



Q 










Tricks ' 


'Put 


IN For." 










^W 


I 


2 


3 
31 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


5 


II 


21 


41 


50 


















t 


15 


24 


35 


45 


55 


66 
















7 


19 


29 


40 


50 


60 


72 


82 














8 


23 


34 


46 




67 


78 


89 


no 












9 


33 


44 


57 


68 


80 


92 


103 


"5 


127 










10 


44 


SO 


70 


82 


94 


107 


119 


132 


145 


157 








II 


67 


80 


95 


109 


123 


13a 


151 


165 


180 


194 


208 






12 


"3 


130 


148 


165 


182 


200 


217 


234 


252 


270 


286 


304 




13 


177 


198 


222 


241 


262 


284 


30s 


326 


34a 


3(^9 


390 


412 


433 



The bidder of Little Misery loses 
or wins 20 points ; of Great Misery, 
40 ; of Little Misery Ouverte, 80 ; 
and of Great Misery Ouverte, 160. 

The score may be kept with count- 
ers, in which case they are divided 
equally among the players at the be- 
ginning. If the bidder win, each of 
the others gives him as many count- 
ers as the points he wins ; if not, he 
gives each of them as many as the 
points he loses. 

Boston is often played with two 
packs, in which case while the dealer 
is giving cards from one pack his 
partner turns up the top card of the 
other. The suit of the turned-np 
card is called " First Preference "; 
that of the same color, " Second 
Preference "; while the two remain- 
ing suits are called common suits. 
When a player bids anything but a 
Misery, his left-hand neighbor may 
say " I keep," meaning that he under- 
takes to win the same number of 
tricks by making one of the prefer- 
ence suits trump. This is called 
" playing in color." The next player 
may say " I keep over you," meaning 
that he undertakes to do the same 
with the turned-up suit as trump. 
This is called " playing in trump." 
A bid in color is always preferred to 
a common bid of the same rank, and 
one in trump to one in color. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. In cutting for deal, the lowest 
deals. 

2. If there be a misdeal, or the 
dealer expose any of the other play- 
ers' cards, there must be a new deal. 

3. If two packs are used, they 



must be used alternately for dealing. 

4. If a player deal out of turn or 
with the wrong pack, and complete 
the deal unnoticed, it must stand; 
and the player at his left deals next. 

5. No player who passes may 
afterward bid during the same hand, 
unless he bids a Misery. 

6. If a card be led or played out of 
turn, it must be taken back into the 
owner's hand, unless the whole trick 
has been played. 

7c Cards so taken back, or other- 
wise exposed must be played when 
they are called for, unless playing 
them would cause a revoke. 

8. Only the last trick may be 
looked at. 

French Boston, or Boston de Fon- 
tainebleau. In bidding, the suits 
rank as follows, beginning with the 
highest : Diamonds, Hearts, Clubs, 
Spades. Each bidder must name 
with his bid the suit he purposes to 
make trumps (except of course in 
the case of a Misery, when there is 
no trump), and the same bid in a 
higher suit is given preference over 
it. The bids to win a certain num- 
ber of tricks are called Six Levees, 
Seven Levees, and so on, and the 
Grand Slam is called " Chelem," or 
'* Grand Boston." There are two 
new bids : " Picolissimo " (ranking 
between Seven and Eight Levees), 
in which the bidder discards one 
card as in Little Misery, but tries to 
win one trick, neither more nor less ; 
and " Grand Boston on the Table," 
in which the bidder exposes his hand 
and tries to win every trick. The 
highest bidder, if he has bid to take 



BOSTON 



1 06 



BOTTLE TRICK 



not more than ten tricks, may call 
for a partner or " Whister." Any 
player that is willing to aid him may 
answer •* Whist," and the two to- 
gether must then take three more 
tricks than the number that was bid. 
The partners share in profit and loss. 
If two or more players answer 
" Whist," that one is accepted who 
sits nearest the bidder's left hand. 

The number of points or counters 
won or lost by the bidder is shown 
in the following table: 

Five Levees (Boston), .... 10 

Six Levees, 30 

Little Misery, ....... 75 

Seven Levees, 50 

PicoHssimo, 100 

Eight Levees, 70 

Grand Misery, 150 

Nine Levees, 90 

Little Misery on the Table, . . 200 

Ten Levees, no 

Grand Misery on the Table, . 250 

Eleven Levees, 130 

Twelve Levees, 150 

Chelem, or Grand Boston, . . 400 

Chelem on the Table, .... 600 

The above figures are for the 
cases where Clubs or Spades are 
trumps. If Hearts are trumps 10 
must be added to each number, and 
if Diamonds are trumps, 20 must be 
added to each number. For every 
trick taken beyond the number bid, 
5 must be added. 

The Ace, King, Queen, and 
Knave of Trumps are called honors. 
If the successful bidder hold the 
majority of them, each one that he 
has more than his opponents counts 
as an extra trick. Thus, if he hold 
three honors to his opponents' one, 
he is said to be "two by honors," 
and scores for two extra tricks. If 
he hold all the honors, he is " four 
by honors," and scores for four 
extra tricks. Honors do not count 
as tricks bid ; for instance, if a 
player bid Six Levees, and take only 
five tricks, he loses, even if he have 
four honors. In all other respects, 
French Boston is played like the 



common game. The player who 
plays alone, without a Whister, is 
sometimes said to play " Independ- 
ence." 

History. Boston is said to have 
originated in this country. Some 
writers say that it was taken to 
France by Benjamin Franklin and 
named after his native city. French 
authors say that the terms " Misery " 
and " Independence " refer respec- 
tively to the sufferings of the Amer- 
icans in the Revolution and the 
cause for which they fought. Boiteau 
says: " Boston is the North American 
Whist ; it was born in the war of 
independence ; it is a political mani- 
festo." However this may be, Bos- 
ton has never been a popular game 
in this country, but became a great 
favorite in France, and was much 
played in Paris in the first half of 
this century. It is similar to other 
French games, and is probably of 
French origin, the name Boston 
and the terms " Independence," etc., 
being introduced at the time of the 
American Revolution. Boston is 
played in Germany and England also 
under the same name. 

BOTTLE LIFTED WITH A 
STRAW. A bottle may be Hfted 
with a stout straw, if it be bent and 
arranged within the bottle as shown 
in the illustration on next page. 

BOTTLE, to Crawl into. Lay a 
bottle on the floor with the neck 
toward an open door. Say that you 
propose to try to crawl into it, if the 
audience will keep so still as not to 
disturb the experiment, and talk and 
act any hocus-pocus you please about 
the difficulties and dangers of the 
experiment. Make a fuss about ar- 
ranging your dress, etc., etc. Go in- 
to the open room and face the audi- 
ence, squint hard at the bottle, alter 
your position once or twice, get on 
your hands and knees, get up and ad- 
just the bottle again, go out again, 
and after just enough fuss, but not 
too much, crawl in to the bottle. 

BOTTLE TRICK. To pick up 
a handkerchief from the floor by the 



BOTTLE TRICK 



107 



BOUTS-RIMES 



teeth while balancing a bottle on the 
head : Bow the head well forward. 




Lifting Bottle with a Straw. 

and place an empty claret or cham- 
pagne bottle on the crown. Gradu- 




Bottle Trick— Fig. i. 

ally lower the body on one leg (Fig. 
i), and come to a kneeling position 



on both knees. Bend forward with 
the arms in advance, and parted 
about two feet, until they touch the 
floor. Extend the legs one by one 
backwards, swing forward between 
the arms so that most of the weight 
is on them. Seize the handkerchief 
by the teeth (Fig. 2), or the tongue 




Bottle Trick— Fig. 2. 

may assist, and rise as you descended. 
The bottle will invariably fall a little 
out of the perpendicular, but with a 
little practice can be easily kept in 
balance. The handkerchief should 
be bunched high, and placed about 
four feet in front of the body when 
upright. 

BOUTS-RIMES (pronounced boo 
re-mdy), a game in which each player 
writes on a slip of paper four or 
more words that rhyme alternately, 
as boy, long, toy, strong. The slips 
are mixed ; each player draws one, 
and must then write a verse whose 
lines end, in order, with the words he 
has drawn. The number of words 
and the order in which they rhyme 
may be varied by agreement of the 
players at the beginning of the game, 
and the subject of the verses may 
also be given out, increasing the dif- 
ficulty of the task. 

History. This game is French 
in origin, as its name shows. It is 
said to have been originated in 1648, 
by the poet Dulos, who was accus- 
tomed to write the rhymes of his 
sonnets before he filled in the other 
words. His friends, amused at this, 
devised a game on the same plan, 
and it became very popular in French 
society. Bouts-Rimes means rhymed 
ends. The Germans call it Endreim- 
spiel (end-rhyme-play). The follow- 
ing verses are said to have been 
written by Horace Walpole, on 



BOWLING 



[o8 



BOWLING 



drawing the four words, brook, why, 
crook, I: 

THE GENTLE SHEPHERD. 

I sits with my toes in a brook, 
And if any one asks me for why, 

I hits 'em a rap with my crook, 
And " 'tis sentiment kills me," says I. 

Machine Poetry, a kind of Bouts- 
Rimes where the rhymes are given 
by the holders of several cards. A 
pack of playing cards is dealt to the 
company in order, one at a time. 
One player begins by throwing out 
any card and calling out a word. 
The players who hold the correspond- 
ing cards in the other three suits do 
likewise, in order, to the left, each 
giving a word to rhyme with the 
first player's. The player of the 
last card must make a stanza of four 
lines ending with the four words in 
the order in which they were given. 
If a player hold more than one card 
of the same kind he may play them 
one after the other, or wait till the 
second round, as agreed by the com- 
pany before the same begins. In- 
stead of having all the rhymes in the 
stanza the same, two may be given 
alternately, or in any way the play- 
ers choose. Sometimes the first 
player makes the " poetry " instead 
of the last player, and the game may 
be varied in other ways. 

Instead of giving simply a word, 
the players may each furnish an en- 
tire line of the stanza. 

Another method is for one player 
to select a sonnet from the works of 
any poet, and then read aloud, in 
order, the final words of each line, 
waiting after each till every player 
has composed a line ending with 
that word. The players thus com- 
pose poems the last words of whose 
lines are alike, but which differ 
widely in other respects. 

BOWLING, the game of bowls, 
originally played on smooth turf, but 
now more generally on long, narrow 
platforms called alleys. The alleys, 
about 60 feet long and 4 feet wide, 
are usually constructed of narrow 
strips of yellow pine, set edgewise. 



and made very smooth and nearly 
level. At the lower end is a de- 
pressed space, commonly floored 
with tan-bark or sawdust, and 
padded at the back to break the 
force of the balls, which are returned 
to the players by an attendant. The 
pins used are about 15 inches around jij 
at the thickest part, and 15 or 16 !' 
inches high. Balls (bowls) are of 
different sizes, to suit the taste of 
the players, varying from 5 to 10 
inches in diameter. 

Ten Pins, the game of bowls most 
common in the United States. The 
pins, ten in number, are set up on 
spots arranged in a triangle, as 
shown in the figure : 

0000 

000 

o o 

o 

The pin at the point of the triangle, 
which is toward the player, is called 
the King Pin. The players take 
turns, and continue to bowl in the 
same order during the game, which 
lasts until each has had ten turns. 
Each player scores one point for 
every pin he knocks down, and is al- 
lowed to bowl three balls in each 
turn, unless he knocks down all the 
pins before he has used that number, 
in which case his play ceases. If he 
overturn them all with one ball 
(called making a " ten-strike ") he is 
said to have a " double spare," and 
whatever he makes with the first two 
balls in his next turn counts on the 
former turn as well as on the latter. 
Thus, if a player make 10 with his 
first ball, he stops playing. If, in his 
next turn, he make with the three 
balls 4, 2, and 3 respectively, he 
scores 16 for his first turn and 9 for 
his second, the 4 and 2 counting 
twice. If the first ball of the second 
turn also make a ten-strike, then the 
first of the third turn counts as part 
of each of the three turns. If the 
pins are down after two balls have 
been played, the player has a " single 
spare" or "spare," and reckons in 
the same way what he makes with 



BOWLING 



109 



BOWLING 



the first ball of his next turn. If a 
spare or double spare be made in the 
tenth turn, the player rolls one or 
two extra balls. If a player make a 
spare, a cross is marked opposite his 
score for that turn ; if he make a 
double spare, a double cross is used. 
This way of scoring, which is some- 
times called " counting old and new," 
is generally used, but the players 
may agree on any other ; for instance, 
if a player make a ten-strike, the pins 
may be set up again, and he may 
finish rolling his three balls before 
the next player takes his turn. 

The scores are usually kept with 
chalk on blackboards at the side of 
the alleys. He wins whose score is 
the highest at the end of the game. 
The players may be divided into two 
sides, in which case the points made 
by those on each side are added to 
determine the winning side. Where 
there are two alleys, the players use 
them alternately, and the pins are set 
up on one alley, while bowling is go- 
ing on at the other. Where there 
are only two players, they often bowl 
at the same time on different alleys, 
but they should change alleys at the 
end of each game. 

Rules. The following rules are 
substantially those of the Amateur 
Athletic Bowling League, which 
have been adopted also by the Ama- 
teur Athletic Union. Those relating 
merely to matters of discipline have 
been omitted : 

1. The game adopted to be played 
by clubs belonging to this League, 
shall be what is known as the Amer- 
ican Ten Frame Game. 

2. In the playing of match games 
there shall be a line drawn upon the 
alleys sixty feet from the head or 
front pin. 

3. In the playing of match games, 
any wooden ball may be used that 
does not exceed twenty-seven inches 
in circumference. 

4. The game shall consist of ten 
frames on each side, when, should 
the number of points be equal, the 
play shall be continued until a ma- 



jority of points upon an equal num- 
ber of frames shall be attained, which 
shall conclude the game. All strikes 
and spares made in the ten frame 
shall be completed before leaving the 
alley and on same alley as made. 

5. In playing all match games, ten 
players from each Club shall con- 
stitute a full team. 

6. Players must play in regular ro- 
tation, and after the first inning no 
changes can be made except with 
the consent of the Captains. 

7. In match games two alleys only 
are to be used ; a player to roll but 
one frame at a time, and to change 
alleys every frame. 

8. The umpire shall take great 
care that the regulations respecting 
the balls, alleys, and all rules of the 
game are strictly observed. He shall 
be the judge of fair and unfair play, 
and shall determine all disputes and 
differences which may occur during 
the game. 

9. In all matches the umpire shall 
be selected by the Captains of the 
respective teams, and he shall per- 
form all the duties in Rule 8, except 
recording the game, which shall be 
done by two scorers, one of whom 
shall be appointed by each of the 
contending clubs. 

10. Neither umpire, scorer, or 
player shall be changed during the 
match, unless with the consent of 
both Captains, except for reasons of 
illness or injury, or for a violation of 
these rules, and then the umpire 
may dismiss any such transgressors. 

1 1. No person except the Captains 
shall be permitted to approach or 
speak with the Umpire, scorers, or 
players during the progress of the 
game, unless by special request of 
the Umpire. 

13. Should either Club fail to pro- 
duce its players within thirty min- 
utes after the game is called, the 
Club so failing shall admit a defeat, 
and the game shall be considered as 
won, unless the delinquent Club fail 
to play on account of the recent 
death of one of its members, and 



BOWLING 



no 



BOWLING 



sufficient time has not elapsed 
to enable them to give their oppo- 
nents due notice before arriving at 
the place appointed for the match. 

14. A player must not step on or 
over the line in delivering the ball, 
nor after it has been dehvered, until 
it leaves the alley. Any ball so de- 
livered shall be deemed " foul," and 
the pins (if any made on such ball) 
shall be placed in the same positions 
as they were before the ball was 
rolled. It is also considered a foul 
ball if any part of the person should 
touch any part of the alley beyond 
the line before the ball leaves the 
alley. All foul balls shall count as 
balls rolled. 

15. Should any ball delivered leave 
the alley before reaching the pins, or 
any ball rebound from the back 
cushion, the pins, if any, made on 
such balls shall not count, but must 
be placed in same position as they 
were before the ball was rolled. All 
such balls to count as balls rolled. 

16. In all match games, two per- 
sons to act as Judges shall be chosen, 
one by each Captain, who shall take 
their positions at the head of the 
alleys and see that the pins are 
properly set up, and that no one in- 
terferes with them in any way until 
the player is through rolling. They 
will immediately report to the Cap- 
tains any irregularities that they may 
notice during the game. 

24. A regulation pin must be used 
in match playing. Each pin to be 
from fifteen to sixteen inches in 
length, fifteen inches in circumfer- 
ence at the thickest part, and two 
inches across the bottom. 

26. In match games the dead 
wood must be removed from the alley 
after each ball. Should a pin fall on 
the removal of the dead wood, it is 
to be re-spotted. 

27. Sufficient space shall be al- 
lotted to the participants in the game, 
to which none but members of the 
teams shall be admitted. 

Nine Pins, a bowling game in 
which the king pin is omitted, and 



the object is to leave one pin stand- 
ing. He who does this in three balls 
or less scores one, and as each has 
ten turns, no more than ten points 
can be made. 

Cocked Hat, a bowHng game in 
which only the three corner pins of 
the triangle are set up. The method 
of playing is the same in Ten Pins. 
The player scores a point for each 
pin he overturns, and " spares " are 
played as in Ten Pins. The game 
is difficult, as the three pins are so 
far apart that it is hard to knock 
more than one at a time. 

Four Back, a bowling game in 
which only four pins are set up, 
forming a straight line across the 
rear of the alley. Each pin knocked 
down counts one point, and Spares 
are scored as in Ten Pins. 

Parlor Ten Pins. There are sev- 
eral forms of Ten Pins to be played 
in the parlor. In one, pins about a 
foot high are set up at one end of 
the room, and bowled at from the 
other with balls about the size of 




TEN 

Parlor Ten Pins with Elastic Cord. 

Croquet balls. In another a minia- 
ture alley four or five feet long is 
used, which can be placed on a table. 
The pins are about three inches 
high and the balls the size of mar- 



i 



BOWLING 



III 



BOWLING 



bles. In still another, a post stands 
by the side of the pins with an arm 
projecting over them, and from 
the arm a ball is hung by a string. 
The player swings the ball against 
the pins so as to overturn them. In 
Germany this is played as a lawn 
game, the post being two or eight 
feet high and the pins ordinary ten- 
pins. It is called there Wurfkegel- 
spiel (Throw-Bowling). In another 
form the pins stand on a triangular 
frame which can be placed on a table. 
The ball is fastened to one of the 
angles of the frame by an elastic 
cord. The player holding the ball 
stretches the cord about fifteen feet 
and then releases it, so that the ball 
will strike the pins. Another kind is 



played on a board like a Bagatelle 
board, the balls being moved by a 
spring. In all these forms of the 
game the method of scoring may be 
the same as in regular Ten Pins, or 
a special method may be agreed on 
by the players before the game. 

History. — The game of bowls, 
still a favorite in England and Scot- 
land, was practiced as early as the 
twelfth century. It is played on a 
bowling-green, on which the turf is 
closely shaven and rolled, surrounded 
by a shallow trench. A small round 
white ball, called the Jack, is placed 
at one end, and the object of the 
players is to roll their bowls so that 
they shall stop near as possible to 
this mark. The bowls, which are of 





Bowling in the 13th Century. 



hard wood,- six or eight inches in di- 
ameter, are not quite round, but a 
little one-sided (sometimes they are 
loaded with lead on one side), so 
that a peculiar twist is needed to 
make them go where wanted. The 
players are generally divided into two 
sides, and each man on each side has 
two bowls. The side whose bowls 
stop nearest the Jack counts one 
point in the game for each bowl. The 
number of points to be considered 
the game is decided before bowling 
begins. 

The earliest form of this game is 
shown probably in the accompany- 
ing illustration, taken from an Eng- 
lish manuscript of the thirteenth 
century, in which the object rolled at 
is a pin pointed at the top. The 



French called this form of the game 
Carreau (paving stone), from the 
square stone upon which the pin 
was set. 

Bowls was a favorite with the 
Dutch, and the early citizens of New 
York (then New Amsterdam) used 
to play it on the ground still called 
Bowling Green, near the lower end 
of Broadway. In Paris, the game 
was played on the ramparts of the 
city, which were hence called Boule- 
vards (from boule, a ball), a name 
now given to the streets that oc- 
cupy their site. Bowling alleys 
were first built at noblemen's houses 
in England. Henry VIII, had sev- 
eral constructed at the Palace of 
Whitehall. They became popular 
and many were built in London, but 



BOXING 



112 



BOXING 



as they grew to be places of resort 
for bad characters, many laws were 
made against them, and finally, in 
1728 they were abolished, and the 
statutes against them were not re- 
pealed till 1845. 

Our game of Ten Pins is derived 
from an old English form of bowls 
called Kayles, Cayles, or Keiles, a 
corruption of the French Quilles 
(cones, from the shape of the pins) 



still played in France under that 
name. The Kayle pins were set in 
a row and were of various numbers. 
Sometimes a stick was thrown at 
them instead of a ball. Kayle pins 
were afterwards called Kettle or Kit- 
tle pins, and then Skittle-pins, and a 
bowling game called Skittles is still 
a favorite in England. There were 
also other bowling games. Nine 
Pins» the original form of Ten Pins, 




Kayles. 



or the game as we play it, came into 
favor after the abolition of alleys in 
England. It was also known there 
as Long Bowling and Dutch Rub- 
bers. The tenth pin is said to have 
been added to evade a law prohibit- 
ing the sport because it was used for 
gambling. 

There are a few ten-pin alleys 
in London, but this form of the game 
is not played much outside of the 
United States. There has recently 
been a great revival of interest in 
bowling in some parts of the Eastern 
States. Near New York many places 
have regular bowling clubs, which 
are sometimes formed into county 
leagues, and play regular series of 
games annually for the champion- 
ship. 

BOXING, the art of fighting with 
the fists. The boxer's hands are 
usually covered with gloves padded 
on the back with hair two or three 
inches thick to prevent injury from a 
blow. 



Correct Position. The boxer usu- 
ally stands with his left foot advanced, 
and on a line with his adversary, his 
right being in the rear and turned 




Boxing Gloves. 

slightly outward, resting his weight 
chiefly on the right leg. The fists 
are closed, not too tightly, and the 
arms are held as shown in Fig. i. 

Advancing and Breaking Ground. 
In advancing the right foot is never 
put before the left, as in walking, but 
follows it, faUing nearly on the place 



BOXING 



113 



BOXING 



from which the left was raised. Thus 
in advancing and retreating the two 
feet keep at about the same dis- 




Fig. I. 

tance. Retreating is called " break- 
ing ground," and is always per- 
formed by first moving the right 
foot backward and then drawing the 
left back to the place just occupied 
by the right. 



V^ 







\ \ 




0: 




L/ 





Fig. 2. 

Both on Guard. The boxers stand 
so facing each other that the left 
fist of one is on a level with the 
other's wrist and their left toes are 
15 to 18 inches apart. The left hand 
is used for striking when the oppo- 
nent is just within distance, and the 
right when he is close. A skillful 
boxer makes his blows from the 



shoulder, and renders them more 
effective, when he wishes, by throw- 
ing the weight of his whole body 
forward (Fig. 2). Blows made by 
swinging the arms like a windmill 
should never be used by a beginner. 
The learner should take care never 
to hit fiercely when out of distance, 
as it jars the muscles. The left foot 
and hand should be kept well in 
front, and after delivering a blow the 
boxer should move to the right, thus 
keeping away from his opponent's 
right arm. 

Guards. — Blows may be met by 
"guarding" or "stopping." The 
former means receiving an adver- 




Fig. 3. 



sary's blow on the right or left arm 
as the occasion demands, the latter 
is planting a sudden blow which pre- 
vents the opponent's hit from reach- 
ing its destination. Thus, if the 
boxer sees that his enemy is about to 
deliver a body-blow with his left, he 
may guard with the right, or stop 
the intended hit by delivering a quick 
blow at the adversary's face before 
he can get his head down, which 
would be his natural position in de- 
livering the blow. In guarding the 
blows should be caught on the 
muscles of the forearm slantingly, 
and never, if possible, on the bone. 
To be a skillful boxer it is best to 



BOXING 



114 



BOXING 



take lessons of one who is proficient 
in the art, as it is difficult to teach it 
on paper. 

The four principal blows made use 
of in boxing, with their recognized 
guards, will now be described. They 
are 

1. Left hand at the head. 

2. Left hand body-blow. 

3. Right hand at the head. 

4. Right hand body-blow. 

The first is met by leading off in 
like manner at the opponent's head, 
at the same time throwing up the 
right or guard arm to catch his blow 
(Fig. 3). Care must be taken not to 
obstruct the sight, for the boxer 
must never take his eye from his 
opponent. Each boxer thus makes 
the same blow (Fig. 4), and the same 
guard at once. This movement, 
which is very common, is called the 
" double lead and stop." 




Fig. 4. 



In guarding the left hand body- 
blow, the boxer should bear in mind 
that it will fall on his left side and 
therefore must be taken on his left 
arm. The right arm must therefore 
be put up at once and the left arm 
dropped across the body, keeping the 
elbow well into the side and the fore- 
arm braced firmly against the ribs. 
As the blow is taken the boxer should 
" break ground " a little. 



For a right hand blow at the head 
the usual guard is to raise the left 
elbow quickly, pointing it nearly in 
the direction of the coming blow, and 
at the same time drop the left fist 
toward the body, turning the palm a 
little outward. Leaning forward the 
boxer catches the blow on the fore- 
arm, near the elbow, and and at the 
same time retires slightly. 

To guard the right hand body- 




Fig. 5. 

blow, the left hand is dropped 
almost at full length, the fist touch- 
ing the inner side of the left thigh, 
and at the same moment the shoulder 
is raised quickly toward the chin 
rounding the whole upper arm over 
the chest, and slightly turning the 
left side (Fig. 5). The heart and the 
whole of the left side are thus com- 
pletely shielded. 

Feinting, pretending to strike one 
blow when another is intended. A 
feint may be made by an actual 
movement of the hand, or simply by 
glancing at one place and then strik- 
ing at another. 

Ducking. A movement of the 
head in sparring, called "head-work " 
or " ducking," generally accompanies 
a counter (explained below), the head 
being bent toward the hand which 
delivers the counter. The rule is 
always to duck in the opposite di- 
rection from the enemy and not to 
raise the head till the boxer is out of 



BOXING 



BOXING 



his reach. There are three distinct 
" ducks," 

I. The duck to the right, allowing 
a blow to pass by the left ear 
(Fig. 6). 




Fig. 6. 



2. To the left, letting a blow pass 
to the right. 

3. Forward, lowering the head so 
that the blow passes directly over it. 
(Fig. 7). 




The boxer must be careful not to 
duck too soon, or his opponent will 



have time to change the direction of 
his blow. When ducking the oppor- 
tunity should always be taken to de- 
liver a blow at the same time. 




Counters. A " counter " is a blow 
given by a boxer when he sees his 
adversary about to strike, and is 
accompanied by a motion to ward off 




Fig. 9. 

the opponent's attack. In a " plain " 
or " straight " counter both boxers 
strike at once with the same hands. 
The blows may both take effect 
(Fig. 8) or both men may duck 
(Fig 9). In a "cross counter" as 
one boxer leads off the other strikes 
across the former's arm. The 
right hand cross-counter is given by 



BOXING 



Ii6 



BOXING 



stepping in lo to 15 inches as the 
opponent leads at the head, ducking 
to the left, turning the body so as to 
bring the right arm well up, and 
striking with it over the opponent's 
outstretched left. The blow is natu- 
rally delivered upward at the jaw or 
chin, and the fist performs a quar- 
ter circle to the left (Fig. 10). To 
master this blow constant practice 
and great agility are required. 

Body-Blows. Though the head 
and face are the main points of at- 
tack, the boxer should never let pass 
an opportunity to strike his adver- 
sary's chest or stomach. Such op- 




Fig. 10. 

portunities will generally offer when 
the opponent is leading at the head 
with either of his hands. When he 
does so, instead of ducking, guard- 
ing or countering at his head, the 
boxer should aim a blow at his body, 
but as this necessitates stepping in 
closer, it should be certain that there 
is plenty of room behind for a retreat. 
A feint at the head,when a body-blow 
is intended, often causes the opponent 
to throw up his right arm, thus ex- 
posing himself. In giving a left 
hand body-blow, duck to the right 
(Fig. 6) ; m a right hand blow to the 
left, to avoid a possible counter. 
The right hand blow does not re- 
quire such a long step forward as 
the left. 



Upper Cuts. These blows should 
always be given when an opponent, 
trying to get in a body-blow, lunges 
forward with head in advance of his 
body. Drop the left fist a little and 
draw the arm back as far as possible ; 




Fig. II. 

then swing it up quickly between the 
opponent's hands so as to strike his 
chin or nose (Fig. 11), The blow is 
aided by swinging the body upward. 




Fig. 12. 

A skillful boxer often tempts his ad- 
versary to try an upper cut by throw- 



BOXING 



117 



BOXING 



ing his head forward, and then, duck- 
ing, gives a heavy left hand body- 
blow, so an upper cut should rarely 
be tried against a clever adversary. 

Side Step. This is executed by 
ducking smartly to the right as the 
opponent steps in, passing rapidly 
under his left arm by a movement 
like a run and jump combined, and 
facing him again by turning sharply 
to the left. This is an effective way 
of avoiding furious rushes, but must 
be as quick as lightning, and re- 
quires long practice. In Fig. 12 the 
boxer on the right is just getting out 
of reach by the side step. 

In-Fighting. This takes place 
when a boxer succeeds in getting 
both his arms inside his opponent's, 
when he can give several blows in 
rapid succession, striking by swing- 
ing the shoulders forward and not by 
drawing the arm back (Fig. 13). 




Fig. 13. 

Sometimes a boxer leads with two 
blows in succession, striking with 
left hand at the face, for instance, 
and then with the same hand, or with 
the right hand, at either face or body. 

The beginner should practice each 
blow and guard separately, slowly at 
first, and then increasing in rapidity, 
returning to the position of guard 
after each blow. 

The boxer should avoid getting ex- 
cited, should fix his eyes on his op- 



ponent, and should try to tell by his 
movements what his intentions are. 
He should never do the same thing 
twice in succession. In some boxing 
contests wrestling forms a part, but 
in others it is forbidden. In general 
a boxer should avoid getting to close 
quarters with a heavier adversary, 
and with a taller opponent should 
direct his blows at the body. 

Supplementary Exercise. Prac- 
tice with Indian clubs and dumb- 
bells (see Gymnastics) is good for 
the boxer, but his special exercise is 
that known as " punching the bag." 
Three kinds of bags are commonly 
used ; the first or heavy bag, weighs 
10 to 20 pounds and is made of 
chamois skin or kid stuffed with 
horse-hair. It is suspended from the 
ceiling by a rope. The method of 
using it is to set it swinging and then 
follow it about, hitting it as it moves 
away from the boxer. The heavy 
bag should not be used by a beginner. 
The light or flying bag is of inflated 
India rubber. The object is never to 
let the bag get past without hitting 
it, and as it flies about very rapidly, 
this is excellent training for quick 
movement. The third bag is the 
one most generally in use. It resem- 
bles the flying bag, but is attached to 
the floor as well as to the ceiling and 
does not require quite as much 
agility to hit. 

Boxing is valued highly as an 
exercise and also because it trains 
the learner to use his fists in his own 
defence, which he may at some time 
or other have occasion to do. 
Thomas Hughes, in his story of 
" Tom Brown's School Days at 
Rugby," says : " Learn to box then, 
as you learn to play cricket and foot- 
ball. Not one of you will be the 
worse, but very much the better for 
learning to box well. Should you 
never have to use it in earnest, there's 
no exercise in the world so good for 
the temper, and for the muscles of 
the back and legs. " Boxing matches 
now form part of many of the indoor 
meetings of athletic associations. 



BOXING 



Ii8 



BOXING 



RULES. 

The following are the boxing rules 
of the National Amateur Athletic 
Union : 

1. In all open competitions the 
ring shall be roped, and of not less 
than 12 ft. or more than 24 ft. 
square. 

2. Competitors to box in light 
boots or shoes (without spikes) or in 
socks. 

3. Weights to be bantam, 105 lbs. 
and under ; light, 135 lbs, and under ; 
middle, 158 lbs. and under. 

4. In all open competitions the 
result shall be decided by two judges, 
with a referee. A timekeeper shall 
be appointed. 

5. In all competitions the number 
of rounds to be contested shall be 
three. The duration of the rounds 
in the trial bout shall be limited to 
three minutes each. In the " finals " 
the first two rounds shall be three 
minutes each, and the final round 
four minutes. The interval between 
each round shall be one minute. 

6. In all competitions, any com- 
petitor failing to come up when time 
is called shall lose the bout. 

7. Where a competitor draws a 
bye, such competitor shall be bound 
to spar such bye for the specified 
lime, and with such opponent as the 
judges of such competition may ap- 
prove. 

8. Each competitor shall be en- 
titled to the assistance of one second 
only, and no advice or coaching 
shall be given to any competitor 
by his second, or by any other per- 
son, during the progress of any 
round. 

9. The manner of judging shall be 
as follows : The two judges and the 
referee shall be stationed apart. At 
the end of each bout each judge 
shall write the name of the competi- 
tor who, in his opinion, has won, and 
shall hand the same to an official ap- 
pointed for the purpose. In the cases 
where the judges agree, such official 
shall announce the name of the win- 
ner, but in cases where the judges 



disagree, such official shall so inform 
the referee, who shall thereupon him- 
self decide. 

10. The referee shall have power 
to give his casting vote when the 
judges disagree, to caution or dis- 
quahfy a competitor for infringing 
rules, or to stop a round in the event 
of either man being knocked down, 
provided that the stopping of either 
of the first two rounds shall not dis- 
qualify any competitor from com- 
peting in the final round. And he \ 
can order a further round, limited to j! 
two minutes, in the event of the ;; 
judges disagreeing. \ 

1 1 . Tha:t the decision of the judges ' 
or referee, as the case may be, shall 

be final. 

12. In all competitions the deci- 
sions shall be given in favor of the 
competitor who displays the best 
style and obtains the greatest num- 
ber of points. The points shall be : 
for attack, direct clean hits with the 
knuckles of either hand on any part 
of the front or sides of head, or 
body above the belt ; defense, guard- 
ing, slipping, ducking, counter- 
hitting, or getting away. Where 
points are otherwise equal, consider- 
ation to be given the man who does 
most of the leading off. 

13. The referee may, after caution- 
ing the offender, disqualify a com- 
petitor who is boxing unfairly, by 
flicking or hitting with the open 
glove, by hitting with the inside or 
butt of the hand, the wrist or elbow, 
or by wrestling or roughing at the 
ropes. 

14. In the event of any question 
arising not provided for in these 
rules, the judges and referee to have 
full power to decide such question or 
interpretation of rule. 

History. Boxing was said by the 
Greeks to have been invented by 
Theseus ; and Pollux, Hercules, and 
other Greek heroes are described as 
excelling in it. It was one of the 
important features of the Olympic 
games (C. P. P., article Olympia.) 
Instead of boxing gloves, the ancients 



BOXING 



119 



BREATH FIGURES 



used the cestus, an arrangement of 
leather strips wound around the 
hand and sometimes up the arm as 
far as the elbow. These were some- 
times loaded with lumps of lead and 
were very dangerous. In ancient 
boxing contests the right arm was 
used chiefly for striking and the left 
for warding off blows. 

The Romans liked to look at exhi- 
bitions of boxing, but considered it 
undignified to take part in them. 
Boxing was revived in England in 




Cestus. 

the eighteenth century, when it be- 
gan to be called " the noble art of 
self-defense." A teacher of boxing 
named Broughton, who is said to 
have invented the boxing-glove at 
this time, gave public exhibitions of 
his skill in a theater, which he built 
for the purpose. Boxing contests 
without gloves, called prize-fights, 
were also held, but they became so 
brutal that laws were passed against 
them, and at present boxing is prac- 
ticed by respectable people only as 
a form of athletic exercise. It is in 



favor principally in England and the 
United States. 

Savate. The French are not 
skilled in the EngHsh system of box- 
ing, but practice a kind called Savate, 
in which the head and feet, as well as 
the fists, are used for attack and de- 
fense. It is said that those skilled in 
the method have defeated some of 




Savate. 

the best EngHsh boxers, whose 
guards, though perfect against a 
blow from the fist, would often be 
no defense at all against one from 
the foot. The sailors of the French 
navy are trained every day in Savate, 
in which they are very expert. 

BREATH FIGURES, Experiments 
on. I. Trace a figure with the fin- 
ger on a pane of glass. Nothing 
will be seen until the plate is breathed 
on, when the figure becomes visible. 

2. Lay a coin on a freshly polished 
plate of glass or metal. After sev- 
eral minutes remove the coin and 
breathe on the metal, when an image 
of the coin will appear. The result 
will be the same if the coin is polished 
instead of the plate on which it is 
laid. 

3. Breathe on the surface of a 
pane of glass which has been in con- 
tact for several years with an en- 
graving. In many cases the lines of 
the engraving will become visible on 
the glass. 

Explanation. On the surface of 
all solids gathers a layer of gas, 
vapor, and fine dust, which is re- 
moved by polishing and altered by 



BREATH PORTRAITS 



120 



BUCK 



the contact of other solids. If the 
object be breathed upon the breath 
will condense more easily on some 
parts than others, according to the 
state of this layer, and any marks 
made on it will hence become visible. 

BREATH PORTRAITS. To finely 
powdered fluor spar add enough 
sulphuric acid to make the mixture 
of the proper thickness to be used as 
ink. With a quill pen, write or draw 
with it on the surface of plate glass. 
After the fluid has been on the glass 
five to ten minutes wash it off with 
water. The surface of the glass 
under it will be slightly eaten away, 
but so little that it will not be noticed 
unless the glass is breathed upon, 
when the design or writing will stand 
out clearly. The effect is very striking. 

BROTHER, I AM BOBBED, a 
trick, in the form of a game, m which 
any number of persons take part. 
Two persons, to act the part of 
"brothers," are selected, of whom 
one must not have played the game 
before. The brothers are blind- 
folded and kneel back to back, and 
the other players stand around them 
in a circle, each with a knotted hand- 
kerchief. The " brother " who does 
not understand the game is told that 
the players are to hit one of the 
brothers with a handkerchief from 
time to time, and the one hit is to 
cry out ** Brother, I am bobbed ! " 
The other must then respond, " Who 
bobbed you ? " and the first must 
guess who hit him. He is told that 
if the guess be correct the person 
who struck him will have to change 
places with him. When the game 
has begun, however, the "brother" 
who knows the trick removes the 
handkerchief that covered his eyes, 
and, knotting it, strikes his compan- 
ion. When asked, " Who bobbed 



you 



the latter of course makes a 



wrong guess. This is kept up till 
the victim suspects that he is de- 
ceived. The "brother" who knows 
the trick should occasionally cry out 
" Brother, I am bobbed," to keep up 
the illusion. 



In France this game is called 
" Frere, on ine bat" (Brother, some 
one strikes me). 

BRUNETTE AND BLONDE, a 
SOLITAIRE game of cards, played 
with two packs. The first eight 
cards played are laid in a row, and 
on each of them are placed others in 
descending order, but of different col- 
or alternately. Thus, on a red nine a 
black eight must be placed ; on this 
a red seven, and so on. Whenever 
the Aces appear they are placed in a 
row by themselves, and on them are 
built families in ascending order, 
without regard to suits, except that 
no card must be placed on one of the 
same color. The families may be 
built up by using cards as they come 
from the pack, or the top cards of the 
piles. All cards that cannot at once 
be used are laid aside to form stock, 
which can be shuffled and relaid 
twice. If the famihes can be com- 
pleted thus, the player wins. 

BUCK, a game played by two per- 
son, one of whom places his arms 
across his breast, or rests them on 
his knees, and bends forward, rest- 
ing his head against a fence, tree, or 
wall. This is called " giving a back." 
The other player sits astride the back 
of the first, and holding up one or 
more fingers, says, " Buck, Buck, 
how many horns do I hold up } " 
The first player guesses, and if his 
guess is correct the two change 
places ; but if the guess is wrong, the 
rider gets down, leaps on again, and 
holds up one or more fingers again 
with the same question. So the game 
goes on as long as the players choose. 
The " buck " is sometimes blindfold- 
ed, and a third person often acts as 
umpire, to see that there is fair play. 

History. This game is very old. 
Petronius Arbiter, a writer in the 
time of the Roman Emperor Nero, 
describes a man playing it with a 
boy. The boy " mounting as on horse- 
back, smote his shoulders with his 
open hand, and laughing said, 'Bucca, 
Bucca, quot sunt hie ? ' " (Bucca, 
Bucca, how many are here ? ) 



BURIED WORDS 



21 



BUTTON. BUTTON 



In another form of the game, a child 
hides his head in another's lap, and 
the latter says : 

" Mingledy, mingledy, clap, clap, clap, 
How many fingers do I hold up ? " 

or some similar rhyme. The game, 
in all its forms, is probably related 
to Mora. 

In France a game resembling this, 
called Les Metiers (The Trades), is 
played. The player who makes the 
back chooses a trade and the name 
of something connected with it, for 
instance, shoemaking and wax. The 
trade is announced, but the article 
kept secret. Each player in turn 
must then say, as he mounts the back, 
" A good shoemaker must have good 
leather," or "good pegs," or any- 
thing else he pleases. Whoever 
mentions the word chosen by the 
player who makes the back must 
take his place. 

BURIED WORDS, a game played 
by two or more persons, one of whom 
gives a sentence in which a word is 
concealed by being formed partly of 
one of the words in the sentence, 
and partly of one or more imme- 
diately following. Thus the word 
" London " is concealed or " buried " 
in the sentence, " Do not let the rain 
fall on Don Carlos," as will be seen 
if the proper letters be capitalized, 
thus, " Do not let the rain falL ON 
DON Carlos." The one who gives 
out the sentence must state that the 
buried word is the name of a city, per- 
son, flower, article of food, or what- 
ever it may be, and the first one who 
guesses it correctly scores a point. 
The guesser then gives out another 
sentence, and the game goes on for 
any length of time agreed on, or till 
some Orie has scored a certain num- 
ber of points. After a little practice 
words can thus be buried very skill- 
fully. The hardest ones to guess 
are those in which pronouncing the 
words gives no clew. Thus in the 
following, *' buried fruits," the former 
can be guessed by pronouncing the 
sentence slowly, while the latter can- 
not : 



"Some fairy OR ANGEl must 
have done this." " The baboon and 
aPE ARe both curious animals." 

The best plan m burying a word 
is first to see whether it contains an- 
other word within it. Thus in bury- 
ing the word " Orange " it is seen 
that the word " rang " is so contained. 
A sentence must now be constructed 
with the word " rang " in it, while 
the word just before must end with 
" O," and that just following begin 
with " e." Thus : " They danced a 
fandango, rang Edward's door bell, 
and behaved very wildly." It will 
be seen that the word is thus " buried " 
much more deeply than in the other 
example given. 

A somewhat similar game, played 
in Germany, is there called Worte 
Verbergen (Word-hiding). The title 
or first verse of some well-known 
song or poem is selected by one of 
the players, who, in answer to any 
question, returns a reply including its 
first word. To a second question he 
gives an answer containing the first 
two words in succession, and so on, 
till the line is guessed. Thus, sup- 
pose the song " A life on the ocean 
wave " be chosen. The following 
may be the questions and answers : 

Q. How do you do ? 

A. A little better, thank you. 

Q. Where do you spend the sum- 
mer.? 

A. In the country. I enjoy a life 
spent outdoors. 

Q. Who was your grandfather ? 

A. He was the celebrated Dr. 
Bobus, who sacrificed a life on the 
altar of science by visiting the North 
Pole. ^ ^ 

By this time the title will probably 
be guessed by the repetition of the 
word " life." The most difficult lines 
to guess are of course those contain- 
ing small and frequently used words 
at the beginning. 

BUTTON, BUTTON, a drawing- 
room game, played by any number of 
persons. The players sit in a circle 
around the leader, who stands holding 
a button between his hands, the palms 



BUTTONS 



\21 



BUZZ 



of which are pressed together. The 
others hold their hands in the same 
manner, and the leader goes to each 
in turn, saying, " Hold fast what I 
give you," passing his hands between 
those of the player he addresses, and 
gives the button, while doing this, to 
any one of the players he chooses, 
but without showing to whom he 
has given it. When he has made 
the round of the circle, he says to 
each player in turn, " Button, But- 
ton, who has the button } " and each, 
as he is asked, must guess. Then the 
leader calls out, " Button, Button, 
arise," and the holder of the button 
stands up. This game is usually 
played by very young children, an 
older one acting as leader, In some 
parts of the United States a ring is 
used, and the corresponding verses 
are, 

" Biddy, Biddy, hold fast my gold ring 
Till I go to London and baclc again." 

Another form used is, " Fox, Fox, 
who's got the box } " 

BUTTONS, a game played by any 
number of children, each of whom 
has a button. The players stand in 
line and toss their buttons at a hole 
in the ground about twelve feet dis- 
tant. They then take turns in play- 
ing, beginning with the one whose 
button came nearest to the hole, and 




Method of Holding the Hand in Button. 



try, by striking the buttons with the 
thumb as they lie on the ground (see 
illustration), to drive them into the 
hole. When any one succeeds, the 



button he drives in becomes his prop- 
erty. When he misses, the next one 
takes his turn. The hand is held 
stiffly in playing, the thumb being 
extended, and the motion is made 
with the whole hand, 

Spans, a button game played by 
two persons. The buttons are thrown 
against a wall, and if a player's but- 
ton falls within a span of his oppo- 
nent's he may aim at it as described 
above. If he strike it, he wins it. A 
span is the distance from the end of 
the thumb to that of the little finger 
when the hand is extended. 

BUZZ, a game played by any 
number of persons. The players sit 
in a circle, and, beginning at any 
point, call out the numbers, one, 
two, three, etc., in order. Instead of 
the numbers in writing which the 
figure 7 is used, and also of those 
that are multiples of seven, the word 
" Buzz " must be spoken. Thus, 
Buzz must be substituted for 7, 14, 
21,27,28, 35, 37, 42, 47, 49, and so on. 
For the seventies. Buzz-one, Buzz- 
two are used, and for JJ, Buzz-buzz. 
Any one that mentions such a num- 
ber by name, or says Buzz in the 
wrong place, or calls out a wrong 
number, must pay a forfeit, and then 
begin the game anew by calling out 
"One!" If the one whose turn it 
is waits longer than while any one 
counts five he must pay a forfeit. 
Buzz should not be played by seven 
people, for then one of them would 
always have to say buzz when his 
turn came. 

Buzz-Fizz, the game of Buzz, with 
the addition that every multiple of 
three is called " Fizz," of five, 
" Quack," and of eleven, " Cock-a- 
doodle-doo. " Where a number con- 
tains two or more of these as a fac- 
tor the names of all the factors are 
given, the smallest first. Thus, 15 
would be "Fizz-Quack"; JJ, "Buzz- 
cock-a-doodle-doo "; and 105, " Fizz- 
Quack-Buzz." 



CALABRASELLA 



123 



CALABRASELLA 



C 



CACHINOLE. See Squails. 

CALABRASELLA, a game of 
cards played by three persons, with 
a pack from which the tens, nines, 
and eights are excluded. Each player 
is dealt twelve cards, two at a time, 
and the four remaining in the stock 
are placed face downward on the 
table. After the deal, the eldest hand 
has the choice of " passing" or 
" playing." If he say " I pass," the 
player at his left has the same op- 
tion, and so on. If all pass, the hand 
is abandoned and the deal passes to 
the left. The first player who says 
" I play," must play against the two 
others as partners. Before he plays 
he may ask for any Three he chooses, 
and the holder must give it to him, 
receiving a card in exchange. If no 
one has the Three asked for, he 
must not demand another, but if he 
have all the Threes in his own hand 
at the beginning of the game he 
may ask for a Two. He then dis- 
cards from one to four cards and 
selects an equal number from the 
stock, first announcing the number 
of cards he will put out. He must 
discard at least one card, and must 
show to the other players the cards 
he takes in. The playing then be- 
gins, the eldest hand having the 
lead. There are no trumps, and 
suit must be followed if possible. In 
playing, the cards rank as follows : 
Three (highest), Two, Ace, King, 
Queen, Knave, Seven, Six, Five, 
Four (lowest). The winner of the 
last trick takes also the discard (in- 
cluding any cards of the stock that 
are left). Each Ace taken counts the 
winner of the trick 3 points, and 
each Three, Two, King, Queen, or 
Knave, i point. The last trick 

counts 3 points. Either side scores 
what it has made in excess of the 
other side, each of the partners 
scoring the whole number of points 
made by their side. Thus, if the 
partners have 22 points and the 



single player 13, each of the formet 
scores 9 points. The number oi 
points to be played for is agreed on 
before the game. 

The eldest hand should say, " I 
play," if he have a fair hand. 
Try to win as many counting cards 
as possible, especially Aces, which it 
must be remembered may be taken 
in play by either Threes or Twos. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. The players cut for deal, and 
the lowest Calabrasella card deals. 

2. In case of a misdeal, the same 
player deals again. 

3. If the Discard contain too few 
cards the partners may either throw 
up the hand or require the single 
player to correct the mistake ; if it 
contain too many, the single player 
loses the tricks to which he cannot 
play. 

4. If the single player demand a 
Two when he has not all the Threes, 
the partners may throw up the hand 
if they choose. 

5. If a card is asked for and not 
obtained, and it is found not to be in 
the stock, the single player may ask 
for it again and then alter his dis- 
card. 

6. If the single player expose a 
card, or lead or play out of turn, 
there is no penalty, but 'the mistake 
must be corrected unless the trick 
has been completed. If one of the 
partners expose a card, the single 
player may call on him to play it at 
any time. If either of the partners 
lead out of turn, and the error is dis- 
covered before completing the trick, 
the single player may call on the 
right leader to lead a particular suit ; 
or, if it is his own lead, he may thus 
call a suit at the first opportunity. 

13. If a player revoke, he must 
forfeit nine points. 

14. No trick can be looked at after 
it is taken. 

CALIFORNIA JACK. See All 
Fours. 



CALL-BALL 



124 



CAMERA OBSCURA i 



CALISTHENICS. See Gymnas- 
tics. 

CALL-BALL, CALLIE BALL, or 
BALLIE-CALLIE, a game of ball 
played by any number of persons, 
with a hard rubber ball. The ball 
is thrown against a wall by one of 
the players, who at the same time 
calls out the name of one of the 
others. The player named must 
strike the ball as it bounds back, 
calling another name as he does so. 
If he miss it he must pick it up, and 
call " Stand ! " whereupon the other 
players, who have begun to run as 
soon as he makes the miss, stand 
still. He throws the ball at one, 
and if he strikes him that one must 
throw the ball at the wall, as before. 
If he miss the player at whom he 
throws, he must place himself against 
the wall while the others throw the 
ball at his back in turn, as in ROLY 
Poly. 

This game was common in New 
England many years ago, and is 
still played in Austria. The English 
poet Herrick alludes to a similar 
game in his lines : 

" I call, I call ; who doe ye call ? 
The maids to catch this Cowslip ball. 

In the Middle Ages boys and 
girls played a kind of call-ball where 
he who obtained possession of it 
threw it to the one he loved best. 

CAMERA LUCIDA, an arrange- 
ment to aid in drawing the outline 
of small objects. There are several 
kinds, but the simplest is made as 
follows : 




Fig. I. 

Sit at a table in front of the object, 
which should be supported on a 
book (Fig. i). Lay a sheet of white 



paper on the table between yourself 
and the object, and on the farther 
edge of the paper rest the edge of a 
pane of glass. Incline the glass 
toward you, and presently you will 
see in it the reflection of the object to 
be drawn. At the same time you 
will see the paper through the glass. 
The glass may now be rested against 
a book to keep it in position. Hold 
your pencil on the paper under the 
glass and see whether you can see 
the reflection and the pencil point 
plainly at the same time. If either 
of them looks double while you are 
fixing your eyes on the oth,er, it 
shows that the object is either too 
far away or too near. Move the 
book on which it rests backward and 
forward until you can see both 
the reflection and the pencil point 
plainly. Keeping the eye perfectly 




Fig. 2. 

still, the outline of the reflection can 
now be followed on the paper with 
the pencil, and thus a very exact 
picture can be drawn. The picture 
will be of the same size as the object, 
hence only small objects, like flowers, 
insects, coins, or small wood-cuts, 
can be used. To draw large objects 
or landscapes by tracing in the same 
way, a CAMERA OBSCURA may be 
used, as in PHOTOGRAPHY, but a 
large Camera Lucida is sometimes 
arranged as in Fig. 2. The words 
CAMERA LUCIDA are Latin for Light 
Chamber. 

CAMERA OBSCURA. To make 
a rough camera, take a little paste- 



CAMERA OBSCURA 



125 



CAMERA OBSCURA 



board box (Fig. i), like those iti 

which pens are sold, and make a 

pinhole in the middle of the cover, 

working the pin about A 

to enlarge the hole a 

a little. Remove one 

end of the cover, and 

in the corresponding 

edge of the box cut 

a notch just large 

enough to see through 

into the box when 

the cover is on. On 

a sunny day, hold the box with the 

pinhole toward any bright object 

and look down into the end through 

the notch, holding the eye close, 

so that no light can get in except 

through the pinhole. A picture 

will be seen on the back of the 

box, inside, in which the bright 

parts of the landscape can be eas- 




Fig. I. 



ily distinguished. The picture will 
grow clearer as the eye becomes 
accustomed to the light. By moving 
the box so that the pinhole turns in 
a different direction, the picture will 
change. The smaller the pinhole 
is, the less blurred the picture will 
be, but it will be also less bright. 
With a hole about -^^ of an inch in 
diameter the picture will be quite 
bright, but so blurred that it is hard to 
tell different objects from each other. 
The box should not be more than 
an inch deep, as the farther the back 
is from the pinhole, the less distinct 
the picture will be. In the evening, 
such a camera will give an excellent 
picture of a lamp or candle, and even 
of a person's face held very near a 
bright light. The way the picture 
is made may be understood by look- 
ing at Fig. 2, where the lines rep- 




Fig. 2. 



resent rays of light from different 
parts of an object passing through 
the pinhole and striking the back of 
the box. When the cover is taken 
from the box, rays from all parts of 
the object strike every part of the 
box at once and are mixed together, 
hence there is no picture, but only a 
white blur. 

A camera which will make the 
picture bright without blurring it may 
be made by using a glass lens (See 
Lenses, experiments with). 
These experiments show how a lens 
will throw a picture, and the picture 
can be seen to better advantage if the 
lens be fixed in a hole in the side of 
a box. The observer may work at 
the picture through a hole in the top 



of the box, or the back of the box 
may be made of thin white paper, so 
that the picture will show on the 
other side. There is a certain dis- 
tance from the lens for every object, 
where its image will be plainest, so 
it is a good plan to make the back 
of the box so that it can be slid in 
and out. Find the distance at which 
the lens makes the plainest picture of 
near objects before choosing the box, 
and then select one of the right 
depth. Remove the back, and saw 
off the edges so that it can be made 
to slip in as far as desired. Nail a 
stick to it to serve as a handle by 
which it may be pulled in and out. 

Hat Camera. A camera can be 
made also from a stiff felt or silk hat, 



CAMPHOR 



126 



CAMPING OUT 



if it have a ventilating hole in the 
top of the crown. If there are more 
than one of these holes, all but the 
central one may be stopped with 
paper. A piece of thin paper is then 
pinned over the bottom of the hat, 
which is held with the top toward 
the part of the landscape to be ob- 
served. A black shawl is thrown 
over the hat and the observer's head, 
but care must be taken that it does 
not hang over the ventilating hole. 

CAMPHOR. Experiments with. 
I. Place a piece of gum camphor on 
water. After a time it will begin to 
move about on the surface, and will 
continue its motion till it is dissolved. 
The reason is that it dissolves more 
rapidly at some places than at others, 
so that the surface of the water pulls 
more strongly on it in one direction 
than in another. The bit of cam- 
phor may be set on fire, and will then 
burn as it moves about. 

2. Dust lycopodium powder over 
the surface of a dish of water by 
shaking it in a muslin bag. The 
water should be covered with a very 
faint layer of the powder. Dip into 
the water the end of a rod or stick 
of gum camphor. The lycopodium 
at once moves back from the cam- 
phor, and begins to revolve in several 
wheel-shaped figures. 

In order that this experiment may 
succeed the vessel and water must 
be quite clean, and the day should 
be dry and fine, so that the camphor 
film will evaporate soon after it forms. 

3. Dissolve a bit of camphor the 
size of a, pea in a drachm of benzine. 
Keep the solution in a phial in whose 
cork a pin is stuck, head downward, 
so that it protrudes into the liquid. 
Fill a concave microscope slide with 
clear water, and touch the surface 
with a Httle of the benzine-camphor 
liquid on the head of the pin. The 
drop, viewed through the microscope, 
behaves very curiously, little drops 
detaching themselves from its sides 
and moving about in all directions. 

4. Pour a thin layer of water into 
a flat-bottomed shallow dish. Cut a 



rod of gum camphor one-quarter 
inch square, following the grain of 
the gum, which can be seen on hold- 
ing it up to the light. Touch the 
bottom of the vessel with this stick, 
and the water around it will be 
thrown into waves or ripples, which 
will continue till the end of the stick 
is dissolved away. The reason is 
that the water is first drawn up 
toward the stick as it would be 
toward the finger or a glass rod. 
But, a film of camphor forming on its 
surface, this is altered so as to act 
toward the stick as mercury would 
toward glass, that is, the water is 
depressed. It recovers itself, and 
the action goes on very rapidly. 

5. Place a piece of gum camphor 
in a tightly stoppered bottle, and let 
it stand awhile in a warm room. 
Then set it close to a window and 
the side next the window will become 
covered with minute camphor crys- 
tals. This is because the camphor 
evaporates, and the coolness caused 
by the window condenses the vapor 
again. It was once thought that the 
light influenced the crystallization, 
but it will take place at night in the 
same way. Marks on the glass, invisi- 
ble before, will often be shown by the 
arrangement of the camphor crystals, 
just as those on window panes often 
are by frost crystals. Thus, if the 
interior of the bottle be wiped out 
roughly with a moist cloth, and then 
allowed to dry, the crystals are apt 
to form along the lines made in wip- 
ing. (See also Breath Figures.) 

CAMPING OUT. One kind of 
camping may be in connection with 
a WALKING TRIP, the campers 
spending their nights in a tent in- 
stead of at a hotel or farm-house, 
and preparing their own meals. 
Each person may carry about twenty 
pounds of luggage in a knapsack or 
haversac|<, or in a roll, whose ends are 
joined to make a ring which is 
thrown over the shoulder, as shown 
in the illustration. Each should 
take a rubber blanket, a woolen 
blanket, a change of clothing, towel, 



CAMPING OUT 



127 



CAMPING OUT 



soap, comb, and toothbrush, besides 
his share of the general luggage, 
which includes the tent, cooking 
utensils, hatchet, and food. An 
easier but more expensive way is to 
have all the luggage carried in a 
wagon, leaving the walkers free. A 
larger tent and more implements can 
thus be carried, and the expense is 
usually not great if divided among 
several. It is often a good plan to 
buy a horse and cart for such an 
expedition, selling both at the end of 
the journey. If the camp is not to be 
moved, the tent may be still larger, 
and many useful fixtures, such as 




Fig. I.— The Camper— Loaded. 

tables, a stove, an oven, bedsteads, 
etc., can be set up by any one of 
ingenuity. 

Location. A camp should be on 
dry ground, sloping so as to give 
drainage, and near good drinking 
water. Favorite sites are on moun- 
tains, at the edge of woods, on the 
bank of a lake, or on the seashore. 

Expenses. These vary at the pleas- 
ure of the camper, and according to 
the number in the party. Mr. John 
M. Gould, in his book on " How to 
Camp Out," relates that three boys, 



including himself, once went on a 
twelve days' camping trip and spent 
but one dollar apiece during that 
time. They " carried coffee, sugar, 
pork, and beef from home, and ate 
potatoes three times a day." Frank 
E. Clark, in an account of three 
weeks' camping on the seashore, 
gives the following list of expenses 
for six persons : 

Tent for three weeks . . % 9.00 
Provisions taken with us . . 22.00 
Stove and cooking utensils . 15.00 
Fresh provisions bought at the 

beach 15.00 

Incidentals 20.00 

Total $81.00 

or $4.50 per week for each camper. 

In general, the expense depends 
almost entirely on the way in which 
the campers are willing to live. 

Girls' Camps. What has been 
said above applies also to campers 
of the other sex, or of both sexes, 
except that ladies must not be ex- 
pected to bear any hardships. A 
party of girls, in charge of an older 
woman may camp together very 
pleasantly in not too wild a coun- 
try, hiring a man to do the hard 
work, such as pitching the tent. 
When the campers are of both 
sexes, the ladies will naturally be 
allotted the cooking and other 
housework, while the men do the 
rougher work. 

Insects. Campers are often an- 
noyed by mosquitos and black flies, 
especially in the woods, and, where 
these pests exist, mosquito netting 
must be taken for protection at night. 
Many preparations for keeping in- 
sects away by applications to the 
face and hands are to be bought, but 
most old campers prefer to drive 
them away by making what is 
called a " smudge." A fire is built 
to windward of the camp and smoth- 
ered with wet wood and damp leaves, 
so as to make a dense smoke. 
The " smudge " is disagreeable, but 
is a welcome relief after insects. 

Rainy Days. If the rain is a cold 



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128 



CAMPING OUT 



one, it is often necessary to build a 
fire just outside the tent, but it 
is difficult to keep one alive in a 
hard storm. If there is a stove 
in the camp, it may be brought 
inside the tent, the pipe projecting 
through the door, but unless this is 
on the leeward side the smoke w^ill 
be blown back into the tent. An- 
other way is to build a fire in a hole 
just outside the tent and conduct the 
smoke through a trench under the 
tent, covered with flat stones, the 
crevices being cemented with clay. 
It is difficult to make this smoke- 
tight, but when it is so, it warms the 
tent well. 

Each one of the campers should 
have his special duties assigned him. 
This may be done on trial at first, till 
it is seen for what work each is best 
fitted. Thus, in a camp of three, 
one may do the cooking, and another 
the dishwashing, while the third has 
general charge of the tent and its 
surroundings. 

Tents. The material is usually 
heavy drilling or duck for large tents. 
The simplest kind is a Shelter-tent, 
which consists merely of pieces of 
cloth with buttons and buttonholes 
at the edges, by which several can 
be fastened together. The button- 
holes are near the edge, and the 
buttons several inches nearer the 
center. The pieces carried by the 
soldiers of the United States army 
in the Civil War were about five feet 
square. They can be fastened to- 




Fig. 2.— Shelter Tent. 

gether, and put up in various ways ; 
for instance, by throwing two over a 
ridge pole supported on two forked 



uprights, and fastening them at the 
bottom, by driving pegs through the 
buttonholes, or through loops of rope 
sewed there for the purpose. If two 
more pieces be buttoned across the 
ends, the tent is entirely inclosed. 
The tent poles and pegs are not car- 
ried, but cut at the spot where the 
tent is pitched. A shelter-tent (Fig. 2) 
is the best to use where the campers 
walk from place to place and carry 
all their own baggage. An end piece 
may be made to fit the end exactly, 
and sewed to one of the side pieces 
instead of buttoning it, if desired. 
The tent should usually be pitched 
with a right angle at the roof, but 
the angle must be sharper in rainy 
weather. Shelter-tents may be made 
also of rubber, which are perfectly 
waterproof, but heavy to carry. 

An A tent, or Wedge-tent (Fig. 4) is 
pitched over a ridge pole like a shelter- 
tent, but is made all in one piece. A 
common size is about 
seven feet high, seven feet 
long, and eight feet wide. 
One end is usually closed, 
while the other has an 
opening in the middle, 
closed by a flap hanging 
on the inside. Around 
the bottom of the tent is 
sometimes hung a strip 
of cloth called a sod-cloth, 
to keep out draughts and 
prevent the edge of the 
tent from touching the 
ground and rotting. Fig- 3' 
Around the edge are also "^^^^ ^^°* 
sewed loops of rope called "beck- 
ets," through which wooden pins 
(Fig. 3) are driven into the ground, 
when the tent is pitched. 

The best tent for a permanent 
camp, or one where the heavy lug- 
gage is carried from place to place 
on a wagon, is the Wall-tent (Fig. 5). 
This is shaped like a house, with side 
walls about four feet high, and ridge 
pole about nine feet from the 
ground. At the corners of the eaves 
and at every seam along their sides 
loops of rope are fastened, and 






CAMPING OUT 



129 



CAMPING OUT 



through each of these is passed a 
rope called a "guy," about ten feet 
long, knotted at one end so that it 
will not slip through the loop. The 
other end is passed around a peg 
driven into the ground at such a dis- 
tance that the guy will have the 
same slope as the roof, and so keep 
the roof stretched. That the guys 
may be tightened easily, pieces of 
wood called " fiddles " are used, 
about five inches long, two inches 



wide, and an inch thick, having two 
holes bored through them three 
inches apart, just large enough to 
admit the rope. The end of the guy 
is passed through one of these holes 
and back through the other, and 
then knotted. The loop thus made 
is passed around the peg, and the 
guy is then tightened by pulling up 
the fiddle as high as it will go. 
Around the bottom of the tent, 
which also has a sod-cloth, are beck- 




Fig. 4.— " A " Tent, or Wedge-tent. 



ets, through which pegs are driven. 
A second roof called a " fly " is used 
with a wall-tent to keep out the rain, 
since the roof is not sharp enough to 
shed rain by itself. It passes close 
over the ridge pole, but is lifted seve- 
ral inches above the inner roof at 
the eaves, and projects about a foot 
beyond it. It is kept stretched by 
guys whose pegs are driven into the 
ground some distance beyond those 
of the roof. The end poles of an A 



or wall-tent should have iron pins at 
the top, which fit into holes in the 
ridge pole, and the latter should 
have ferrules on the ends to prevent 
splitting. The end poles should be 
made too high for the tent at first, as 
it stretches with use. At first, the 
poles can be sunk in the ground a 
little way to make them short 
enough. Tent pins should be of 
tough wood, and have a notch near 
the top to hold the rope. 



CAMPING OUT 



130 



CAMPING OUT 



A shallow trench must be dug 
completely around the tent, after it 
is pitched, to carry off the water in 
case of rain. If the tent is on a hill- 
side, no trench need be dug at the 
lower side. In a permanent camp, a 
board floor may be laid in the tent. 

Shelters. In the woods, shelters 
of poles and boughs are often used 
instead of tents. The simplest is 
made by placing a ridge pole across 
two forked uprights and then leaning 



poles and boughs against it from one 
or both sides. A rustic cottage (Fig. 
6) may be made by trimming the 
branches from four trees standing as 
nearly as possible at the corners of 
a square, leaving part projecting as 
a rest for cross poles, thus forming a 
framework. These cross poles are 
tied to the uprights with willow 
withes, and then branches are woven 
in by passing them inside one pole, 
outside the next, and so on. A roof 




Fig:. 5.— Wall-tent 



slanting in one direction is made in 
the same way and thatched with 
grass so as to shed water. If four 
trees cannot be found in the proper 
position, upright posts set in the 
ground may be substituted for one 
or more of them. 

Sleeping. The simplest way to 
sleep in camp is on the ground, laying 
on it first a rubber blanket and then a 
woolen one. Evergreen boughs or 
dried leaves may be placed underneath 



the rubber blanket to make a bed, 
and the whole may be raised above 
the ground byabedstead of poles sup- 
ported on forked sticks. One of the 
best camp beds is a light folding cot 
(Fig. 7), covered with canvas, which 
may be bought at a furniture store. In 
a permanent camp a double mattress 
may be laid on the floor of the tent, 
over a rubber blanket, making room 
for several sleepers. Each camper 
must have one rubber blanket and 



CAMPING OUT 



131 



CAMPING OUT 



one woolen one, A pillow adds 
greatly to comfort, but must be dis- 
pensed with if each carries his own 
luggage. In any case, beds and bed- 



ding must be carried out of the tent 
and thoroughly aired every morning. 
Unless a mattress is used, the camp- 
er's bones will be apt to ache for one 




Fig. 6. — Framework of Rustic Cottage. 



or two nights, but he will soon get 
accustomed to his hard bed. The 
camper may also sleep in a hammock 
when the weather admits of sleeping 
in the open air. There is usually 
hardly room for one inside the tent. 



Cooking. The simplest way to 
cook is over a wood-fire in the open 
air. A kettle may be hung over the 
fire from a cross bar resting on two 
forked uprights, and any food that 
requires boiling can thus be pre- 




Fig. 7. — Camp Cot. 



pared. Broiling can be done by 
holding the food in small pieces over 
the coals with sharp sticks if a grid- 
iron has not been brought. For 



frying, the fire is built over a smooth 
stone, and scraped away from it when 
the stone is sufficiently heated. The 
stone is then carefully wiped, and is 



CAMPING OUT 



132 



CANDLE 



usually hot enough to fry several 
iish, or the flat stone may be placed 
on the top of a fireplace made of 
stones, and used for cooking while 
the fire is under it. An oven for bak- 
ing can be built of stones. Where 




Fig. 8.— Stone Stove. 

there is clay, one can be made by 
covering with it a cask or barrel em- 
bedded in a bank. A fire is built in 
the barrel, which both burns it away 
and bakes the clay hard, making the 
oven. Such an oven is used by first 
building a fire in it and then scraping 
the fire away, and putting in the food 
to be baked. In every permanent 
camp, an ice box should be provided 
for provisions. This may be made 
by sinking an ordinary dry goods 
box or barrel in the ground, and if 
the box is sunk deep enough, ice 
may be dispensed with. A hole 
should also be dug at some distance 
from the tent where all kinds of swill 
and refuse may be thrown and cov- 
ered with earth every few days. The 
supply of food to be taken to camp 
depends largely on how much the 
campers expect to provide for them- 
selves by hunting or fishing. Eggs 
and milk can often be obtained from 
a neighboring farm house. The 
necessaries for most campers are 
bread or crackers, coffee or tea, sugar 
and salt. Where the campers walk 
from place to place carrying their 
own luggage, food must generally 
be bought from day to day wher- 
ever it can be obtained. Where the 
camp is permanent, the stock of pro- 
visions is limited in size and variety 



only by the purses of the campers 
and the ability of the one who does 
the cooking. A small stove is often 
necessary in a large camp, and many 
different kinds of camp stoves are 
now to be bought. A kerosene 
stove is always useful in making a 
cup of tea or coffee at short notice, 
or in cooking on a rainy day. 

CANDLE-MAKING. Very good 
tapers can be made with old candle- 
ends, a little tin pan, such as are 
used for baking muffins, a lead-pen- 
cil, some tin-foil and some string. 
Make a mold by shaping tin-foil 
around the pencil. Melt some of 
the candle-ends in the pan by hold- 
ing it over a lighted candle-end, 
and then pour the wax into the 
mold, into which a piece of string 
has been put for a wick. Hold 
the mold upright till the wax has 
set and then lay it aside for a few 
moments, after which the tin-foil 
can be unwound, leaving a little wax 
taper. Larger ones can be made 
by using something larger to shape 
the mold, an old chair-rung for in- 
stance. 

A mold may be made also of a 
rolled sheet of note-paper tied with 
string, and stopped at one end with 
a cork. The wick should be fast- . 
ened at one end to the cork with a 
tack, and at the other to a match or 
bit of wood, laid across the roll. If 
the mold be made thus, of paper, 
the tallow must be allowed to 
thicken a little before it is poured in, 
or it may soak through. 

If a large candle is to be made, 
the tallow is most easily obtained by 
melting beef or mutton fat cut into 
bits, and skimming out the pieces 
of thin skin and tissue from it. If 
desired, wax may be melted and 
used in the same way. 

CANDLE, Experiments with. 
The candle flame is described in the 
article FiRE (C. C. T.), and a few 
experiments with it are given there. 
Others will now be told about. 

A tallow candle about an inch 
and a quarter in diameter is the 



CANDLE 



133 



CANNONADE 



best for these experiments, though 
an ordinary one will answer. Such 
a tallow candle may be made accord- 
ing to the directions in the article on 
Candle-Making. 

Experiment i. Take a piece of 
wire gauze like that used for strainers 
or window screens, and press it down 
on the candle flame. The flame will 
not pass through the gauze, but will 
flatten out beneath it, so that one can 
look down into the center of it. The 
space inside, where there is no fire, 
will thus be seen plainly. The 
reason that the flame cannot pass 
through the gauze is that the wires 
conduct the heat away very rapidly, 
cooUng the flame so much as to put 
it out before it can get through. 

Experiment 2. Let the candle 
burn till the wick in the flame is 
quite long and then blow it out with 
a quick puff. If the air is still, a 
stream of smoke will rise from the 
wick. Touch a lighted match to 
this smoke half an inch or so from 
the candle, and the flame will run 
down to the wick, lighting the candle 
again. Sometimes the smoke can 
be lighted an inch or more from the 
wick. The reason why this smoke 
burns, is that it is the gas which 
forms the candle flame, and which 
continues to rise from the wick for 
a few seconds after the flame is put 
out. 

Experiment 3. Blow out the can- 
dle as in Experiment 2, and hold the 
gauze so that the stream of smoke 
will rise through it. Light it above 
the gauze, and it will run down to 
the gauze, but will not pass through 
it. (See also Carbonic Acid, 
Exp. II.) 

Experiment 4. Bring a plate 
quickly down on the candle flame 
and raise it at once without moving 
it sidewise. The flame will leave a 
ring of soot on the plate. This is 
because the empty space in the mid- 
dle of the flame deposits no soot. 

Experi7nent 5. Place a lighted 
candle-end on the table and put a 
glass dish or goblet over it. It will 



burn dim and finally go out. This 
is because it has used up all the 
oxygen in the air under the dish. 

Experiment 6, Stick a lighted 
candle-end on a bit of wood, so that 
it will float upright in a pail of water. 
Then press a glass tumbler down 
over It, pushing it to the bottom of 
the pail. The candle will burn 
under water as long as it has oxygen 
enough. The air under the tumbler 
prevents the water from entering 
and putting out the candle. Try 
the same experiment, using, instead 
of a tumbler, a lamp-chimney with 
the hand held tightly over the top. 
After pushing it down to the bottom 
of the pail, remove the hand so that 
the water can push the air out at the 
top. The water will rise inside the 
chimney, carrying the candle with it. 

Experijuent 7. Thrust the head 
of a match very quickly into the dark 
center of a candle flame. It will 
melt but not burn. This is because 
there is no air in the inside of the 
flame. 

CANNONADE, a game played on 
a circular board with marbles and a 
TEETOTUM, which Can be spun Hke 
a humming TOP. Around the edge 
of the board are six little wooden 
towers called castles, protected by 
wires on all sides except toward the 
middle of the board, where about 
1 5 marbles are placed. One of the 
players is chosen as Gunner, and 
each of the others selects a castle. 
Each one begins the game with an 
equal number of counters, and each 
castle-owner bets as many as he 
pleases on his castle. The Gunner 
then spins the teetotum in the midst 
of the marbles, and the teetotum 
and marbles dash about the board 
knocking down some of the castles. 
A wire screen around the edge of 
the board prevents their leaving it. 
When the teetotum has stopped, the 
owner of each fallen castle pays to 
the Gunner his stake, multiplied by 
the figure which came uppermost on 
the teetotum, or twice as much if all 
the castles were knocked down. 



CANOEING 



134 



CANOEING 



The owner of each castle that re- 
mains standing receives twice his 
stake from the Gunner. Each 
player acts as Gunner in turn. If 




Cannonade Board. 

there are fewer players than castles, 
each in succession takes two or 
more. Instead of the method of 
scoring described above, any other 
may be agreed on by the players, be- 
fore the game. A simple method is 
for the Gunner to score one for each 
fallen castle, and for each owner of a 
castle left standing to score two. 
The only skill shown is in making 
the teetotum spin as long as pos- 
sible. 

In another form of the game, pins, 
like Ten-pins, are placed on the 
board, among which the top spins, 
knocking down some of them. 

CANOEING. Canoes are light 
boats sharp at both ends, and pro- 
pelled by a paddle, the boatsman 
looking toward the bow. Pleasure 
canoes, in general, are of two kinds : 
paddling canoes and sailing canoes. 
Canoes may be built of bark, skins, 
canvas, paper, wood, or metal. 
The length of open canoes varies 
from 10 to 17 feet, the breadth from 
2 to 3 feet, and the depth is 8 or 9 
inches. The paddler kneels on a 
cushion on the bottom of the canoe. 
The decked canoe usually has a keel 



and ribs of oak, and bulkheads near 
either end. It has a board floor, a 
seat for the paddler, and movable 
back and foot boards. The double 
bladed paddle is of 
pine or spruce, from 
six to twelve feet 
long, and jointed in 
the center for con- 
venience of stowage 
and to aid in feath- 
ering. 

To enter a canoe 
without upsetting re- 
quires caution. It is 
best to place one 
foot on the bottom, 
then one hand on 
either gunwale, then 
both feet on the bot- 
tom, and sit down as 
soon as possible, 
bearing most of the 
weight on the hands 
until seated. The paddle is held in 
both hands, and the boatman dips the 




Canoe : Side View, Top View, and 
Cross Section. 



blade so as nearly to cover it, as far 
forward as he can reach on one side 



O 



^ 



Canoe Paddles. 

of the boat, and then draws it steadily 
back, thus propelling the boat. With 



CANOEING 



135 



CANOEING 



a single paddle all the strokes are on 
the same side of the boat till the pad- 
dler changes for rest, and 
the boat is steered by giv- 
ing the paddle a twist at 
the end of the stroke. 
With the double paddle 
the strokes are made on 
alternate sides, thus keep- 
ing the course straight. 
The unused blade will be 
in position to make the 
second stroke when the 
first is finished. The blades 
of a double paddle are 
usually set at right angles 
so that the one not in the 
water will always cut edge- 
wise through the air, and 
the wrist must therefore be turned 
slightly just before putting the blade 



to swim. In canoe races, "upset 
races" are often included, where 





Method of Holding Double-bladed 
Paddle. 



Canoeist Using Double-bladed Paddle. 



each contestant is required, at a 
given signal, in the course of the 
race, to overturn his canoe, scramble 
in from the water, and go on to the 
finish. 

The sailing canoe has either a 
keel or a center board, which is now 
often made to fold up like a fan, 
when not in use. The sail may be 
either the lug, leg-of-mutton, or 
lateen (see Sailing). Two or three 
battens (thin strips of wood) are 
sometimes fastened across the lower 
part of the sail. A canoeist has 
estimated that the use of these bat- 
tens enables a canoe to carry more 
sail, in the ratio of 7 to 5. Battens 
make the sail set flatter. The masts 



into the water. Short paddles must 
be held almost perpendicularly in the 
water. The paddle 
can be managed bet- 
ter by sitting high, 
but there is more 
danger of upsetting. 
In racing, the seat is 
generally placed near- 
ly on a level with the 
deck. In-order to 
be prepared for an 
upset, the canoeist 
should practice fall- 
ing out and getting 
into his place again 
from the water. He must dress 1 are very light, and can be taken down 
lightly, and should not attempt to in a moment. The yard and boom 
paddle a canoe without knowing how | are generally of some light wood. 




Sailing Canoe. 



CANOEING 



136 



CANOEING 



The rigging is as simple as possible, 
and so arranged that the canoeist 
need not leave his seat to work it. 
There is usually a rudder, managed 
with foot steering gear when the 
canoeist sits or lies in the bottom, as 
formerly in England ; but in this 
country usually by a tiller fastened 
to a yoke near the hatch, where it is 
close at hand. The English have 
now generally adopted the American 
plan. The rudder should be hung 
so that it will extend below the keel 
and keep its hold on the water, even 
when the canoe lifts her stern clear 
at every wave. 

In England canoeists generally lie 
down in the bottom of the canoe, 
while in this country they sit on 
deck except when sailing before the 
wind. Canoe sailing differs in some 
respects from ordinary boat sailing. 
(See Sailing.) If the canoeist can- 
not hold his boat upright by his own 
weight he should " luff " so as to 
ease her a little, and if that does not 
answer he should slack the main 
sheet. If it blows very hard he 
should take in sail altogether. 

Many canoes have sliding seats, 
made in two pieces, the upper shp- 
ping sidewise over the lower to 
either side so that the crew can sit 



away out to windward and balance 
the boat in a far heavier wind than 
would otherwise be possible. In 
tacking, the canoeist throws his 
weight forward and to leeward, 
shifting it as the canoe passes the 
wind's eye. Jibing is more danger- 
ous in a canoe than in a sailboat, 
the canoeist being obliged to shift 
his weight suddenly to avoid over- 




Camp-stove for Wood. 

turning. More than one hundred 
pounds of ballast may be carried in 
a sailing canoe in bags of about 25 
pounds each. As much as 175 
pounds was formerly carried, but at 
present the most expert canoeists 
rarely carry ballast when racing. 

Unless a canoe is very well bal- 
lasted, sail should never be kept on 
it when the sea is high enough to 




Fig. I. — Frame of Canoe Tent. 



break on board. The canoe should 
never be allowed to get broadside to 
the wind, except when it is abso- 
lutely necessary, as in turning. In 
heavy water, the course should be 
zig-zag, and heavy seas must be 
dodged. If it is necessary to take a 



wave, it must be done with the end 
of the canoe toward it, and the canoe 
should be allowed to slide sidewise 
down the back of the wave. In run- 
ning before the wind, the canoeist 
removes the back board, and, when 
it is necessary, stops the canoe's 



CANOEING 



137 



CAPACITY FOR HEAT 



headway by back strokes of the pad- 
dle. If the bows run under water, 
the halyards must be let go at once. 
The paddle should always be ready 
for use, and it is well to have a cork 
belt at hand. If the canoe should 
capsize, the canoeist must climb 
over it, let go the main halyard, haul 
on the down-haul, and get the main- 



sail on deck, before trying to right 
the craft. In beaching a canoe, the 
sail must first be taken in, the rud- 
der triced up and the hatch taken 
off. The canoeist then leaps out in- 
to shallow water with the painter, 
and hauls the boat on shore. Some 
special forms of tents for use by 
canoeists on their excursions are 




Fig. 2. — Canoe Tent 



shown in the following illustrations, 
of which Fig i shows the frame of a 
canoe tent. Fig. 2 a canoe tent with 
its canvas cover, and Fig. 3 a tent 
for use on shore. 

History. Canoes were used by 
the natives of all parts of North 
America before its discovery by Eu- 
ropeans. The Indians made their 



canoes either of birch bark or of 
hollow logs, and paddled them with 
great speed. In British America on 
the Pacific coast the natives use 
canoes of cedar logs with extended 
prows, and with curious figures 
painted on the sides. Some of them 
are very large ; one in the National 
Museum at Washington being 59 




Fig. 3. — Shore Canoe Tent. 



feet long, 8 feet wide, and 4 feet 8 
inches deep. In Canada canoe clubs 
for recreation have existed since the 
days of New France. About 1854 
the improved civilized canoe was 
introduced into England by John 
Macgregor, Esq., of London. Then 
it was imported to this country by 
W. L. Alden, who founded the New 



York Canoe Club in 1871, and since 
that time the popularity of the sport 
has increased rapidly all over the 
Northern United States and Canada. 
CAPACITY FOR HEAT, Experi- 
ments on. I. In a bullet-mold make 
bullets of lead, zinc, tin, sulphur, and 
antimony. Prepare a cake of wax 
or paraffine, about half an inch thick. 



CAPPING VERSES 



138 



CARBON 



by melting it and pouring it into a 
pan, and then lay the cake across 
the top of a tumbler. Put the bul- 
lets into boiling water for a few min- 
utes and then place them all at once 
on the cake of wax. They will melt 
it and some will fall through, but 
some much more quickly than others. 
Still others will get only half-way or 
quarter-way through the wax. This 
is because they contained different 
quantities of heat, although they were 
all at the temperature of boiling water. 

2. Weigh out the same amount of 
lead, sulphur, and copper scraps, and 
put them all into boiling water, or 
into hot oil, so that they will have 
the same temperature. Fill three 
glasses with water at the same tem- 
perature, and put the lead into one, 
the sulphur into another, and the 
copper into the third. Stir the water 
in each continually, and test from 
time to time with a chemical ther- 
mometer. The water containing 
the sulphur will be hottest, and that 
with the copper next, while that into 
which the zinc was put will be the 
least hot. The reason is the same as 
that given for experiment i. 

CAPPING VEISES, a game 
where one player quotes a line of 
poetry, and the next a line in the 
same metre rhyming with it, which 
will make sense. In this way an en- 
tire poem is made of separate quota- 
tions by the company. This game 
can be played in this form only by 
those who are very familiar with poe- 
try, but almost any one with pencil 
and paper may cap verses, if allowed 
to consult all the volumes he desires. 
The paper may be passed from one 
player to another, each adding a line, 
or each may make an entire poem. 

CARBON, Experiments with. 
(Read Chemical Experiments.) 
Carbon is described in C. C. T. To 
obtain it, the gases must be driven 
off by heat from some substance con- 
taining carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- 
gen. Such things are called hydro 
carbons, and include most vegetable 
substances. 



1. Arrange the apparatus as if to 
make oxygen, and half fill the igni- 
tion tube with powdered bituminous 
coal. On heating it a gas will be 
collected over water which is ordi- 
nary illuminating gas, but impure. It 
may be lighted in the jar in which it is 
collected, but the jar must not stand 
an instant mouth upward, or the gas 
will escape, being lighter than air. 
What remains after all the gas is 
driven off is a form of carbon called 
coke. 

2. If the tube is filled with shav- 
ings of wood instead of coal, what 
remains after the gas is driven off is 
the form of carbon called charcoal. 

3. Put spirits of turpentine into an 
alcohol lamp, light the wick, and 
cover it with a wide-mouthed jar, just 
raising one edge of the jar above the 
table by placing a bit of wood under 
it. The lamp will give off black 
smoke in volumes, which will collect 
on the inside of the jar. This is the 
form of carbon called lampblack. 

4. Hold a piece of charcoal under 
water. It will rise to the surface if 
allowed to do so, and if held down 
will give bubbles of air. Heat an- 
other piece red-hot for some time 
and then put it quickly under water. 
Few bubbles will rise and the char- 
coal will remain under of itself. The 
reason is that charcoal is very porous 
and contains much air, unless this is 
driven off by heat. 

5. Fill an inverted glass test tube 
with AMMONIA and hold it over a 

saucer of mercury, the 
mouth of the tube in 
the mercury. Heat a 
, I I piece of charcoal red- 
I ImI hot, and hold it under 
I ro| the mercury till it is 
I Hi ^°°^* '^^^^ P^^ ^^ "P 

I ^1 ^^^^ ^^^ ^"^^' ^^ ^^^^ 
I BH absorb the ammonia, 

{■■III ^B and the pressure of the 
air outside will then 
force the mercury up 

into the tube to take its place. 

6. Put some powdered charcoal 
into a bottle filled with SULPHUR- 



CARBONIC ACID 



139 



CARBONIC ACID 



ETTED HYDROGEN and shake it 
about. The bad odor of the gas 
will disappear. 

7. Put two pieces of raw meat 
about an inch square side by side on 
the ground, covering one with 
powdered charcoal. Place a heavy- 
box over the two, so that no animal 
can get at them. If the weather be 
not cold, the uncovered piece will 
spoil in a few days, while the one 
covered with charcoal will give off 
no bad odor. 

8. Arrange apparatus as if to make 
OXYGEN, but put into the ignition 
tube about a teaspoonful of red 
oxide of mercury and charcoal, mixed 
together. Heat, and collect over 
water, the gas which is formed. On 
the sides of the tube will be found 
little drops of mercury. The reason 
is that the charcoal has taken away 
oxygen from the oxide of mercury 
and left the mercury behind. The 
charcoal and oxygen form carbonic 
acid gas, which is the gas that was 
collected over water. 

CARBONIC ACID, Experiments 
with. (Read Chemical Experi- 
ments). Carbonic acid gas is de- 
scribed inC.C.T. It can be made 
by burning charcoal or wood, 
but is then mixed with nitrogen 
from the air. (See C. C. T.) It 
may be made pure as shown in Ex- 
periment 8, under carbon, but a 
better way is to arrange apparatus as 
for making HYDROGEN, putting in, 
instead of zinc, a handful of small 
lumps of marble, as big as peas. 
Either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid 
may be used, but the latter is better. 
Instead of marble, old mortar, pieces 
of oyster shells, or limestone will 
answer, though not so well. The 
carbonic acid comes from the marble, 
which is carbonate of lime. 

I. Place the delivery tube in a 
glass of lime water so that the gas 
will bubble up through it. The lime 
water will soon become milky. This 
is caused by the formation of car- 
bonate of lime in minute particles. 
If the current be continued long 



enough the water will become clear, 
but if it is boiled it will grow milky 
again. 

2. Blow into a glass of lime water 
through a glass tube or the stem of a 
clay pipe. The lime water will 
become milky from the cause ex- 
plained above, because we breathe 
out carbonic acid gas from the lungs. 
A stream of air blown into lime 
water from a bellows will not make 
it milky, unless the room is very 
close and a good many people have 
been breathing in it. 

3. Carbonic acid is so much 
heavier than air that it will remain in 
an uncovered jar. Into a jar of it 
dip a lighted match, bit of burning 
paper, or lighted candle. Each will 
be put out, as if by water. 

4. Place a lighted candle in an 
empty glass and put it out by pour- 
ing a glass of carbonic acid over it. 

5. Pour carbonic acid into a wide 
mouthed jar or deep preserve dish, 
nearly filling it. Blow a soap bubble, 
throw it into the jar or dish and it 
will float on the gas. 

6. Fasten to a wire a piece of 
MAGNESIUM ribbon about six inches 
long, light it, and put it into a jar of 
carbonic acid. It will not be put out 
but will burn, leaving a quantity of 
white and black flakes in the jar. 
The white are magnesium oxide. 
The black are carbon from the car- 
bonic acid. 

7. Arrange a wire stand for sev- 
eral candles, one above the other. 
Light them and cover them with a 
tall jar. The candles will burn dim 
and then go out, the top one first, 
and then the others, one by one. 
Carbonic acid is formed by their 
burning, but it is so hot that instead 
of being heavier than air as when 
cold, it is lighter, and rising to the 
top puts out the upper candles first. 

8. Collect the breath over water 
by blowing through a tube, into a 
jar, arranged as described under 
Chemical Experiments. Place 
a piece of glass over the mouth of 
the jar and then, turning it right side 



CARBONIC ACID 



14C) CARDS, AND CARD-GAMES 



up, set it on a table. A taper may 
now be extinguished by lowering it 
into the jar, or any of the experi- 
ments performed with gas made 
from marble and sulphuric acid may 
be repeated. 

9. Pour into a flask or large bottle 
a strong solution of caustic soda, 
filling about one quarter of it. On 
this carefully pour pure water, letting 
it run down the inside of the flask, so 
that it will float in a thin layer on 
the soda. Instead of water one may 
use kerosene oil, which does not re- 
quire care in pouring, as it cannot 
help floating. Make carbonic acid 
gas, as described above, and fill the 
rest of the bottle with it. Have 
ready a cork, pierced by a tube 
having an empty toy balloon attached 
to the lower end. When the bottle 
is full of the carbonic acid, insert the 
cork so that the balloon is within the 
flask. Then shake the flask, so as 
to disturb the layer of water or oil 
and bring the gas into contact with 
the soda. The balloon will at once 
become distended and may even 
burst, if the bottle is large enough. 
The reason is that caustic soda ab- 
sorbs carbonic acid very readily, and 
the outside air rushes into the bal- 
loon to fill the place of the absorbed 
gas. 

10. Make a solution of carbonic 
acid gas, by passing it into water, and 
put some freshly gathered leaves into 
a flask of it. Stand the flask upside 
down, in a shallow dish of water, 
and set it in bright sunlight. Little 
bubbles will be seen to form on the 
leaves and rise from them gradually 
until they collect in the upper part of 
the flask. After a day or so, place a 
piece of glass under the mouth of 
the flask and turn it right side up. 
The gas collected is oxygen, as will 
be seen by lighting a splinter, blow- 
ing it out so as to leave a glowing 
coal, and then dipping it into the 
mouth of the flask. The oxygen 
came from the leaves, which take in 
carbonic acid and breathe out oxy- 
gen, just as we take in oxygen and 



breathe out carbonic acid. (See 
Plants in C, C. T,) 

II. On some bits of marble in the 
bottom of a glass jar, pour sulphuric 
or hydrochloric acid. Carbonic acid 
will be made which will rise and fill 
the jar, driving out the air and over- 
flowing gently like water. The room 
should be very still. Lower a candle 
which has been lighted for some 
time into the jar. If this is done 
carefully the vapor from the wick 
will continue to burn for a few 
seconds above the surface of the 
heavy gas, though the flame on the 
wick itself is put out. By quickly 
raising the candle it can be lighted 
again. 

CARDINAL'S HAT, THE. A 
game played by any number of per- 
sons, who take the names of Red- 
cap, Blue-cap, Yellow-cap, etc. A 
player who takes the part of the Car- 
dinal accuses one of them of stealing 
his cap, when the following dialogue 
ensues : 

Player. "Not I, sir." 
Cardi7ial. " Yes, you, sir." 
Player. " Not I, sir." 
Cardinal. " Who then, sir } " 
Player. " Yellow-cap, sir," 
giving the assumed name of any 
player he chooses, who is then in turn 
accused by the Cardinal. If any one 
name a color not chosen by any 
player he must pay a forfeit. Some- 
times a piece of wood, representing 
the hat, is actually hidden, and the 
Cardinal tries to find where it is by 
rapping the fingers of each player 
with his cane. 

A similar game to this, called 
" The Abbot of St. Gall has lost his 
nightcap," is played by children in 
Switzerland, and an old English 
game called " The Parson has lost 
his fuddling cap " was also probably 
like it. 

CARDS AND CARD-GAMES. 
Cards used in playing card-games 
are printed on sheets of cardboard, 
which are afterward cut apart. Their 
manufacture is described in the Cyclo- 
paedia of Common Things. They 



CARD-GAMES 



141 



CARD-GAMES 



are usually made rectangular, though 
sometimes with rounded corners, 
and are generally 3|- inches long, by 
2^ inches wide. They are put up in 
collections of fifty-two cards each, 
which, taken together, are commonly 
called a pack {ItaMsmpacco, a packet) 
of cards. In some parts of the 
southern United States, however, a 
pack is still called a deck of cards, 
the term used in England two or 
three centuries ago, which had its 
origin probably from the fact that 
the cards are piled regularly one 
over another (the word deck being 
from the Anglo-Saxon decan, to 
cover). Shakespeare uses the word 



in King Henry VI. (Part iii.. Act v., 
sc. i), where he says, 

" The king was slyly finger'd from the deck." 

While a full pack of cards al- 
ways consists, in America and in 
England, of fifty-two cards, smaller 
packs, for playing special games, 
are sometimes put up. Thus, a 
Euchre, Ecarte, Piquet, Bezique or 
Pinocle pack contains only thirty- 
two cards, the twos, threes, fours, 
fives, and sixes of each suit being 
left out. In the United States an 
extra card, sometimes blank and 
sometimes printed with a suitable 
device, called the Joker or Imperial 





The Sun. 



2. Time. 

Cards of Charles VI. 



3. Tower Struck 
by Lightning. 



4. Last Judgment. 



Trump, is generally put into each 
Euchre pack, making thirty-three. 
It is frequently added also to each 
full pack, making fifty-three in all ; 
but as this card is used only occa- 
sionally, it is not considered as be- 
longing to a pack, and in this book 
a pack of cards is always understood 
to mean fifty-two cards. 

The cards in every pack are divided 
into four groups of thirteen, called 
suits (because in each they follow in 
regular order), each of which is dis- 
tinguished by a special mark or sym- 
bol. Two of these suit-marks, or 
symbols, called Hearts and Dia- 
monds, are red ; and two, Clubs and 



Spades, are black. The origin of 
their names will be explained under 
the history of cards. In each suit, 
three cards — the King, the Queen, 
and the Knave, or Jack — are picture 
cards, called face, figure, or court 
cards, and sometimes also honors. 
The other ten are numeral cards, 
called pip, point, or spot cards, be- 
cause they are marked by pips, or 
spots, numbering from one up to 
ten. The card with one spot or pip 
is called the Ace, and the Two-spot 
and the Three-spot are sometimes 
called respectively the Deuce and the 
Tray ; but ordinarily the cards are 
named as in the following table : 



CARD-GAMES 



142 



CARD-GAMES 



RED SUITS. BLACK SUITS. 
Hearts. Diamonds. Clubs. Spades. 




Seven 



Four- 



Three 



Two - - - 



The Ace of Spades has generally] 
on it the name and address of the] 
manufacturer, and in England, where 
the government taxes cards, a stamp, 
showing that the tax has been paid, 
is also put upon it. In some I 
countries the Ace of Diamonds is the 
stamp card. If the value of thej 
cards followed their natural order,} 
the King would be the highest card,j 
and the Ace the lowest ; but ii 
Whist the Ace is lowest only in cut- 
ting, and outranks the King in play- 
ing, and in other games it has differ- 
ent values. In Cribbage only, is the 
Ace the lowest card in playing. In 
some games the Tray is the best 
card, and in others, the Five-spot, the 
Ten-spot, etc. These variations in 
the value of cards have much to do 
with the differences in games. 

CUSTOMS AND TERMS. 

In almost all card games, certain 
customs and terms are common. 
These are described here to avoid 
repetition, and are not explained in 
the article on any particular game, 
unless they differ, in that game, from 
the ordinary rule. 

Shuffling, the mixing of the cards 
before playing a game. This is usu- 
ally done by the dealer, who holds 
part of the pack loosely in one hand, 
and slides in the rest of the cards 
with the other, so as to mix them 
thoroughly. Expert players have 
other ways of shuffling, which may 
be learned by practice. Each 
player has a right to shuffle, if he 
chooses, before the dealer, but it is 
generally done by the dealer only. 
The cards should be shuffled before 
each deal. 

Cutting, the dividing of the pack 
by one of the opposite players, so as 
to insure a fair deal. After shuffling, 
the dealer lays the pack near his 
right-hand neighbor, who lifts off 
part of the cards, and places them 
on the table beside the rest of the 
pack. The dealer then puts the re- 
mainder upon the part lifted off, 
and takes up again all the cards,, 



I 



CARD-GAMES 



143 



CARD-GAMES 



which are then ready for dealing. 
In cutting, at least as many cards as 
there are players must be lifted, and 
at least that number must be left in 
the pack. The dealer has no right 
to shuffle again after the cards have 
been cut. As cutting was originally 
an attempt to prevent cheating, it 
may be omitted in many games, 
though any of the players has a 
right to demand it. Sometimes the 
person to whom the pack is offered 
for cutting, taps it with his finger, 
meaning that he is willing to omit 
the cut. 

Dealing. The distribution of the 
cards to the players is called dealing ; 
and he who distributes them is called 
the dealer. The dealer must be 



selected before either shuffling or 
cutting. This is usually done by 
cutting for deal ; that is, each player 
lifts part of the pack, showing the 
bottom card of what he has lifted, 
and he whose card wins has the 
right to deal. In some games the 
lowest and in others the highest card 
cut determines the deal, and in some 
the value of the cards in cutting 
differs from that in playing. In- 
stead of cutting for deal a card may 
be given to each player, face upward ; 
he that has the winning card be- 
coming the dealer. In some games 
the cards are dealt one by one till 
some particular one appears, and the 
player to whom that card falls is 
dealer. Any one of these methods 





% 


QLEMPEREVR, a 





rvg^ 


J^yt^^^S 




^^^r t ^^ p^ y 




^"^MijSi^r^ C* ^-— jWlIi/ 1 


d 




LIMPERATRISE '- \ 



5. Emperor. 



6. Empress. 




7. Pope 



Hermit. 



Naibis. 



may be adopted in any game, by 
agreement. 

When the cards have been shuffled 
and cut, the dealer takes the pack 
in his left hand, and with his right 
gives one or more at a time (accord- 
ing to the game) to each player in 
regular order, beginning with the 
one at his left. In some games all 
the cards are dealt, in others part of 
the pack is left. The deal is an ad- 
vantage in games where the trump 
card is part of the dealer's hand, as 
will be explained below, and in some 
other games for special reasons. 
The cards are usually dealt several 
times in the course of a game, and 
each player deals in turn, the deal 



around the table to the 



passmg 
left. 

Misdeal, a mistake made in deal- 
ing. In most games the cards are 
divided equally, so that the dealer 
gives the last one to himself. If the 
last card falls to any one else, he has 
made a misdeal. When any player 
discovers that he has not the proper 
number of cards, or when any of his 
cards are dealt to him face upward, 
he may demand a fresh deal. In 
games where the deal is an advan- 
tage the dealer is usually punished 
for his mistake by giving it to his 
left-hand neighbor, but in other 
games the same player usually deals 
after a misdeal. 



CARD-GAMES 



144 



CARD-GAMES 



Hand. The cards that are dealt 
to each player are called his hand, 
and those that are left, if any, are 
named the stock, or talon. Where 
the hands are large it is better for 
each player to arrange his cards by 
suits, but this should be done so as 
to avoid giving his opponents any 
information. When each has played 
all his cards, a hand is said to have 
been played, and there is a new deal. 

Trump. In most card games, 
after the deal, the dealer turns face 
upward a card, which is called the 
trump-card, or trump. Sometimes 
this is the last card dealt, in which 



case it forms part of the dealer's hand, 
and may be taken up with his other 
cards, after one round has been 
played. Sometimes it is the top card 
of the stock, or is taken from the 
middle of the stock, and in some 
games one of the players, usually the 
dealer, is allowed to exchange one 
of his cards for the trump card. 
Cards of the same suit as the trump 
are called trumps, and usually rank 
above those of other suits. Thus, 
the lowest trump is a higher card 
than an Ace or King of any other suit. 
When the Joker is used, it is always 
a trump, and is the highest card in 







9. Seven of Cups. 



10. Seven of Swords. 11. Seven of Money. 
Italian Cards. 



12. Seven of Clubs. 



the pack. In some games, one or 
more cards of other suits are re- 
garded as belonging to the trump 
suit, as is explained in the articles 
on those games. All but the trump 
suit are called lay suits, and a card 
of any such suit a lay card. 

Playing. After the trump has 
been turned and each player has 
arranged his cards, the one on the 
dealer's left, who is called the eldest 
hand, plays one of his cards face 
upward, and each player follows in 
order, to the left, until all have 
played. The cards so played are 



called a trick, and the one who plays 
the first card in the trick is said to 
have the lead, and is called the 
leader. In most games each must 
play, if he can, a card of the same suit 
as the leader ; this is called follow- 
ing suit. If he cannot follow suit 
he may play what he pleases, which 
is often called renouncing, and if he 
then chooses to play a trump, it is 
called trumping or rufifing. If he 
renounce when he is able to follow 
suit, it is called revoking. The 
player making a revoke may be pun- 
ished for his offense in various ways. 



I 



CARD-GAMES 



145 



CARD-GAMES 



In some games a player is allowed to 
trump even if he can follow suit. 
The trick is the property of the one 
playing the highest card of the suit 
led, unless one or more players 
trump, in which case the highest 
trump played takes the trick. The 
player taking the trick then has the 
lead for the next one. Each keeps 
his tricks in a pile near him, face 
downward. 

Discarding. In some games a 
player is required or allowed to re- 
move one or more cards from his 
hand. This is called discarding. 
The discarded cards are usually 



placed either in or under the stock, 
or by themselves, face downward. 

Score. Each player must keep 
count of the number of points he 
has made, which is called keeping 
score. The points are determined 
differently in different games. Some- 
times they are so few and so easily 
remembered that each can keep 
score mentally, but pencil and paper 
are usually required. In some 
games score is kept with two cards, 
by placing one partly over the other, 
so as to show a number of pips cor- 
responding to the points won. Score 
cards of several different kinds can 




13. Seven of Cups. 14. Seven of Swords. 15. Seven of Money. 

Spanish Cards. 



16. Seven of Clul 



be bought, some of which are for 
use in one particular game, and 
others in various games. In some 
games score is kept by means of 
counters or "chips," which are usu- 
ally round fiat pieces of ivory, bone, 
or celluloid. 

Four counters, or chips, are some- 
times used for scoring up to ten 
points, being arranged as shown 
below. It will be noted that a single 
counter placed at the top always 
counts three, but at the bottom five. 



o 
o o 



0000 

o 

o o 
o 

00 

For the numbers from 



9 



10 



o o 
o 



o 
o 
o 
o 
o 

o o 
o 

ten to 



twenty an oblong counter is some- 
times laid above the others, thus: 



12 



13 



and so on. 

Partners. In many card games 
each player wins or loses by himself, 
but in many others, where there are 
four players, two play against two, 
and in a few this is the only way of 
playing. Those who play together 
are called partners, and sit opposite 
each other. Only one score is kept 
for the two, and their tricks are 
placed in the same pile, for they win 
or lose together. 

Partners are sometimes decided 
on by cutting, the two who cut 



CARD-GAMES 



146 



CARD-GAMES 



the highest cards playing together 
against the other two. 

HISTORY OF CARDS. 

Playing cards were probably first 
made in Italy in the 14th century. 
The Chinese say that they were 
invented in the reign of their em- 
peror, Se-un-ho, in 11 20, and some 
European writers have tried to prove 
that they were first brought into 
Europe from India by the Gipsies, 
while others have asserted that 
they were introduced into Spain by 
the Moors, but there is no positive 
evidence to support any of these 
theories. The common story that 
they were invented in 1392 for the 



amusement of the French king, 
Charles VI., grew out of a record, 
found among the royal accounts, of 
a payment made to a painter for 
" three packs of cards in gold and 
various colors, and ornamented with 
several devices, to carry before the 
lord our king for his amusement." 
But this shows that cards were then 
well known, rather than that they 
were then first made, and that these 
were special ones painted finer than 
usual for the personal use of the king. 
Some cards, said to be part of one 
of these packs, are preserved in the 
Paris Library (see i, 2, 3, 4), but the 
best authorities consider them Vene- 
tian cards of the 1 5th century. 





17. Seven of Hearts. 18. Seven of Leaves. 19. Seven of Bells. 

German Cards. 



20. Seven of Acoms. 



It is now generally conceded by 
the latest writers on the subject, that 
cards originated in Italy (probably in 
Venice) about 1350. The first packs 
were probably wholly of figure or 
picture cards, containing no numeral 
or pip-cards, and were purely em- 
blematic — that is, representing some 
person or symbol. These cards, 
called Naibis (a term supposed by 
some to be derived from the Arabs, 
and still preserved in the Spanish 
name for cards, naypes), had noth- 
ing to do with games of chance, but 
were intended for instructive amuse- 
ment, like the game of Authors and 
many similar games played by young 
folks to-day. Some of the writers of 



that century prohibit the playing by 
children of Dice and other games of 
hazard, but recommend Naibis. 
These Naibis, or emblematic cards, 
differed somewhat, according to time 
and country, but generally were 
partly of full-length figures, illustra- 
tive of some condition of life, such 
as an Emperor, an Empress, a Pope, 
a Hermit (5, 6, 7, 8),) and partly of 
symbolic designs, such as the World, 
the Sun, the Moon, a Tower struck 
by Lightning, the Last Judgment, etc, 
as in those of Charles VI. Each 
one had at the top a number in Ro- 
man numerals, and at the bottom, 
below the design, its name, generally 
in French. Exactly how many Nai- 



CARD-GAMES 



147 



CARD-GAMES 



bis were in a pack originally is not 
known, but the number probably 
differed at different times. 

Toward the end of the 14th cen- 
tury it is supposed that these instruc- 
tive cards were adapted, by certain 
changes, to the use of older persons, 
in the hope of restraining them from 
playing Dice and other games of haz- 
ard. Part of the original Naibis be- 
ing selected, certain other cards, in- 
tended to teach a moral lesson, such 
as Death, Temperance, the Devil, 
and the Last Judgment, were added, 
making the whole number of such 
cards 22. To these were added 56 
other cards, divided into four suits 
of fourteen cards each, each suit 
made up of four picture or coat-cards 
(corrupted into court-cards), repre- 
senting a King, a Queen, a Cavalier, 
and a Valet, or man-servant, and of 
ten numeral, or pip-cards, numbered 
from one to ten. These additions 
made the full pack consist of y8 
cards, divided into five suits, the 22 
Naibis forming a suit by themselves, 
superior to the other four suits. For 
this reason they were sometimes 
called also atutti (French atouts, 
above all), and trionfi (French tri- 
omphes, triumphs), from which comes 
our word trumps. The pack of cards 
thus made was called by the Italians 
Tarocchi, because used to play the 
game of that name, and by the 
French Tarots. 

The use of cards spread rapidly 
throughout Europe, but different peo- 
ple soon began to alter the mode 
of combining them and their sym- 
bols, according to their own notions. 
In Florence, the number of emblem- 
atic cards was increased to 41, mak- 
ing 97 in all. In Bologna, the pack 
was reduced to 62, and finally the 
first of the five suits, the emblematic 
cards, was thrown out altogether and I 
one coat-card, or honor, was dropped \ 
from each of the remaining suits, \ 
making the pack 52, the number now 
generally in use. The coat-card 
generally omitted was the Cavalier, | 
but the Spaniards, who would not I 



allow the figure of a lady on their 
cards, dropped the Queen, and the 
Germans sometimes kept an upper 
and a lower Knave in place of the 
Queen and Knave. The Spaniards 
also threw out the four Ten-spots, 
making the pack to consist of but 48 
cards. In the early cards, the figures 
on the honors bore some resemblance 
to the persons they were intended to 
represent, but about the reign of 
Henry VII. of England, they began to 
take the grotesque forms which have 
since been most popular. Most 
English and American cards still 
show the costumes of Henry VII. 
and Henry VIII., though the full 
length figures have mostly given 
place to busts, printed double, and 
in reverse, on each honor, that the 
card may be the more easily known, 
whichever way it may be thrown on 
the table. Attempts to produce a 
better type of figures on cards have 
generally met with failure, as most 
card players prefer the ancient style. 
Toward the latter part of the 15th 
century, the French began to name 
the Kings, Queens, and Knaves on 
their cards, giving them historic or 
legendary titles, such as La Pucelle, 
(The Maid, that is — Joan of Arc), 
the Dukes of Burgundy and Nor- 
mandy, etc., and Helen, Venus, La 
Sybille, etc. About the time of 
Henri IV., the Kings were generally 
called David, Alexander, Caesar, and 
Charlemagne ; the Queens, Rachel, 
Argine, Pallas, and Judith ; and the 
Knaves, Hector, Lancelot, Roland, 
and Hogier ; and these names were 
afterward generally employed until 
the custom ceased. At the time of 
the French Revolution, when royalty 
was discarded, the signs of royalty 
were removed from the French 
cards ; the Kings were replaced by 
sages and philosophers, the Queens 
by emblematic figures of virtues and 
liberties, and the Knaves by warriors 
or Roman heroes. Napoleon had 
these changed for artistic designs 
by the painter David, but after the 
Emperor's downfall the people pre- 



CARD-GAMES 



148 



CARD-GAMES 



ferred to go back to the old style. 
Other attempts, in later times, to 
make cards vehicles of information, 
to teach arithmetic, grammar, geog- 
raphy, history, mythology, etc., have 
also failed. 

The signs or marks of the four 
suits of cards have varied in different 
countries. The earliest used in 
Italy were coppe (cups, 9), spade 




(swords, 10), denari (money, 11), 
and bastoiii {Q\M\:iS, 12). These were 
called by the Spaniards copas (cups, 
13), espadas (swords, 14), oros or 
dineros (money, 15), and bastos 
(clubs, 16). The Germans early 
employed other marks ; herzen or 
roth (hearts, 17), laub or griin 
(leaves, 18), sc he lien (bells, 19), and 
eicheln 'lacorns, 20). The French, 




Gamel. 



Hindoo Cards. 



24. Horse. 



during the second quarter of the 
15th century, adopted the signs 
of coeurs (hearts), carreaux (dia- 
monds), trdfies (trefoils), and piques 
(pikes). The trefles wem taken 
probably from the German eicheln 
or acorns, which they somewhat 
resemble ; 2iX\A piques from the Ger- 
man griin, or leaves, though they 



got their names from a fancied re- 
semblance to a pike head. These 
marks have since been generally 
adopted by all other nations, except- 
ing the Spaniards, who still use the 
old Italian marks. Other symbols 
have, however, been in vogue at 
different times, the Germans, about 
the beginning of the 15th century, 



I 



CARD-GAMES 



149 



CARD-GAMES 



using animals, flowers, fruit, etc. 
One old German set has for suit 
marks dogs, falcons, stags, and 
ducks ; another, rabbits, parroquets, 
pinks, and columbines ; and a third, 
lions, monkeys, parrots, and pea- 
cocks. In 1862, during the Civil 
War in the United States, cards 
were printed in New York with 
eagles, shields, flags, and stars for 
suit marks, and a colonel, the God- 
dess of Liberty, and a major, for 
King, Queen, and Knave. The 
English seem to have adopted all the 
French suit marks together with 
the French names for the two red 
suits, but to have taken the Italian or 
Spanish names for the two black 
suits, calling trejies clubs, a transla- 
tion of the Italian bastoni or the 
Spanish bastos ; and piques spades, 
which is derived from spade or es- 
padas, the Italian and Spanish words 
for swords. 

Cards were at first made much 
larger than now, some of the early 
German ones being seven by four 
inches. They were, too, sometimes 
made square, and sometimes circu- 
lar. Hindoo and Persian cards are 
often circular, about 2^ inches in di- 
ameter, though those used in Tehe- 
ran are generally of the European 
size and shape. Hindoo cards are 
sometimes of eight suits of twelve 
each and sometimes of ten suits of 
twelve each. The suit marks are 
birds, swords, suns, moons, etc. 
(21, 22, 23, 34). Persian cards have 
generally 96 in the pack, with suns, 
moons, harps, sabres, etc., for suit 
marks. Chinese cards are long and 
narrow, from 2| to 2 inches long by 
I to i^ wide (25, 26). They are 
printed with black ink on thin white 
cardboard, and the backs are black, 
red, or plain white. Japanese cards 
are much like the Chinese, differing 
only in their marks. 

The earliest card game played is 
supposed to have been Tarocchi, in- 
vented at Venice, played with 'jZ 
cards, called from it Tarocchi cards, 
or, in French, Tarots. This was 



followed by the Florentine game of 
Minchiata, played with 97 cards ; 
by the Bolognese game of Taroc- 
chino, with 62 cards, and by the 
Venetian game of Trappola, with 40 
cards. Frusso (Flush), Bassetta, 
and Fri?niera, were also other early 
Italian games. Primiera, called in 
Spain and England Primero, and in 
France Prime and A?nbigu, was the 
ancestor of our Brag and Poker. In 
Germany, one of the earliest games 
played was Landskfiechtspiel (Foot- 
soldiers'-game), called in French 
Lansquenet. The oldest Spanish 
game is probably Ombre {H ombre, 
man), called Omber in England, 
where, as well as in France, it was 





25. Court Card. 26. Pip Card. 

Chinese Cards. 

once much played. There were 
many modifications of it, among 
them Quadrille and Solitaire, Eng- 
land has no national game of cards, 
unless Whist may be so considered, 
the games played there being de- 
rived from Italy, Spain, or France. 
Primero, one of the earliest, was 
fashionable from the reign of Henry 
VIII. to that of James I. It was suc- 
ceeded by a game called Mauve ; 
then came Gleek, Omber, Quadrille, 
Reversis, and Bassett ; and finally 
Ruff, and Honors, which, about 
1650, led to Whist. The card games 



CASINO 



150 



CASINO 



usually played now are described in 
special articles in this book. 

CASINO, or Cassino, a game of 
CARDS played best by four persons, 
but sometimes by two, three, five, 
six, or even more. The players may 
be divided into two sides, or play 
each for himself. The dealer deals 
from a full pack four cards, one at a 
time, to each player and lays four 
more face upward on the table, either 
as he deals or all at once. When 
the players' cards are gone, four 
more are dealt to each one until the 
pack is used up, but none are put on 
the table except at the first deal. 
The leader (or elder hand) can take 
not only all cards of the same value, 
among those on the table, but also 
any cards the number of whose 
spots, added together, equals his. 
Thus a Nine will take not only all 
other Nines on the table, but at the 
same time a Five and a Four ; a Six 
and a Three ; a Seven and a Two : 
an Eight and an Ace ; a Four, a 
Three, and a Two ; or any other 
cards which will make nine when 
their spots are added. Face cards 
can take only corresponding face 
cards. If the leader has no card that 
will take anything, he must lay some 
card on the table, but if he has left 
in his hand a card that will take the 
card laid down, in connection with 
others on the table, he can make a 
pile of the cards he is able to take, 
at the same time announcing to the 
other players with what card he 
means to take them at a subsequent 
time, though not necessarily his next 
turn. If the cards so piled form a 
single group it is called " building," 
if several groups, it is "calling," or 
duplicating. Thus if a player com- 
bine a Six from his hand with a Two 
and an Ace on the table, and say 
" Nine," it is only a " build," but if 
he include in the pile a Nine-spot on 
the table or another group the sum 
of whose spots is nine, he must say 
" Nines " (using the plural) and it is 
a "call." The cards of neither a 
build nor a call can be taken separ- 



ately by pairing, but an adversary 
may raise a build in amount by the 
addition of another card, while a call 
cannot be raised. A call must be 
taken by the card it represents, either 
alone or with other similar piles. 
The second player may likewise take 
what he can with his card, or build, 
or call, remembering in either case 
that a build can always be treated 
like a single card, while a call can- 
not. 

If he can do none of these things 
he must lay down a card with the 
others. The players in turn have 
the same choice till the pack is ex- 
hausted. When the pack has been 
played, he who takes the last trick 
takes also the rest of the cards on 
the table. Each player then counts 
his points according to the table 
given below : 
Big Casino (the Ten of Diamonds) 

counts 2 

Little Casino (the Two of Spades) i 

Each Ace .1 

The greatest number of Cards . 3 
The greatest number of Spades . i 

Besides this, when a player has 
taken all the cards on the board at 
once (except at the end of the game) 
it is called a sweep, and counts i. 
A sweep is generally marked by 
facing or turning over one of the 
cards in the pile of tricks belonging 
to the player who makes it, so that, 
when the points are counted at the 
end of the hand, there is no trouble 
in remembering it. 

The person or side first making 
ten points usually wins the game; 
but when only two persons or sides 
are playing, the count is sometimes 
made by giving to him who makes 
the greatest number of points in a 
hand only the difference between his 
points and those of his opponent, 
while the latter scores nothing ; thus, 
if A has 8 and B has 5, A scores 3 
and B nothing; while if they are 
equal, neither scores. If three play 
in this way, the two lowest add their 
points and subtract their sum from 
the highest, and no one scores when 



i 



CAT 



151 



CAT 



this sum equals or exceeds the 
highest. The game is made longer 
by counting thus, but it can hardly 
be done when more than three are 
playing separately, as usually no one 
could score. 

In playing Casino, when no card 
on the table can be taken it is best to 
lay down face cards. These are of 
the least use in one's own hand and 
the hardest to take on the table, 
since no combinations can be made 
with them. Care should be taken in 
laying down an ace, for in taking it 
with another ace your opponent wins 
two points for the final count at 
once, and it is also the easiest card 
to combine. It would be better even 
to lay down Big Casino, for that can 
be taken only by a ten. After the 
learner has played the game once or 
twice other suggestions will soon 
offer themselves. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. The tricks must not be examined 
nor counted before all the cards are 
played. 

2. If the dealer show a card before 
any of the four in the middle are 
dealt, or if he dealt too many or too 
few cards to any one, he must deal 
again. 

History. The word casino is 
Italian and means little house. Club 
houses where people meet for amuse- 
ment are often called casinos, and 
this game may have been so named 
because it was a favorite at such 
places. 

Kapak, or Russian Casino. In 
this form of the game the Knave 
counts II, the Queen 12 and the 
King 13. There is no "building." 
Sweeps are called " Kapaks," and 
Big Casino and Little Casino are 
called respectively the " Good Ten " 
and " Good Two." Clubs count 
instead of Spades, as in ordinary 
Casino, and the " Good Two " (Little 
Casino) is the Two of Clubs. In all 
other respects Kapak is played like 
ordinary Casino. 

CAT, a game played by any num- 
ber of persons with a piece of wood 



called a Cat. The Cat is a piece of 
wood about six inches long and i^ 
or 2 inches thick, sharpened at both 
ends. If it is laid either on level ground 
or with one end projecting over a 
hole, and the end be struck down 
quickly with a bat, it will rise in the 
air, twirling, 
and may then 
be struck away 
The Cat. with the bat. 

The game may 
be played in various ways. In the 
simplest, a large ring is made and 
one player, standing within it, strikes 
the cat as described above. If it fall 
within the ring, he is out and another 
player takes his place. If it fall out- 
side he guesses how many lengths of 
the stick it is from the center of the 
ring. The distance is then measured, 
and if it is less than his guess, he is out ; 
but if not, he scores that number of 
points and has another turn. After 
as many rounds as have been agreed 
upon, the player scoring the most 
points wins. 

Another way of playing is to make 
as many holes in the ground as there 
are players on a side ; the holes are 
made as nearly as possible in a circle 
and at equal distances. A player, with 
a bat, stands at each hole, and all 
the players on the other side stand 
ouside the circle. One of the bats- 
men strikes the Cat, and then all run 
around the circle. Every time they 
reach new holes the side scores one 
run. The next player in order then 
strikes the Cat, and so on. But if a 
player on the other side can throw 
the Cat between any two holes be- 
fore the player who has left one of 
them reaches tlie other, the runner 
is out, and when one or more play- 
ers are out (whichever has been 
agreed) the sides change places. 
When each side has been at the bat 
the number of times previously agreed 
upon, the game is ended, and the side 
that has made most runs wins. 

This game is very old. It was 
known to the Venetians in the i6th 
century. It is a common sport also 



(SAT'S CRADLte 



l^i 



CAt*S CRAt)LE 



in Hindostan, where it is called 
Gulli Danda. It may have been 
taken to India by Venetian traders, 

CAT'S CRADLE, a game played 
by two persons with a string, four or 
five feet long, whose ends are tied 
together. The string, which is held 




on the hands of one of the players, is 
removed by the other, and so on al- 
ternately ; it assuming a different form 
each time. Some of the variations, of 
which there are many, are shown m 




the illustrations. The player who 
begins holds his hands in front of him 
with the palms toward each other, and 
the string passing around the backs. 
He then takes a turn around the 




fig- 3- 

string with each hand so that it also 
passes across each palm. He then 
passes the middle finger of his right 



hand under the part that crosses the 
opposite palm, and pulls it back as 
represented in Fig. i. After he has 
done the same thing with the left 
middle linger, the string appears as 




Fig. 4. 
in Fig. 2. The second player now 
seizes the upper strings, with the fin- 
ger and thumb of each hand, as 
shown in Fig. 3, pulls them over the 
outside string, and pushing them up 




inside, takes the strings off in the 
shape shown in Fig 4. Other varia- 
tions are shown in the illustrations 
which follow. Each is made from 
some previous arrangement by one 




1- ig. 6. 



player's taking the string from the 
hands of the other. The proper 
way of doing this may be studied 
out by the learner, who may also 



CAtCH I'HE TEN 



1^^ 



CAVfil^Mfi 



invent many of new figures to suit 
himself. The different arrangements 
are often called by special names. 
In Germany some of them are " The 
Single Cross." " The Double Cross." 
" The Water " and " The Violin." 
History. This game, which is 




probably of great antiquity, is found 
in nearly all parts of the world. 
The Dyaks, or natives of Borneo, are 
very skillful at it, making many kinds 
of puzzling figures, and the Maoris 
of New Zealand are also fond of it. 
The latter call it Mam, the name of 




their national hero, by whom they 
say it was invented. Its various pat- 
terns represent incidents in Mani's 
life, and other events, forming a kind 
of pictorial history of the country. 

CATCH THE TEN, or Scotch 
Whist, a game of CARDS played by 
two to eight persons with a pack 
from which the Twos, Threes, Fours, 
and Fives are omitted. If it is nec- 
essary, one or more of the Sixes may 
also be left out, that the cards may 
be equally divided. The cards rank 
as in Whist, except in the trump 
suit, where the Knave is higher than 
the Ace. When two persons play, 
three hands of six cards are dealt to 
each, which must be kept separate 
and played in the order in which 
they are dealt. When three play, 
two hands are dealt to each in like 



manner. When more than this num- 
ber play, each is dealt one hand, the 
cards being divided evenly. In all 
cases the last card is turned for 
trump. Six persons may play in two 
partnerships of three each or three of 
two each ; and eight may form two 
sides of four each or four of two 
each. The players must sit so that 
no two on the same side are together. 
The cards are played as in whist. 
Each card above the party's share in 
the tricks taken scores one toward 
game. Thus, if three are playing 
each one's share of cards is 12, and 
if one of them takes 5 tricks (i 5 cards) 
he scores three points. In like man- 
ner, if four are playing, two against 
two, and one side take 6 tricks (24 
cards) they score 6, the share of the 
party being 18. In addition, the five 
highest trumps count for those who 
take them as follows : 

Knave, 11 

Ace, ....... 4 

King, 3 

Queen, 2 

Ten, ....... 10 

It will thus be seen that the prin- 
cipal object of the game, aside from 
making tricks, is to take the one con- 
taining the Ten of Trumps, for the 
Knave, being the highest card, can- 
not be taken from its owner. 

Hence the name " Catch the Ten." 
He who has the Ten should try to 
save it by playing it on a trick already 
taken by his partner, or by trumping 
with it. If a player have the two 
highest trumps, he should lead them, 
in hope of catching the Ten, or of 
enabling his partner to save it. In 
other respects the rules for playing 
are similar to those of Whist. If a 
player revoke, his side loses the game. 
CAYENNE, a game of cards, 
played by four persons, two against 
two, with a full pack. The cards 
are dealt as in whist, and the dealer, 
after turning the last as trump, de- 
cides which of four games shall be 
played. These are called respec- 
tively, " In Suits," "Grandissimo," 
" Cayenne," and " Nullissimo." The 



THE CENTAUR 



154 



CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 



game In Suits is like whist except 
that the dealer turns down the trump 
card and makes a new trump, and 
every trick more than six counts 2 
points. In the Cayenne game the 
turned trump is retained and the odd 
tricks count 4 each. In the Grand- 
issimo game there is no trump, and 
the odd tricks count 6 each. 

Nullissimo is like Grandissimo ex- 
cept that the object is not to take 
tricks, and the odd tricks count 4 
apiece to the opposite side. The 
Ace, King, Queen, Knave, and Ten 
are called Honors. Three Honors 
count 2, Four Honors 4, and Two 
Honors 6. It will be seen that the 
more difficult the game the more 
valuable are the tricks. If the dealer 
has a long suit and knows he can 
get the lead, he will probably choose 
to play Grandissimo. If he has a 
very poor hand he will choose Nul- 
lissimo. 

CENTAUR, THE, a diversion in 
which two boys or men personate a 
Centaur, a creature of Greek mythol- 




Fig. I. — The Centaur. 

ogy, half man and half horse. One 
player stands erect, and the other, 
behind him, bends his body so that 
his back is horizontal, and holds 
the first player's hips with his hands, 
as in Fig. i. A table-cover or shawl 
is thrown over the second player and 
pinned around the waist of the first, 



and a tail, like a horse's, is made of 
strips of cloth or paper and pinned 
to the shawl in the rear. The Cen- 
taur should hold a bow and arrow in 
his hand, and have a cloak thrown 
loosely over his shoulder and over 
one arm, while the other is bare (See 
Fig. 2). Two Centaurs may engage 




Fig. 2. — The Centaur. 

in a combat, but this requires some 
practice. There should be signals 
arranged between the front and rear 
performer, so that the latter will 
know what to do, and the two should 
also practise the ordinary paces of 
the horse, such as walking, trotting, 
and galloping. Imitation hoofs of . 
pasteboard may be made and fast- 
ened over the shoes. 

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE, Experi- 
ments on. I. Tie a stone or any 
other heavy object to the end of an 
elastic cord and swing it around in a 
circle by the other end of the cord. 
The cord will be stretched. The 
reason is that the stone strives to 
move in a straight Hne ; the cord 
confines it to a circle, hence the stone 
stretches the cord in its effort to get 
away. This outward pull exerted 
by the stone is generally called cen- 
trifugal force (Latin centrum, centre, 
2Si^fugo, to fly). Let go the cord 
and the stone will fly off as if it had 
been thrown in the direction in which 
it was moving when it was released. 



CHARACTERS 



155 



CHARACTERS 



2. Half fill a quart pail with water, 
tie a cord about two feet long to the 
handle, and swing the pail in a circle. 
The water will not fall out, even 
when the pail is upside down. The 
reason is that its centrifugal force 
makes it press against the bottom of 
the pail. 

3. Take the same pail, and after 
twisting the string tightly, allow it 
to untwist, spinning the pail horizon- 
tally, or use a twirler to make it 
spin. The water will heap itself up 
against the sides of the pail, leaving 
a hollow in the centre. The faster 
the pail spins, the higher the water 
will be at the edge, and as it stops 
spinning the water surface will grow 
level again. 

4. Put into the pail equal quantities 
of water and some kind of oil that 
will float on it. Spin as before, and 
the water will seek the edge of the 
pail, leaving the oil within. It is on 
this principle that machines are made 
to separate the cream from milk in a 
few minutes. 

5. Suspend a small fish-globe by 
tying a string around the top, which 
should have a groove. Spin it as 
before, and then pour into it about a 
tumblerful of water. The water 
will leave the bottom entirely, and 
form a ring around the middle of the 
globe. 

6. Wet a TOP and then spin it. 
The water will be thrown off in spray 
from all sides. 

CHARACTERS. The name of two 
different games. I. A game played 
by any number of persons, one of 
whom leaves the room while the 
others agree on some historical char- 
acter he is to represent. He is then 
called back and each player asks 
him a question or makes a remark 
to him as if he were the character 
agreed upon. From these questions 
he must try to guess what character 
he is supposed to represent, and if 
he succeeds, the person whose ques- 
tion enabled him to do so must 
represent the next character. The 
questions are usually put so as to 



puzzle the guesser as much as possi- 
ble. For instance, if Washington be 
the character agreed upon, one player 
may ask, " Do rifle balls bound from 
you as if you were made of rubber? " 
(referring to his remarkable escape 
in the French and Indian war) ; 
another, " Do you think mid-winter 
the best time for crossing rivers ? " 
(referring to the passage of the Dela- 
ware) ; and another, " Have you 
outgrown your early fondness for 
destroying fruit trees ? " Instead of 
historical characters, persons well 
known to all the company are some- 
times selected, which often makes the 
game more amusing. 

II. A game in which each player is 
given one letterof the name of an his- 
torical character, the players seating 
themselves in the order in which the 
letters occur in the name. Each one 
then selects another character whose 
name begins with the particular let- 
ter assigned to him, and the player 
sent out, being re-called, tries to 
guess each of these by questioning 
the others one by one, in any order 
he pleases. He is not to be told 
whether or not he has guessed aright, 
but when he thinks he has found out 
several he may guess the name of the 
character agreed on by the company 
and must be told whether this guess 
is correct. If it is not, he must find 
out more initial letters and try again. 
The player whose letter enables him 
to guess correctly must take his 
place as guesser for the next game. 
If the name selected has more let- 
ters than the number of players, 
several of them may take two or 
more, and if there are more players 
than letters, part or all of the name 
may be repeated ; but the guesser 
must be told, in the first case, which 
players have more than one letter, 
and the order of those letters, and, 
in the second case, which player has 
the last letter of the name. 

Century Court, a kind of Charac- 
ters, in which the person who leaves 
the room is given the name of a 
whole century instead of a single 



ACTING CHARADE 



156 



CHECKERS 



character. On his return he is 
charged with all the crimes of the 
century and praised for all its good 
men or events. As in the game just 
described, this goes on till the person 
guesses the century he is supposed 
to represent. 

ACTING CHARADE, a play, the 
scenes of which represent respect- 
ively the syllables of some word and 
the whole of that word. Thus, the 
word may be carpet, when there 
would be three scenes, representing 
the words Car, Pet, and Carpet. The 
different scenes may be parts of the 
same play, or each may be complete 
in itself. Acting charades may be 
learned from printed books, like other 
plays, but usually the performers 
merely agree on the plot and fill in 
the dialogue to suit themselves, as 
the play goes on. 

For an evening's amusement, the 
company may be divided into two 
parties, each with a leader. One of 
the parties acts a charade while the 
other forms the audience and tries to 
guess the word represented, and 
then the parties change places. 

A word or syllable may be acted 
by being actually represented, or by 
being mentioned frequently. Thus, 
the syllable "car," in the above exam- 
ple may be acted by representing the 
interior of a car, with passengers 
and conductor, though the word 
itself is not once spoken, or any other 
scene may be given in which a car is 
a subject of conversation. Of these 
two methods, the former is the best 
where it is possible. Charades are 
most enjoyable when there has been 
least preparation. Scenery and cos- 
tumes should be made from the 
materials nearest at hand. The 
leader should act as stage manager 
and the other players should obey 
him exactly. He should tell each 
what to do, taking advice and sug- 
gestions from the others, but always 
deciding himself on the course to be 
followed. It is better merely to in- 
dicate the general plot, leaving the 
players to use what words occur to 



them at the moment. Two persons 
can thus often make a very comical 
dialogue without any previous re- 
hearsals, and, as all are equally with- 
out preparation, a failure is not dis- 
graceful. 

CHECKERED GAME OF LIFE, 
a game played by two persons on a 
checkered board, with counters and 
a TEETOTUM. The squares bear 
numbers and also pictures descrip- 
tive of different events in a man's 
life, beginning with his birth and 
ending in various ways, some success- 
ful, others not, the object being to 
reach the Temple of Fame at the top 
of the board. The players each 
enter in turn a counter in the first 
square, and their course of play is 
determined entirely by twirling the 
teetotum, there being no skill in the 
game. He who first reaches the 
Temple of Fame wins. 

This is the type of a great number 
of games, all probably derived from 
Backgammon or Patchesi, and many 
having for an object the combination 
of instruction with amusement. The 
oldest of such games was probably 
the Game of Goose, which was play- 
ed as long ago as 1800. This was 
called in Yx2.xizt Jeu de VOie (Game 
of Goose), and in an old French col- 
lection many similar games are de- 
scribed, among them those of " His- 
tory," " The Revolution," " The 
Atlas," "The Navy," and "The 
Monuments of Paris." 

CHECKERS (called Draughts in 
England), a game played by two 
persons, each of whom has 12 pieces 
or men, on a checkered board divided 
into 64 squares of two colors, gener- 
ally black and white. It may be 
played either on the black squares, 
as it usually is in America, or on the 
white squares, as it always is in 
England, but on whichever color it 
is played, the board must be so placed 
that a square of the same color shall 
be in the lower left-hand corner. In 
the accompanying diagrams, for con- 
venience of illustration, the game is 
supposed to be played on the white 



CHECKERS 



157 



CHECKERS 



squares. The checkers, or men, 
which are also of two colors, and 
are all equal, are arranged at the 
beginning of the game in three lines 
on each side, as shown in Fig. i : 

The players take turns in moving, 
and each has but one move at a 
time. The men are moved diagon- 
ally (corner-wise), one square at a 
time, either to the right or to the left, 
but always forward. If, however, 
a man reaches the last line of squares 
on the opposite side of the board, it 
becomes a King, is covered by having 
another one put upon top of it (or 
sometimes by turning it over, if it is 
made with a crown on the 
under side), and it may then 
move either backward or 
forward, but still only one 
square at a time. When 
two hostile men meet each 
other, the one having the 
move can capture the other, 
if there is a vacant square 
next beyond it, by jumping 
over it into that square. The 
man thus jumped is removed 
from the board. If several 
men are exposed with a va- 
cant square behind each, 
they may all be jumped at 
once and all removed from 
the board, the capturing man 
being left on the last square 
occupied. If a man be in a 
position to be taken, the 
player having the move must 
capture it. If he neglect to 
capture it and make some 
other move, the opponent may let 
the move stand and remove from 
the board the man which ought to 
have made the capture. The man 
thus forfeited is said to be huffed, 
or " blowed," sometimes accom- 
panied with the gesture, and the 
player who thus huffs has then the 
right to make his own move, for the 
act of huffing does not count as a 
move. If, however, the player having 
the right to huff prefers not to do so, 
he may insist on his opponent's 
capturing the piece, and then the 



man improperly moved must first be 
replaced on the square from which 
he was moved. As two or three 
men may sometimes be captured at 
once, the player neglecting to take 
all of them may be huffed by his 
opponent. This often happens to 
young players, who do not readily 
see all the men which may be jumped. 
The object of the game is to capture 
all the men of the opposite player, 
or to block them so that they cannot 
move. If, towards the close of a 
game the two players are so evenly 
balanced that neither can win 
— as, for example, when each has 




Checker Board. 
Fig. I. — Arrangement of Men. 

one king — the game is said to be 
drawn. 

The Move. The player who occu- 
pies such a position on the board that 
in the ordinary course of play he can 
force his opponent's men into a con- 
fined position is said to " have the 
move." There are several ways of 
finding out who has the move, 
which will be learned easiest by 
playing with some one who under- 
stands the game, or by playing 
through the games given below. 
When one has not the move, one can 



CHECKERS 



158 



CHECKERS 



often win it by skillful playing. Hav- 
ing the move does not mean having 
the first move, for the first player 
has no advantage over his oppo- 
nent. The second player really has 
the move, but it is of no advantage 
to him so early in the game. Dur- 
ing the game the move is sometimes 

with one and sometimes with 

the other side, but the skillful 
player will generally keep it 
at the close of the game. 
It is customary to number 
the squares of the board in 
the way shown in Fig. 2, 
as the moves of the game 
are always given by num- 
bers, as in the columns be- 
low. By playing through 
these games, the beginner 
will easily learn what are the 
best moves on each side. 

Openings. There are a 
great many ways of begin- 
ning the game of Checkers. 
These, which are called 
" openings," have generally 
received special names. 
Some of them are given 
below : 

The Ayrshire Lassie : 

II — 15 24 — 20 

8 — II 28 — 24 

The Bristol : 

II — 16 24 — 20 

16 — 19 

Sometimes any game begun by 
the move 11 — 16 is called Bristol. 

The Cross : 



The Laird and Lady : 

II— 15 23—19 

8 — II 22 — 17 

9—13 
The Maid of the Mill : 

II — 15 22 — 17 

8— II 17—13 

15—18 




II— 15 

The Defiance : 


23- 


-18 


II— 15 
9—14 
The Dyke : 
II— 15 


23- 

27- 

22- 


-19 
-23 

-17 


15- 
The Fife 


-19 






II— 15 

9—14 

5—9 
The Glasgow : 
II— 15 
8— II 


23- 

22- 

23- 
22- 


-19 
-17 

-19 
-17 


II- 


-16 







Checker Board. 
Fig. 2. — Method of Numbering. 

The Old Fourteenth : 

II— 15 23—19 



4-8 



22 — 17 



The Invincible : 

II— 15 24- 

The Single Corner : 



-19 



22—18 



23—19 
22 — 17 



23—19 
22 — 17 



II— 15 
The Souter : 
II— 15 
9—14 
6-9 
The Whilter : 
II— 15 
9—14 
7— II 
The Will o' the Wisp : 

II — 15 23 — 19 

9—13 

The " Bristol " was so named by 
the player Anderson in compHment 
to ' the checker players of Bristol, 
England. The " Defiance " is so 



CHECKERS 



159 



CHECKERS 



named because it prevents the 
formation of the " Fife " game. 
The " Dyke " is so called because 
in many of its positions the men are 
formed in lines. The " Fife " was 
named in 1847 after Wylie, a player 
from Fifeshire, Scotland. The 
" Glasgow " was named in like man- 
ner from Sinclair of that city in 1828. 
The " Laird and Lady," " Maid of 
the Mill," and " Souter " (shoemaker) 
were named from people whose favor- 
ite openings they were. The " Old 
Fourteenth " was the fourteenth 
game in Sturges's work on checkers. 
The " Whilter " (a Scotch word, 
meaning a confusing change), and 
the " Will o' the Wisp " are named 
from the unexpected plays they 
often introduce. 

Sample Gaines, In these games 
Black is supposed to be at the top 
and White at the bottom of the 
board. Care should be taken to 
crown each man that reaches the 
king-row, 



-row. 


GAME I. 


BLACK. 


WHITE. 


II to 15 


22 to 18 


15 " 22 


25 " 18 


8 " II 


29 " 25 


4" 8 


25 " 22 


12 " 16 


24 " 20 


10 " 15 


27 " 24 


16 " 19 


23 " 16 


15 " 19 


24 " 15 


9 " H 


18 " 9 


II " 25 


32 " 27 


5 " 14 


27 " 23 


6 " 10 


16 " 12 


8 " II 


28 " 24 


25 " 29 


30 " 25 


29 " 22 


26 " 17 


II " 15 


20 " 16 


15 " 18 


24 " 20 


18 " 27 


31 " 24 


14 " 18 


16 " II 


7 " 16 


20 " II 


18 " 23 


II " 8 


23 " 27 


8 " 4 


27 " 31 


4" 8 


31 " 27 


24 " 20 


27 " 23 


8 " II 


23 " 18 


II " 8 


18 " 15 


Black wins. 



GAMI 


: II. 


BLACK. 


WHITE. 


9 to 14 


22 to 18 


II " 15 


18 " 9 


5 " 14 


25 " 22 


15 " 19 


23 " 16 


12 " 19 


24 " 15 


10 " 19 


22 " 17 


6 " 10 


27 " 24 


16 " 15 


17 " 10 


7 " 14 


29 - 25 


8 " II 


25 " 22 


14 " 18 


22 " 17 


18 " 22 


17 " 14 


22 " 25 


21 " 17 


25 " 29 


17 " 13 


4 " 8 


32 " 27 


3 " 7 


24 " 20 


15 " 18 


14 " 9 


19 " 23 


26 " 19 


18 " 22 


27 " 24 


White 


wins. 


GAME 


in. 


WHITE. 


BLACK. 


22 to 18 


II to 16 


25 " 22 


10 " 14 


24 " 20 


16 " 19 


23 " 16 


12 " 19 


18 " 15 


7 - 10 


20 " 16 


14 " 18 


29 " 25 


9 " 14 


27 " 24 


5 " 9 


24 " 20 


8 " 12 


31 " 27 


I " 5 


15 " II 


10 " 15 


22 " 17 


18 " 22 


17 " I 


22 " 31 


II " 8 


4 " II 


16 " 7 


3 " 10 


I " 6 


31 " 24 


6 " 13 


5 " 9 


13 " 6 


2 " 9 


30 " 26 


9 " 14 


26 " 22 


14 " 18 


22 " 17 


19 " 23 


28 " 19 


15 " 24 


17 " 14 





Drawn. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

I. The choice of men and the first 
move in the first game must be de- 
cided by lot ; the most common way 
is for one of the players to hold one 
of the men in his hand, and let the 



CHECKERS 



1 60 



CHECKERS 



other guess whether it is black or 
white. The winner of the choice 
has the right either to play first or to 
call upon his opponent to do so. 
After the first game, the men should 
be changed each game, so that each 
player shall use the black and the 
white by turns, and not become so 
accustomed to either as to be unable 
to use the other, and the first move 
is to be taken by turns, whether the 
game be won or drawn. 

2. Neither player must touch the 
squares of the board nor point at the 
board with his finger, and never 
touch a piece unless he means to 
move it. 

3. If the men get out of 
place, a player may first tell 
his opponent that he intends 
to replace them and then do 
so ; but if, after they are set 
right, a player touches a 
piece, it being his turn to 
play, he must move it, if 
possible. 

4. When a man is in a 
position to be taken, the 
player having the move must 
capture it ; and the opposite 
player may insist on his do- 
ing so, or may huff the man 
having the right to capture, 
as he chooses. After huff- 
ing, the player may then 
make his own move. 

5. No matter how long a 
man has been liable to cap- 
ture, it may at any time be 
huffed, or the opponent may at any 
time be obliged to capture it. 

6. When two or more men are 
liable to capture, the player having 
the move may take whichever he 
chooses ; for example, if one can be 
captured in one way and two in 
another way, he may take either the 
one or the two. 

7. If a player delays moving more 
than three minutes, his opponent may 
request him to play ; and if he does 
not move within five minutes after 
being requested to, he loses the game. 

8. When, near the close of the 



game, only a few men are left, the 
player having the stronger force may 
be compelled at the pleasure of the 
referee to finish within a certain num- 
ber of moves ; and, if he cannot do 
this, the game is declared drawn. 
[For example, if two kings remain 
against one king, the referee might 
require the former to win in twenty 
moves — that is, twenty on each side.j 
Give-Away, or the Losing Game, 
a game having the same moves and 
rules as checkers, in which the player 
who first gets rid of all his men wins. 
The object of each player is to force 
his opponent to capture as many men 
as possible, and, by opening his own 



■ I'B 


2 P 


3 


H 


4 




Mm 


« 


8 ^ 




^°H 


11 


W 


13 


^« ■ ® ■ ^^ ■ 


m\ 


■ 




"H 


19 


B 


m 


^^ ^P ^^ ^m ® ^m. 


«■ 




^^P 




mm. 




^® ^P 


27 


'm. 


uu 




■ 1 


W^ 


W^A 


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^ 31 1 


fi 


3S 1 


M 



Fig. 3.— Polish Checkers. 

game freely, especially the squares in 
his king-row, to compel him to make 
kings. It is thus the opposite of 
checkers. Although not so difficult 
to play as the latter, it requires con- 
siderable skill and attention to play 
well. Great care is necessary to 
keep the move, for the player who 
has it ought to win. 

Polish Checkers. The board and 
the men are arranged as in common 
checkers and the moves of the men 
are the same — that is, always for- 
ward diagonally, and one square a' 
a time ; but in capturing, the mei 



CHECKERS 



i6i 



CHECKERS 



have the privilege of jumping either 
forward or backward. When a man 
reaches the opposite King-row, it is 
crowned a king as in the other game, 
but it has far greater powers, similar 
to those of a bishop in chess. It 
may move not only one square at a 
time, backward or forward, but it 
has also the privilege of passing over 
several squares, and even the whole 
length of the diagonal, when the 
passage is free, at one move. The 
method of capture, both of the men 
and of the kings, may be explained 
easiest by Fig. 3, the game being 
supposed to be played on the white 
squares, as it generally is in Europe. 
If White has a man at 20, 
and Black has unsupported 
men at 16, 7, 6, 14, 23, and 
24, White, having the move, 
may capture them all and 
finish at square 20 again. 
In this long jump or succes- 
sion of jumps. White, it will 
be noticed, enters the oppo- 
site King-row at 2, but does 
not stay there, for he is 
obliged to keep on jumping 
until he has captured all the 
men which can be taken ; 
and he does not thus win the 
right to be made a king, as 
that can be only when the 
man remains in the King- 
row. Good players will take 
advantage of this, when they 
cannot keep their opponent 
from getting into their King- 
row, and by putting a man or two 
in the way of capture, lead him out 
of it again into the middle of the 
board. It is sometimes good play to 
throw away even three men, espec- 
ially toward the end of a game, to 
keep the enemy from getting a King. 
The men jumped must not be re- 
moved from the board until the cap- 
turing man has finished and is at 
rest, because the latter cannot pass 
twice over any square with a man on 
it, but must stop behind that man 
which, but for this rule, it might 
jump. But a vacant square may be 



passed or repassed several times in 
the course of one move, provided 
that no man is leaped a second time. 
The king has even more power than 
the bishop in chess, for in moving 
he may not only pass from one end 
of the board to the other, but in 
capturing he may also make angles. 
For instance (Fig. 4), if a king stand 
at 18, he may move to any square on 
the hne from 4 to 29, or from 5 to 
32. Again, if a White king stands 
at 31 and Black men or kings are at 
22, 6, 16, and 24, the former captures 
them all by jumping to the squares 
13, 2, 20, and 27, where he rests. 
From this it will be seen that 




Fig. 4. — Polish Checkers. 

though the common man can jump 
a piece only when there is a vacant 
space next beyond it, the king can 
pass to any empty square on the 
diagonal. The king having so great 
power can keep out of his opponent's 
way much more easily than in com- 
mon checkers, and with skillful 
players many games are drawn. If, 
at the end of a game, White has only 
one king while Black has three. 
White can draw the game if he can 
get on the central line between 4 and 
29, and know how to play properly. 
If he cannot get on the central line, 



CHECKERS 



162 



CHECKERS 



Black may win in several ways, but 
the game is drawn if he does not do it 
in fifteen moves. When a player who 
has only one king, while his oppo- 
nent has a king and two men, offers 
to crown the two men so as to oblige 
him to win in fifteen moves, the 
opponent must accept the offer or 
the game is drawn. When at the 
end of a game, one party has a king 
and a man against three kings, it is 
best to sacrifice the man as soon as 
possible, as the game is more easily 
defended by a king alone. When 
two men of one color are so situated 
that an opponent can move between 




Fig. 5.— Pyramid. 

them, and thus be in a position to 
leap either way, it is called a lunette. 
This situation happens much oftener 
in the Polish than in the common 
game, and it is frequently a snare 
laid by good players to catch the 
unskillful ; for by moving into the 
lunette in hope of catching one of his 
opponent's men the poor player often 
finds himself entrapped and forced to 
lose several of his own. With these 
few exceptions the rules of Polish 
checkers are the same as those for 
common checkers. This game is 
usually played on the continent of 
Europe on a board with 100 squares. 



each player having 20 men arranged 
in four rows ; but in Germany it is 
often played as in America — on a 
common checker-board of 64 squares, 
with the usual number of men. 

Pyramid, a game in which the men 
are arranged in the form of a pyra- 
mid, as in Fig. 5. The moves are 
always diagonally forward, and hos- 
tile men must be jumped as in check- 
ers, but the man jumped is not 
removed from the board. The 
player's object is to form his men in 
the same pyramid that was occupied 
at first by his enemy, and he who 
does this soonest wins. This is the 
simplest game that is played 
on a checker-board, though 
considerable skill may be 
shown in moving the men 
and getting them in position. 
Halma, or Hoppity, a kind 
of PYRAMID played on a 
checker-board of 256 squares 
by two or four persons with 
men shaped like the Pawns 
in CHESS, though common 
checkers may be used, as 
shown in Fig. 6. In the two 
handed game each player 
has 19 men which are placed 
closely together in opposite 
corners of the board, as in 
Fig. 6, occupying both dark 
and light squares. The play- 
er's object, as in Pyramid, is 
to move his own men into 
the places of their opponents, 
but either friends or enemies can be 
jumped, and in any of the possible 
eight directions, which increases the 
interest. The simple move can also 
be made in any direction. In play- 
ing, an arrangement of the pieces in 
a row with an empty space between 
each two, into which a man may 
jump, is called a ladder, because a 
piece can sometimes go from one 
end to the other in a single move, 
by a series of leaps. Ladders should 
be arranged as much as possible 
where they will aid the player's own 
men, and avoided where they will 
help his opponent. The game may 



CHECKERS 



163 



CHECKERS 



be divided into three parts, the first 
part called the Gambit, which con- 
sists in getting all the men outside 
the squares originally occupied ; the 
second or Melee, when the opposing 
men are mingled ; and the third or 
Packing, getting the pieces into order 
on the opposite side. When four 



persons play, each has but 13 men, 
arranged in the same kind of a 
figure as in the two-handed game. 
Each may play for himself, or the 
opposite players may be partners, in 
which case each tries to help the 
other as much as possible, instead 
of hindering him. 




Fig. 6. — Halma. 



Japanese Checkers. This is 
played on a board like the one in the 
figure made from one of 100 squares 
by joining alternate pairs, forming 
oblong figures, which are the only 
ones used in playing (See Fig. 7.) 

Each of the players, who sit oppo- 
site, has 9 men like Pawns in chess, 
though ordinary checkers may be 
used, as in the illustration, and also 



a Mikado, and a Daimio. The Mi- 
kados and Daimios are like the men 
in shape, but of different size, the 
former being the larger. Each 
player places five men in the row 
nearest him, and four men with the 
Mikado in the second row, the 
Mikado being in the middle, as 
at M in the diagram. No man 
can jump the Mikado, but for the 



CHECKERS 



164 



CHECKERS 



first one that reaches the King-row 
a Daimio is substituted, who is al- 
lowed to jump the Mikado. In all 




Japanese Checkers. 



Other respects the game is precisely 
like ordinary checkers. 

History. The game of checkers 
is supposed to be older than chess. 
A game somewhat like it was known 
in Egypt more than four thousand 
years ago, and pictures representing 
King Rameses II, called Sesostris 
by the Greeks, who lived about 1400 
B.C., playing it with some of the 
women of his household are still to 
be seen on the walls of his palace at 
Thebes. One of these is shown in 
the accompanying illustration, in 
which only the edge of the board is 
seen, but the checkers are like little 
ten-pins. 

Other forms of Egyptian checkers 
are shown in the following, taken 
from pictures on temples or from real 
pieces found in the tombs. Some 
of these are made of ivory and 
some are earthenware ; and some of 
them have heads of cats, dogs, and 



other animals. How the Egyptians 
played the game is not known, but 
the modern Egyptians play it just as 
we do. It was not 
known in Europe 
until about the 
sixteenth century, 
when it is sup- 
posed to have been 
brought from the 
East. The word 
checkers is derived 
from the squares 
of the board. 
Draughts means 
simply moves. In 
Italy the game is 
called dama, and 
in Germany Da- 
men, both. oi^Nh\ch 
mean ladies; and 
in France it is 
called Le jeu de 
dames, the Ladies' 
Game. In all these 
countries, wh ere 
the PoHsh game is 
mostly played, the 
king is called the 
queen. The prin- 
cipal draught-games played by the 
ancients were the Ludus Latrun- 
culorujn (Soldiers' Game) of the 
Romans, and the Plinthio7i or Polts 




Rameses II. playing Checkers. 

(TToAff) of the Greeks. In both of 
these a man could be captured only 
by placing an opponent's man on 



CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 165 CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 



each side of him. The Greeks called 
the men Dogs. The donkey boys 
in Cairo, Egypt, play a game like 
this, and some think Alexander the 
Great carried it to Egypt. The Chi- 
nese have a Checker game called 
Wei-Chi (Game of Circumvention), 
in which a man is taken by being 
surrounded with four hostile men. 
Captain Cook found the Sandwich 
Islanders playing a Checker game 
with black and white pebbles on a 
board of 14 by 17 squares. Some 
writers think that our Checkers is 




Egyptian Checkers. 

not derived directly from any of the 
ancient games, but is a lower form 
of CHESS, which in its turn was de- 
veloped from an old Hindoo Draught 
game. 

CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
These should be tried if possible in 
a room used for nothing else, in the 
attic, the cellar, or an outbuilding. 
Old clothes must be worn, or, better 
still, an apron with sleeves, made to 
cover the whole body. A plentiful 
supply of water should be at hand. 
An old table or a large packing box 
may be used to try the experiments 
on. The different experiments are 
told about in separate articles, but 
processes used in all or several of 
them are described here to avoid 
repetition. 

Heating. This may be done by an 
ordinary alcohol lamp, or, where there 
is gas, with a Bunsen burner (Fig. i), 




Fig. I. — Bunsen 
Burner. 



to be bought at a chemical ware- 
house, which gives a hot flame with- 
out much light. An ordinary lamp 
or gas flame would 
deposit soot on the 
vessel heated. A 
home-made Bunsen 
burner can be ob- 
tained by inverting a 
glass funnel over a 
gas jet as shown in 
Fig. 2. The gas 
mixes with air and 
burns without smoke. 
When gas is used the 
burner is connected with an ordinary 
gas burner by rubber tubing. When 
a glass vessel is to be heated it 
should be placed on a piece of wire 
gauze, shaped to 
receive the bot- 
tom. The gauze 
is laid on an iron 
ring with three 
legs by which it 
is held over the 
lamp. These 
rings, called 
tripod stands, 
(Fig. 3) can be 
bought, but four 
pieces of strong 
wire laid cross- 
wise, their ends resting on blocks of 
wood, will do. To heat the contents 
of a vessel slightly, it is placed over 
a water bath, which can be made of 




Fig. 2. — Home-made 
Bunsen Burner. 




Fig. 3. — Tripod Stand. 

a tin patty-pan with a cover of tin 
in which a hole has been cut with 
strong scissors. The hole must be 
the same size as the bottom of the 



CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS i66 CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 



flask or bottle to be heated. Partly 
fill the pan with water, put the flask 
in the hole, and then boil the water. 
Glass working. To bend glass- 
tubing hold it in the tip of the lamp 
flame as shown in the picture, turn- 




Fig. 4. — Bending Glass Tube. 

ing it slowly around and moving it 
forward and backward to heat a con- 
siderable length of it. The sense of 
feeling will tell when it can be bent. 
Bend it slowly and carefully, remov- 
ing it from the flame, and putting it 
back when it needs to be softened 
more. Practice will enable any one 
to make a good bend. Do not bend 
at a right angle but make a succession 
of gradual bends, carrying the tube 
around in a curve. To make a glass 
jet, heat as before, draw the ends of 
the tube straight apart till the heated 
part is about as large as the lead in a 
pencil. When cool, scratch this neck 
with a file, when it will easily break. 
Two pieces of glass tubing may be 
united by melting the ends and press- 
ing them together, but a better way 
is to use a piece of rubber tubing, 
which makes a flexible joint. Ordi- 
nary tubing can be broken squarely 
off by first making a scratch with a 
three-cornered file, and then break- 
ing it. If the glass and the working 
tool be kept wet with spirits of turpen- 
tine, tubes can be filed completely 
apart or a hole can be bored through 
a sheet of glass with a rat-tail file. 



Collecting Gases under Water. 

Fill a pan with water deep enough to 
cover entirely the jar in which the gas 
is to be collected, when laid on its side. 
Lay the jar on its side till it is full of 
water, and then turn it mouth down- 
ward, the opening being kept 
under water. The water will not 
run out of the jar. If there is 
the least bubble of air in it the 
filling must be done over again. 
Support the jar on two strips of 
wood, so that its mouth will still 
be under water, or stand it on a 
tin saucer, turned upside down, 
having a hole cut in its side and 
one in its bottom, as shown in 
Fig. 5. Fasten to the end of the 
glass tube leading from the bottle 
in which the gas is made, a piece 
of rubber tubing about two feet 
long. Push the end under the 
saucer through the hole in the 
rim, and up in into the jar through 
the hole in the top. As the gas is 
made, it will bubble through the wa- 
ter to the top of the jar, where it 
collects, pushing the water gradually 
out at the bottom. 

Filtering. To separate a powder 
from a liquid it is necessary to use 
filter paper which may be bought in 
small circular pieces. Fold one of 
the pieces, A, as shown in Fig. 6 at 
B, expand it as at C, and placing it in 
a glass funnel, as at D, pour upon 
it the mixed liquid and powder. The 




Fig. 5.— Collecting Gases under Water. 

liquid will slowly pass through the 
paper, leaving the powder behind. 

Gas-holder. Where gases are to 
be kept in any considerable quan- 
tity, a gas-holder is needed. It may 
be bought of a dealer in chemist's 



CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 



167 



CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 



materials, or made as follows. Take 
two tin pails, one about two inches 
less in diameter than the other, and 
several inches shorter. Remove the 
handles of both, and have a tinman 
cut a hole in the bottom of the 
smaller pail, soldering- to it a tube 
about an inch long, and just large 
enough to fit tightly the size of 
rubber tubing you wish to use. Fill 
the larger pail with water, and press 
the other down into it, letting the 
air escape through the tube. When 
all the air is replaced with water, 
slip a piece of rubber tubing over the 
tin tube and connect it with the bottle 




Fig. 6. — Filtering. 

where the gas is making. As the 
gas enters the upper pail, the pail 
will rise in the water. When enough 
has been collected, close the rubber 
tube with a pinch cock, to prevent 
the gas from escaping till it is wanted. 
When gas is wanted, remove the 
pinch cock and place a slight weight 
on the upper pail. Another kind of 
gas-holder which can be bought, is 
made of rubber, like a bag. 

Corks. Choose corks that are cut 
across the grain rather than with it, 
as they are tighter. Corks may also 
be made tighter by dipping them in 
melted paraffine. To fit a glass tube 
in a cork, bore a hole in the cork a 
little smaller than the tube, using a 



sharp knife or, better, a cork-borer 
(see list below). Moisten the tube, 
and work it through the hole. Rub- 
ber stoppers with one or more holes 
may be bought, and the holes not in 
use may be plugged with pieces of 
glass rod. When they get hard they 
may be softened by soaking them in 
turpentine. Ordinary corks may be 
softened and made easier to bore by 
rolling them under foot. 

The chief things needed to perform 
the experiments described in this 
book, besides those mentioned above, 
are given below in an alphabetical 
list, with the prices for which they 
can usually be obtained, though these 
vary a good deal. 

ARTICLES FOR CHEMICAL EXPERI- 
MENTS. 

Alcohol. Price, about 60 cents a 
quart. 

Alcohol Lamp. Price, 30 to 50 
cents. 

A7nino7iia Water. Strong. Price 
about 40 cents a quart. 

Anthnony . Price, 20 cents a 
pound. 

Balance. Useful for weighing, 
but not necessary, as the druggist 
will weigh substances in the desired 
amounts when they are bought. 

Bisjnuth. Ask for metallic bis- 
muth. Price, about 20 cents an 
ounce. 

Bisulphide of Carbon. Be care- 
ful not to bring it near a flame, as its 
vapor is very inflammable. Price, 20 
cents a pound. 

Bituminous Coal. This can be 
obtained of a blacksmith, if no dealer 
is near. 

Blue Vitriol or Copper Sulphate, 
Price, 8 cents a pound. 

Caustic Soda. Price, 15 cents a 
pound. 

Chalk. Ask for carpenter's chalk, 
Blackboard crayons are not made 
of real chalk. Price 3 cents a 
pound. 

Chlorate of Potash. Price, 25 cents 
a pound. 

Copper. Scraps can be obtained 
of a plumber. Old cartridge shells 



CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS i68 CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 



may be used. Price of clippings at 
a chemist's, 40 cents a pound. 

Cork Borers. In sets of 6 ; price, 
about %\. 

Defiagration or Combustion 
Spoon. Price, 15 cents. One can 
be made by attaching to a 
wire a piece of chalk with 
a hollow scooped in it. 

Drying Bottle, a bottle 
to dry gases. The stopper 
must have in it two tubes. 
The one by which the gas 
enters reaches nearly to 
^^ the bottom, the other by 
X^ which it leaves is short. 
p. Fill the bottle with lumps 

^J"* ^' of unslaked lime, or with 
^tion'^^' pumice stone soaked in 
Spoon, strong sulphuric acid. 

Dutch Leaf. In "books"; 
price, 15 cents. 

Files. About 6 inches long; 
price, 30 cents. 

Filter Paper. Price, from 8 

cents to 82 cents per hundred 

sheets, according to size. 

Fish Globe. Price, about %\. 

Flasks. Half-pint size, 15 cents 

apiece. The flasks in which olive 

oil sometimes is sold can ^_ , 

be used. 

Fluor Spar. Price, .\o 
cents a pound. 

Funnels. Price, about 
10 cents apiece. 

Glass Tubing and rods 
(ask for soft glass). 
Price, 35 cents a pound. 
t\ inch inside diameter 
is about the size needed 
for tubes, but if rubber 
stoppers are used the 
tubes Sfiould be bought 
to fit the holes in the 
stoppers. 

Gold Leaf . In "books"; 
price, 40 cents. 

Graduated Tube or "graduate." 
Price, about 50 cents. One good 
enough for the experiments in this 
book can be made by scratching lines 
on a test tube a quarter of an inch 
apart. 



c.c. 

62' F. 

100^0 

90-^10 
80-B-20 



/£: 



A 



Fig. 8. 
Graduate. 



Hydrochloric Acid (ask for it 
"chemically pure"). 20 cents a 
pound. 

Ignition Tubes, for making oxy- 
gen. Price, 20 cents. 

Iodine. Price, 35 cents an ounce. 

Iron Sulphide. Price, 15 cents a 
pound. 

Jars, or wide-mouthed bottles. 
Fruit jars or pickle bottles can be 
used. " Bell jars " or receivers cost 
from 45 cents to $5, according to 
size. 

Jets of glass ; directions for mak- 
ing given above. 

La?np Black ; directions for mak- 
ing in article CARBON. 

Lead, Sugar of, or Acetate of 
Lead. Deadly poison. Price, chemi- 
cally pure, 10 cents an ounce. 

Lime, unslacked (caustic lime). 
Price, 5 cents a pound. 

Lime Water. Made by dissolv- 
ing a little unslacked lime in water 
and letting it stand till clear. 

Lime, Chloride of, or " bleach- 
ing powder." Price, 10 cents a 
pound. 

Litmus. Price, 10 cents an ounce. 

Magnesium Ribbon. Price, 75 
cents an ounce. 

Manganese Dioxide, or black ox- 
ide. Price, 15 cents 
an ounce. 

Marble, lumps of, 
can be obtained at a 
marble cutter's for lit- 
tle or nothing. 

Mercury. Price, 60 
cents a pound. 

Mercury, Red Ox- 
ide of. Price, 10 
cents an ounce. 

Nitric Acid, chem- 
ically pure. Price, 17 
cents a pound. 

Phosphorus. Price, 
15 cents an ounce. Keep in a bot- 
tle of water, and never touch with 
the naked hand. 

Pinch Cock, for closing rubber 
tubing. Price, 30 cents. 

Potassium. Price, 50 cents a 
drachm. 




Pinch 



ock. 



CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS 



169 



CHESS 



Rubber Stoppers, Price, $2,25 per 
pound. Get them to fit the flasks 
and bottles you intend to use. 

Sal Ammoniac. Price, 10 cents a 
pound. 

Sugar of Lead. See Lead. 

Sulphur. Price, 5 cents a pound. 
Comes in two forms : roll or stick 
sulphur, called also brimstone, and 
flowers of sulphur, or powdered 
sulphur. 

Test Tubes. Size 5 X f inches. 
Price, 35 cents a dozen. Old medi- 
cine phials will sometimes serve the 
purpose. 




Fig. 10.— Test Tube and Holder. 

Thistle Tube. Price, about 16 
cents. 

Test Tube Holders. (A folded 
strip of paper, passed around the 
tube, is a good substitute). 

Tin. Pure tin-foil. Price, 10 
cents an ounce. Common tin-foil 
often has lead in it. 



Wire. All kinds to be bought at. 
a hardware store. 

Wire Gauze. Price, a few cents 
a foot. 



Fig. II.— Thistle Tube. 

Tripod. Small size. Price, 20 
cents. 

Tur7neric Paper. Price, 80 cents 
a quire. A few cents worth is all 
that is needed. 

Turpentine, Spirits of. Price, 20 
cents per pint. 

U-shaped Tubes. Price, about 10 
cents each. 

Universal Support (see Fig. 12.) 
Price, $2. 

Watch Spring, old, to be obtained 
of any watchmaker. 

Wax, yellow. Price, 45 cents a 
pound. 




Fig. 12. — Universal Support. 

Yeast. Small yeast cake, costs 2 
cents at a grocery. 

Zinc, granulated, for making hy- 
drogen. Price, 30 cents a pound. 
Clippings of old zinc will do. 

CHESS, a game played by two 
persons on a board containing 64 
squares, of two colors arranged al- 
ternately, generally black and white 
or red and white. Each player has 
16 chess-men, of a different color, 
each consisting of eight " Pieces " and 
eight " Pawns." The Pieces are 
King, Queen, two Rooks or Castles, 
two Bishops, and two Knights, and 
each of these has a Pawn, or soldier. 
The men are generally carved figures, 
but sometimes round, flat pieces, with 
the figures of the men on the top. 

At the beginning of the game the 
board should be so placed as to 
have a white square at each player's 
right. The lines of squares running 
up and down the board are usually 
called " files," those from right to 
left " ranks " or lines, and those 
cornerwise " diagonals. " By a simple 
system, each square on the board 
has a name taken from the piece 
commanding it at the beginning of 
the game. This is most easily shown 
in the following diagram, Fig. i : 



CHESS 



170 



CHESS 



It will be seen that the square on 
which the King stands at the begin- 
ning of the game is named the King's 
square, the one in front the King's 
2d, next the King's 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 
7th, and 8th. These count the same 
from the other side of the board, so 
that one player's King's 8th square 
is the other player's King's square. 
The Queen's squares are named in 



the same way; and the Bishops, 
Knights, and Rooks are named 
King's Bishop, Knight, or Rook, or 
Queen's Bishop, Knight, or Rook, 
according as they stand on the King's 
or the Queen's side. The Pawns 
are named after the pieces in front 
of which they stand, thus : King's 
Pawn, Queen's Pawn, King's Bish- 
op's Pawn, Queen's Rook's Pawn, etc. 



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K.B.6. 


•E-IH-H 
K.Kt.6. 


•E-H-H 
K.R.6. 


Q.R.5. 


Q.Kt.5. 


•fr-ab 

Q.B.5. 


•fr-b 

Q.5. 


K.5. 


•fr-a^H 

K.B.5. 


K.Kt.5. 


K.R.5. 


•S-Hb 
Q.R.4. 


Q.Kt.4. 


•Sat) 

Q.B.4. 


•Sb 

Q.4. 


•S-H 
K.4. 


•Sa-H 

K.B.4. 


•£-:iH-H 
K.Kt.4. 


•S-H^H 
K.R.4. 


•9Hb 
Q.R.3. 


•9'lHb 
Q.Kt.3. 


•gab 

Q.B.S. 


•9b 
Q.3. 


•9-H 
K.3. 


•ga'H 

K.B.3. 


•g^iH-H 

K.Kt.3. 


•9-H^H 
K.R.3. 


Q.R.2. 


Q.Kt.2. 


•^•ab 

Q.B.2. 


Q.2. 


•^•H 

K.2. 


•^•a->i 

K.B.2. 


•^•^H'H 
K.Kt.2. 


•^•H^H 
K.R.2. 


•8-H& 
Q.R.Sq. 


•85Hb 
Q.Kt.Sq. 


•gab 

Q.B.Sq. 


•8b 

Q.Sq. 


•8-yL 

K.Sq. 


•8a'H 

K.B.Sq. 


K.Kt.Sq. 


•8*H'3[ 
K.R.Sq. 



Fig. I. — Method of Notation. 



The following are the abbrevia- 
tions used : 

K King 

Q ----- Queen 

B Bishop 

Kt. Knight 

R Rook 

P Pawn 

Sq. ----- Square 
Ch. or 4-, - - - Check 



Dis. Ch. - - Discovered Che«k 

J - - - Checkmate 

X - - - - takes 

A move is described by giving 
the name of the piece and the 
square to which it is moved. 
Thus, Q to K.B. 4, or simply Q— 
K.B. 4, means that the Queen is 
moved to King's Bishop's fourth 
square. 



CHESS 



171 



CHESS 



In the diagrams in this article the 
pieces will be designated thus : 



King, . 
Queen, . 
Bishop, . 
Knight, . 



J. 



Rook, . . 



Pawn, 



At the beginning of a game the 
men are set as in Fig. 2. 

By means of this simple notation 
games not only can be completely 
described on paper in a brief space, 
but they can be played by telegraph 
or post, the contestants be- 
ing hundreds or thousands 
of miles apart. Very skillful 
players are also thus enabled 
to play games bhndfolded, 
the moves being described to 
them as they are made. Paul 
Morphy, a celebrated Ameri- 
can player, could carry on 
eight games at once in this 
way, without seeing any of 
the boards. 

The first move being de- 
cided, the players take turns, 
each moving one man at a 
time. The men are moved 
each in a different way, as 
described below, but no piece 
except the Knight can pass 
over another man in mov- 
ing. When a man can be 
moved to a square occupied 
by a hostile man, the move 
can be made, and the hostile 
man, which is said to be taken, 
or captured, is removed from the 
board. A man is said to " com- 
mand " any square to which it can 
move, and a man that can be cap- 
tured is said to be " en prise " 
(French for " in position to be 



taken "). Each player's object is to 
" checkmate " his opponent's King, 
and to effect this he endeavors to 
weaken his enemy's force by captur- 
ing as many of his men as possible. 
How the King is checkmated will be 
described below. 

MOVEMENTS OF THE MEN. 

King. The King can move but 
one square at a time (except in cast- 
ling), but this move may be forward, 
backward, sidewise, or diagonally in 
either direction. Unless he is on the 
edge of the board he thus commands 
eight squares. The King is the only 
piece that cannot be taken. When 
the square on which he stands is 
commanded by an enemy's piece 
he is said to be " in check." He 
is not allowed to move into check, 
even to take a man, and a square on 
which he would be in check is there- 
fore said to be " guarded." When 



m 



Wy. 






mm ''WM ''WB ^W" 




Fig. 2. — Method of Setting the Men. 

either player moves any of his men 
so as to put his opponent's King in 
check he must cry " check ! " as a 
warning, and the King is then said 
to be " attacked." If a player checks 
by moving out of the way a piece 
that was between the King and the 



CHESS 



172 



CHESS 



checking piece, it is called a " dis- 
covered check." If, at the same 
time, the moved piece also gives 
check, it is called a " double check." 
The player whose King is in check 
must either move him out of check, 
move a man between him and the 
checking piece, or capture the latter. 
When none of these things is possi- 
ble, the King is checkmated, and his 
side has lost the game. As stated 
above, the object of each player is to 
checkmate his opponent, and all the 
moves are made with this end in 
view. When the King, though not in 
check, cannot move without going 




Fig. 3. — Moves of the Knight. 

into check, and his owner can move 
no other man, there is said to be a 
" stalemate," and the game is consid- 
ered drawn. 

Once only, in the game, the King 
has the privilege of making, with one 
of the Rooks, under certain condi- 
tions, a double move called " castling." 
Castling may be performed on either 
the King's or the Queen's side of the 
board. If on the King's side, it is 
done by moving the King to K.Kt's 
square and then placing the King's 
Rook on K.B's square ; if on the 
Queen's side, by moving the King to 
Q.B's square, and then placing the 



Queen's Rook on Queen's square. 
This move has a double object : to 
remove the King from danger and to 
bring the Rook into play. The condi- 
tions under which the move may be 
made are as follows : The King must 
not have moved ; must not be in 
check ; and must not pass, in making 
the move, over or on to any square 
attacked by any man of the enemy ; 
the Rook must not have moved ; and 
there must be no piece between the 
King and the Rook with which he 
castles. 

Queen. The Queen, the most 
powerful of the pieces, can move in 
a straight line in any direc- 
tion, forward, backward, side- 
wise or diagonally over as 
many squares as are unoccu- 
pied. Thus, if she is in the 
middle of the board, and the 
way is clear, she commands 
27 squares, as will be seen by 
trial. 

J^oo^. The Rook, or Castle, 
which is next in power to the 
Queen, can move backward, 
forward, or sideways, but not 
diagonally, as many squares 
as the way is clear. He thus 
commands 14 squares, and is 
the only piece whose range is 
not lessened by being placed 
on a corner square. 

Bishop. The Bishop can 
move diagonally forward or 
backward, but only on squares 
of the same color on which he stood 
when the game began. One of a 
player's Bishops is therefore always 
on white squares, and the other al- 
ways on black squares. 

Knight. The Knight can move 
one square either backward, forward, 
or sidewise, and then one diagonally. 
Thus the Knight in the middle of 
the diagram (Fig. 3), can move to 
any of the squares marked with a 
Knight. It is possible for the 
Knight to move thus in succession 
to every square of the board, occu- 
pying each square only once. This 
is called the Knight's Tour. One 



CHESS 



173 



CHESS 



way of performing it is shown in 
Fig. 4. 

The Knight can move whether the 
squares he passes over are clear or 
not, and he is the only piece which 
can thus leap over another man when 
moving. When a Knight gives check 
therefore, it is useless for his oppo- 
nent to move another piece between 
him and the King. The Knight is 
too the only piece which can be 
moved at the opening of the game, 
as it can leap over the Pawns which 
close the whole of the second rank. 
Unless the Knight can be captured, 
his check always forces the attacked 
King to move, as the Knight can 
leap over any blocking man. 




Fig. 4.— Knight's Tour. 

Pawn. The Pawn moves straight 
forward in the file on which it stands ; 
its first move may be either one or 
two squares, but after that it moves 
only one square at a time. When a 
Pawn while being moved two squares 
passes over a square commanded by 
a hostile Pawn, the latter is not de- 
prived of its privilege of capture and 
may take it just the same as if the 
Pawn had remained in the attacked 
square. This is called taking e7i 
passant (Fr., in passing). In cap- 
turing, the Pawn takes one step 
diagonally, to the right or the left, to 
the square occupied by the man 
taken, and after that continues on 
that file until it makes another cap- 



ture. When a Pawn reaches the last 
square of the file on which it is mov- 
ing, it is said to be " Queened," and 
receives the power and name of a 
Queen or of any other piece the 
owner chooses, except the King. 

The player must at once notify his 
opponent as to whether the Pawn has 
become a Queen, Knight, Bishop, 
or Rook, as it sometimes happens 
that the making of a Knight would 
win a game which a Queen would 
only lose or draw. A player may, 
therefore, toward the end of a game, 
have two or more Queens, two 
Bishops on the same color, etc. A 
second Queen is often indicated by 
replacing the Queened Pawn by a 
Rook turned bottom upwards 

When two of the player's Pawns 
are on the same file, they are said to 
be " doubled," and when one stands 
alone, and unprotected by other 
Pawns, it is called an " Isolated 
Pawn." A Pawn which is obstructed 
by no hostile Pawn, either on the 
same file or on those to the right and 
left, is said to be a " Passed Pawn." 
The Exchange. When a player 
by taking an opponent's piece exposes 
one of his own to capture, he is said 
to " make the exchange." In mak- 
ing exchanges the relative value of 
the pieces and Pawns must be care- 
fully considered. Aside from the 
added values which certain positions 
give to the men as the game advan- 
ces, the following rule gives the 
average value of each class of men : 

The Queen is equal in value to two 
Rooks; to two Bishops and a Knight; 
to two Knights and a Bishop; or, 
nearly to eight Pawns. 

A Rook is equal to a Bishop and 
one or two Pawns, or to a Knight 
and one or two Pawns. 

Bishops and Knights are of nearly 
equal value ; each is equal in value 
to three Pawns. The relative value 
of Bishops and Knights depends 
greatly on the more or less crowded 
condition of the board. When the 
lines are open the long stride of the 
Bishop gives him an advantage, but 



CHESS 



174 



in a close position, the leap of the 
Knight, together with the greater 
difficulty of calculating on his move- 
ments, increases his value beyond 
that of the Bishop. 

The value of the Pawns is greatly 
increased as they approach the Queen 
row. 

Drawn Games. It has already 
been explained that a stalemate is a 
drawn game. Other ways in which 
the game may be drawn will now be 
described. 

I. When a player with an infe- 
rior force finds an opportunity to 



ej 




Fig* 5" — White to play and mate in two moves, 



give such a check that his opponent, 
either upon moving his King or in- 
terposing a piece, subjects himself to 
a continued series of checks, it is 
called "perpetual check." 

2. Where there is not force enough 
to effect a mate, 

3. Where one player has force 
enough to mate, but is not skillful 
enough to do so in the required fifty 
moves (see Rule 21). 

4. Where both players continue to 
repeat the same series of moves 
through fear of each other. 

The moves and general character 



of the game have now been told, but 
it can be learned only by actual play. 
It is advisable to castle early in the 
game, and on that side upon which 
the King can be best protected from 
attack. The King's side is usually 
adopted for the reason that there are 
fewer pieces on that side to get out 
of the way. 

General Observations, The King 
becomes specially valuable when the 
other principal pieces have been 
taken. It is good play to check early 
in the game if by so doing castling 
is prevented, but it is bad play ever 
to check without an object. 
When a player's King is 
checked, he should interpose, 
if possible, some piece that at- 
tacks the checking piece, but 
never one of greater value. 

The Queen being the most 
valuable of the pieces, care 
must be taken that she is not 
placed on an open file or di- 
agonal in line with the King, 
permitting the enemy to pin 
her with a Bishop or Rook. 
The Queen not being able to 
move from the line, since the 
King would be left in check, 
has to exchange. This is 
called " losing the exchange." 
The same term is used also 
when a Rook is exchanged 
for a Bishop or Knight. 

The Rook can do Httle at 
the opening of the game, but 
later, especially after the 
Queens have been exchanged, it is a 
very important piece. 

The Bishop is of especial value in 
attacking a Knight or Rook. The 
King's Bishop being of special value 
by reason of his power of attacking 
the opposing King at the beginning 
of the game, should, if possible, be 
retained, whilst it would be well to 
endeavor to exchange a Queen's 
Bishop for the opponent's King's 
Bishop. 

The Knight should not be allowed 
to get to the side of the board, as his 
power is much lessened there. Tho 



CHESS 



175 



CHESS 



Knight often opens the game, and a 
skillful player can make him a very 
powerful piece. 

In playing the Pawns the player 
should try to obstruct the way of the 
enemy and keep his own clear. The 
Pawns united have great power, but 
separated very httle. The player 
who has Pawns at the end of a 
game, while his enemy has none, 
generally wins. The most important 
parts of a game are the beginning 
and ending, and a few special cases 
of these will be described. 

The following are illustrations of 
the use of the names and ab- 
breviations, and also of the 
check and checkmate : 

First : Suppose the men to 
be as in Fig. 5. 

If it be White's turn to play 
he can mate in two moves, as 
follows : 



shown in Fig. 6, called the Tread- 
mill : 

WHITE. BLACK. 

1. Kt. to B. 3 + P. takes Kt. (forced). 

2. B. to B. 5 dis. + K. to K. 4. 

3. R. fr Q. sq. takes 6.+ R. takes R. 

4. R.— K. 6 + K.— Q. 5. 

5. R.-K. 4 + K.-B. 4. 

6. R.— B. 4 + K.— Q. 3. 

7. R.-B. 6 + K.— K. 4. 

8. R.— K. 6 etc. 

and draws by Perpetual Check, the 
Rook going round like a wheel, 
while the King steps from one rung 
of the ladder to the other. 

GAME FOR PRACTICE. 

The beginner who has no experi- 



WHITE. 

).— K.R. sq. 
).XR. mate. 



Q.— K.R. sq. 
R.XR. mate. 



BLACK. 

Either R.XR. 



R. moves else- 
where. 



White plays for his best 
move — I, Q. — K.R.sq. Now, 
if Black with one of his Rooks 
takes one of the white Rooks, 
White plays 2, Q.XR., and 
can now say " check," for his 
Queen commands the square 
on which the black King is, 
and would take him, were he 
any other piece. The black 
King having now no piece 
which can be interposed, and two of 
the three adjacent squares being 
occupied by his own pieces and the 
third being likewise attacked by the 
hostile Queen, the King is check- 
mated. If, instead of moving a 
Rook to the end of square. Black 
plays one of his Rooks but one, two, 
or even five squares, then one of the 
white Rooks captures it and mate is 
given in the same manner. It is 
evident that the black Pawn cannot 
be moved, because the King would 
then be in check of the white Queen. 

An example of Perpetual Check is 




Fig. 6. 



WHITE. 

-The Treadmill. 



enced player for a teacher will learn 
much about the moves and the dif- 
ferent situations by playing, on the 
board, the following practice game, 
making each move slowly and care- 
fully, and trying thoroughly to under- 
stand the reasons given for it. 

The game, with the comments on 
the different moves, is from the trea- 
tise on Chess by Howard Staunton. 

WHITE. BLACK. 

1. P. toK. 4. I. P. toK. 4. 

2. B. to Q.B. 4. 2. B. to Q.B. 4. 
This constitutes the King's Bish- 
op's opening (see following). 



CHESS 



176 



CHESS 



3.Q.toK.R. 5. 

This threatens to checkmate Black 
by taking the K.B. Pawn with the 
Queen, and also threatens K.'s Pawn, 
but it is rarely right to play the 
Queen so soon. Black easily protects 
himself by the following move : 
3. Q. to Q. 2. 

4. Kt. to K.B. 3. 4. P. to Q. 3. 
Here, White attacks Black's K. 

Pawn again, but Black again defends 
it by bringing up another man. 

5. Kt. to K.Kt. 5. 

This brings three pieces to attack 
Black's K.B. P., which is defended by 
only two. 

5. Kt. to K.R. 3. 

Black here defends by bringing up 
a third piece. A skillful player would 
probably make instead an attack in 
another place, for instance by threat- 
ening White's Queen with Kt. to 
K. B. 3. 

6. Kt. to Q.B. 3. 

This move threatens to attack the 
Queen at Q. 5. 

6. P. to Q.B. 3. 
Black guards against the attack. 

7. Castles. 7. Castles. 
(Moving the K. (In the same way.) 

to K.Kt.'s sq. 
and the R. to 
K.B.'s sq.) 

As a rule, beginners should castle 
early in the game. 

8. P. toQ.'s3. 8. Kt. toQ. 2. 

Black acts wisely here in not at- 
tacking the Oueen at once by playing 
Q.B. to K.Kt". 5. 

9. K. to K.R. sq. 

The object of this move is to 
strengthen White's attack on the 
opposite King. He wishes to throw 
forward his K.B, Pawn, but while 
the King stands on Kt.'s sq. moving 
the Pawn would expose the King to 
check from the opposing Bishop. 
Therefore, he moves his King as 
above. 

9. Kt. to K.B. 3. 

This forces White to move his 
Queen, and makes Black's King 
secure, for a time. 

10. Q. to K.R. 4. 10. P. to Q. 4. 



Very well played, for if White 
does not take this Pawn with Pawn 
his Bishop is driven back ; while, if he 
does take it, he gives Black a chance 
to attack the white Queen with K.Kt. 
II. P. takes Q. P. II. Kt. to K.B. 4. 

This forces White to move his 
Queen, and there is but one square 
to which he can move her, all the 
others being attacked. 

12. Q. to K.R. 3. 12. Kt.toK.6. 
Black thus attacks at the same 

time White's Q. with his B., and R. 
with his Kt. 

13. Q. to K.R. 4. 

Instead of this he might have 
moved his foremost Pawn to Q.'s 
6th, threatening the black Queen, 
but the Queen might then have re- 
treated to her own square, where she 
would be safe. 

13. Kt. takes R. 

14. Q.Kt. to K.'s 4. 

Black exposes his Kt. to capture 
(see move 17), and White therefore 
simply exchanges his Rook for his 
enemy's Knight. This is called " the 
exchange." White loses the ex- 
change in this instance because a 
Rook ranks above a Knight. But 
in return for this loss he is enabled 
to attack the black King again. 

14. P. to K.R. 3. 

If Black had taken Kt. with Kt., 
White would have checkmated by 
taking K.R.P. with Q. If he had 
taken Q.P. with P., White would 
have checkmated in two moves by 
taking Kt. with Kt., checking, and 
then K.R.P. with Q., checkmating. 

15. P. to Q. 6. 

White defends himself by keeping 

up the attack. This is better than 

to move back the threatened Knight. 

15. B. takes P. at Q. 6. 

If Black had taken the Knight 
with Pawn instead, he would have 
lost the game. White would have 
taken P. with his Q.'s B., and check- 
mate would follow, as the learner 
can discover in a few minutes' study. 

16. Kt. to K.B. 3. 16. Kt. takes Kt. 

17. Q. takes Kt. 17. K. to R.'ssq. 

18. K. to Kt.'s sq. 



CHESS 



177 



CHESS 



White loses time here. His ob- 
ject is to take the Knight, but the 
Knight cannot escape and it would 
have been better to try to prevent the 
advance of Black's K.B. Pawn. 

18. P. to K.B. 4. 

19. Q. to K. 2. 

It would have been better to play 
Q. to K.R. 4, for now Black is likely 
either to release his Knight, or gain 
another piece in return for him. 

19. P. to K. 5. 

20. Kt. to K.Kt.'s 5. 

If Black should now try to take 

the Knight, he would lose the game. 

20. Kt. takes K.R.P. 

Black has now contrived to free 
the Knight. 

21. P. takes P. 21. P. takes P. 

22. Q.to K.R. 5. 

Having lost a Rook, White can- 
not afford to take the Pawn with 
his Queen and exchange Queens. 
He prefers to try and gain a Rook 
for his Knight. 

22. Kt.toK.Kt.5. 
Black does not attempt to prevent 

him. 

23. Q. to K.Kt. 6. 

White had better have checked 
with his Kt. at K.B, 7, as he in- 
tended. 

23. B. to K.B. 4. 
Black might safely have taken the 

Kt. with his K.R.P. 

24. Q. to K. R. 5. 

White could have gained the 
Rook for his Knight by giving check 
with the Knight, but then he would 
have had to exchange Queens, and a 
Queen would be a greater loss to 
him than to Black, since White's 
force is smaller. 

24. P. to K.Kt. 3. 
This prevents White from ex- 
changing the Knight for the Rook, 
and he retires. 

25. Q. to K.R. 4. 25. B. to Q.B. 4. 
The Black threatens to take 

White's Q. by first taking K.B. P., 
and to prevent it White must move 
his Queen or interpose his Q. 
Bishop. 

26. B. to K. 3. 



This costs White two pieces for 
one (see next three moves), but the 
other course would have been as bad. 

26. B. takes B. 

27. P. takes B. 27. Q. takes Kt. 
White can now be beaten by any 

experienced chess player. 

28. Q. toK.'ssq. 28. Kt. takes P. 

29. Q. toQ.B. 3(ch.) 29. K. to R. 2. 

30. Q. to Q. 2. 30. Q.R. to Q.'s sq. 

31. Q. toK. 2. 31. B. to K.Kt. 5. 

32. Q. to K.'s sq. 32, Kt. takes K.Kt.'s P. 

33. K. takes Kt. 33. B. to K.R. 6. 

Black thus gives a double check. 

34. K. takes B. 34. R. to B. 6 (ch.) 

35. K. to R. 2. 35. Q. to R. 4. (ch.) 

36. K. to Kt. 2. 36. Q. to Kt. 5 (ch.) 

37. K. to R. 2. 37. R. to R. 6. 

Checkmate. 
Black thus wins the game in 37 
moves. 

OPENINGS OF GAMES. 

Some of the different ways of 
beginning the game have received 
special names, and a few of these will 
now be given. It will be noted that 
in most of them the King's Pawn is 
moved first. This is because it clears 
the way not only for the King, but 
for the Queen and the King's Bishop. 
The KnigMs Opening. 

WHITE. BLACK. 

1. P. to K. 4 P. to K. 4. 

2. Kt. to K.B. 3. 

The King' s Bishop's Opening. 

1. P.toK. 4. P. toK. 4. 

2. B. to Q.B. 4. 

The Queen's Bishop's Pawn's 
Opening. 

1. P. to K. 4. P. to K. 4 

2. P. to Q.B.3 

The King's Gambit. 

1. P. to K. 4. P. to K. 4. 

2. P. to K.B. 4. P. takes P. 
The word Gambit is derived from 

an Italian term used in wrestling, 
meaning a tripping up. In the above 
opening, and similar ones, a Pawn 
is placed where it may be taken, so 
that the player losing the Pawn will, 
by reason of the loss of time caused 
to his opponent, be able to bring his 
strong pieces into position and will 
regain the Pawn, perhaps with in- 
terest, at a later stage of the game. 



CHESS 



178 



CHESS 



If the opponent take the offered 
Pawn, that constitutes the Gambit, 
but he often refuses so to do. There 
are many Gambits, known generally 
by the names of the players who 
devised them. The King's Gambit, 
given above, is considered one of the 
safest openings for beginners. There 
are numerous variations of all these 
different openings, and numerous 
methods of defense. For instance, 
in the Knight's opening. Black may 
make any of the following for his 




than 20 moves. With a King, 
Bishop, and Knight only against a 
King the game can be won also, but 
it requires some skill to do it, and 
the checkmate can be given only in 
a corner of the color on which the 
Bishop is running. With a King 
and one or two Knights only, or 
with a King and one Bishop only, 
checkmate cannot be given, and the 
game is drawn. The method in 
each case is to drive the opposing 
King to the edge of the board. With 
a King and two Bishops 
against a King this is much 
harder to do, but it can be 
done in about 30 moves. He 
who desires to become a skill- 
ful player should study the 
different cases that occur at 
the end of a game, examples 
of which can be found in 
any handbook or treatise on 
Chess. 



Fig. 7. — White to play and mate in four moves. 



second move. Each has been favored 
by skilled players. 

Q.Kt. to Q.B. 3. 

P. to Q. 3. 

K.Kt. to B. 3. 

or Q.Kt. to B. 3. 
If this last move is followed by 

WHITE. BLACK. 

3. B. to Q.B. 4. 3. B. to Q.B. 4. 
the opening is called the Ghwco 
Piano (Italian for Plain Game). 

ENDINGS OF GAMES. 

A game may end in various ways. 
If a player have a Queen and King 
against a King, he should win easily. 
With a Rook and King against a 
King, he should win in not more 



PL A YING WITH ODDS. 

In a game between a skilled 
player and a beginner, the 
former often gives the latter 
odds, that is, does, or agrees 
to do, something to his own 
disadvantage so that the con- 
test may be more nearly even. 
Sometimes he plays with a 
" Ringed Pawn," that is, he 
marks one of his Pawns by 
putting a ring over it, or in 
some other way, and agrees 
to checkmate with that particular 
Pawn. If he cannot do so, he loses 
the game. Sometimes the experi- 
enced player " gives the Pawn and 
move," that is, he takes his King's 
Bishop's Pawn from the board, and 
allows his opponent to move first. 
In like manner he sometimes gives 
Pawn and two moves, two Pawns 
and a move, a piece and one or more 
moves, or any of these without the 
move (see Rule 5). 

CHESS PROBLEMS. 

Chess Problems consist of certain 
arrangements of pieces, with which 
it is required to checkmate in a 
given number of moves. The study 



CHESS 



179 



CHESS 



of these problems is a great aid to 
the Chess player, and books have 
been published which contain noth- 
ing else. To show what they are 
like three problems are given below. 
The learner should try hard to solve 
them before looking at the answers. 

First Problem (Fig. 7). 
I. White. K. to Q.B. 5. 

It will be seen by a little study 
that the only piece Black can move 
is his King, and the only move the 
King can make without go- 
ing into check is K. to K. 5. 

2. White now moves B. to 
K.Kt. 2 (check). 

Black's only move is K. to 
K. 4 (retiring to his former 
post). 

3. R. to Q.B. 2. P. takes R. 
(Black's only move.) 

4. White moves Queen's 
Pawn two squares (as he is 
allowed to do, since it has 
not yet moved), and check- 
mates. 

Seco7id Proble?n (Fig. 8). 
White. Q. — Q.B. 8. Now 
if Black moves his Queen or 
the Knight at Q.R. 4, to 
Q.B. 5, White plays his 
Knight to Queen's sq., 
checkmating, because the 
black piece just played 
blocks the square previously Fig. I 
guarded by the Knight. 

If Black move the Knight at 
K. 4 anywhere, he leaves the 
Pawn at Q. 6 unguarded and 
White plays 2, R. takes P., mate. 
If Black move his Queen in any 
other way than to Q. B. 5, or if he 
move his Bishop anywhere, then 
White plays the Kt. at B. 7 to 
Q. 5., or Q.Kt, 5, giving check- 
mate, as the Kt. cannot be taken on 
account of discovering a check from 
the Queen. 

Third Problem (Fig. 9). The 
following ingenious position, by the 
great chess master Petroff, aptly il- 
lustrates the moves of the Knight in a 
crowded board. The disastrous re- 
treat of Napoleon (the Black King) 



from Moscow, in 1812, the harass- 
ing of his troops by the Cossack 
cavalry (the white Knights), the 
crossing of the river Berezina (the 
white diagonal running from K.R. 
sq. to Q.R. 8), and the final blow de- 
livered by the Russian emperor in 
person, are graphically depicted. 
The White K.R.'s sq., K.R. 8 sq., 
and Q.R. sq., represent St. Peters- 
burg, Paris, and Moscow respect- 
ively. 




WHITE. 

, — White to play and mate in two moves. 
SOLUTION. 

WHITE. ^ _ BLACK. 

1 Kt. to Q. 2, giving double check and forcing 

the Black K. to go to his Rook's 4. 

2 Kt. to B. 3 + K. to R. 6. 

3 Kt. from Q. 2 to Kt. sq. -f- K. to Kt. 5. 

4 Kt. to R. 2 -t- K. to Kt. 4. 

5 Kt. to R. 3 4- K. to R. 3. 

6 Kt. to Kt. 4 + K. to R. 2. 

7 Kt. to Kt. 5 4- K. to Kt. sq. 

8 Kt. to R. 6 + K. to B. sq. 

9 Kt. to R, 7 -)- K. to Q. 2. 

10 Kt. to Kt. 8 + K. to K. 2, 

11 Kt. to B. 8 + K. to B. sq. 

12 Kt. to Q. 7 4- K. to Kt. sq. 

13 Kt. to K. 7 4- . K. to R. sq. 

14 K.Kt. 3, discovering check and mate. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

The following rules, in substance, 
are used by all Chess players in the 
United States, being condensed from 
those adopted by the Fifth American 
Chess Congress. 



CHESS 



1 80 



CHESS 



1. The Chess board must be so 
placed that each player has a white 
corner square nearest his right hand. 

2. A deficiency in number, or a 
misplacement of the men, at the be- 
ginning of the game, when discov- 
ered, annuls the game. 

3. If a player, undertaking to give 
odds of a Piece or Pawn, neglect to 
remove it from the board, his adver- 
sary, after four moves, has the choice 
of going on with the game, or begin- 
ning it again. 

4. When no odds are given, the 
players must take the first move of 




WHITE. 

Fig. 9.— Retreat of Napoleon. 

each game alternately, drawing lots 
to see who shall begin the first game. 

5. The player who gives the odds 
has the right to move first, unless 
otherwise agreed. Whenever a 
Pawn is given it must be the King's 
Bishop's Pawn. 

6. A Piece or Pawn touched must 
be played, unless, a man not being in 
proper position, the player, before 
touching it, gives notice of his inten- 
tion to arrange it by uttering dis- 
tinctly the words " J'adoube " (I re- 
place). But a Piece or Pawn over- 
turned or displaced accidentally may 
always be touched to put it back. 



When the player's hand has once 
quitted the piece moved, the move 
must stand. 

7. While a player holds the Piece 
or Pawn he has touched, he may play 
it to any square to which it may 
legally move. 

8. Should a player touch one of 
his opponent's men without giving 
notice that he is only arranging it, 
he must take it, if he can, and if 
not, he must move his King ; but if 
he can do neither, then there is no 
penalty. 

9. If a player touch more than one 

of his own men, he must 
move either one that his op- 
ponent may name. 

10. If a player take one of 
his adversary's men by mak- 
ing a false move, his opponent 
may compel him to take it 
with a man which can legally 
take it ; or, to move his King. 

11. Should a player take 
one of his own men with 
another, his adversary may 
compel him to move either. 

12. If a man be played to 
a square to which it cannot 
legally be moved, the player's 
adversary may require him to 
move the man legally, or to 
move his King. 

13. If a player make two 
moves in succession, the ad- 
versary may take his choice 
as to which one shall stand. 

14. Penalties can be enforced only 
at the time an offense is committed, 
and before any move is made there- 
after. 

15. A player cannot castle — (i) if 
the King or Rook have been moved, 
(2) if the King be in check, (3) if 
there be any piece between the King 
and the Rook, (4) if the King pass 
over any square attacked by the ad- 
versary. For attempting to castle 
illegally, the player doing so must 
move either the King or Rook, as his 
adversary may dictate. 

16. If a player touch a Piece or 
Pawn that cannot be moved without 



CHESS 



i8i 



CHESS 



leaving the King in check, he must 
replace the Piece or Pawn and move 
his King, but if the King cannot be 
moved, no penalty can be inflicted. 

17. No penalty can be enforced 
for any offense committed against 
these rules in consequence of a false 
announcement of " check," nor in 
consequence of the omission of such 
announcement, when legal " check " 
be given, 

18. If the King has been in check 
for several moves, and it cannot be 
found how it happened, the player 
whose King is in check must take 
back his last move, and free the King 
from check ; but if the moves made 
after the check are known they must 
all be taken back. 

19. A willful displacement or over- 
turning of the men forfeits the game. 

20. Every Pawn which has reached 
the last line of squares must be im- 
mediately exchanged for a Queen, or 
any other piece the owner may 
choose, except a King, even though 
all the pieces remain on the board. 

21. If a player remain at the end 
of the game with a Rook and Bishop 
against a Rook, with both Bishops 
only or with the Knight and Bishop 
only, or if it be doubted near the end 
of a game, whether it will be a win 
or draw, or a win be possible, but 
the skill to force the game question- 
able, then either player may demand 
that the fifty following moves be 
counted. If, at the end of these 
fifty moves on each side, no check- 
mate has been given, the game is 
drawn. 

22. If a player agree to checkmate 
with a particular Piece or Pawn, or 
on a particular square, or engage to 
force his adversary to stalemate or 
checkmate him, he is not restricted 
to any number of moves. 

Give-away Chess. A form of the 
game which has recently come into 
use. Not requiring so much deep 
thought, and being full of sudden 
and unlooked-for surprises, it offers 
a quiet relaxation after the tiring 
headwork of a game of regular Chess. 



The Give-away game differs from 
the ordinary one in this, that a play- 
er must invariably take a man when 
offered. When two or more men 
can be taken, the player has a choice, 
except when the King is in check; in 
such case the checking piece must 
be taken, and in any event the King 
must be gotten out of check. The 
game is won in two ways. When a 
player is unable to force his antagon- 
ist to mate him, or gives him " sui- 
mate," as it is called. Secondly, 
when he forces his antagonist to 
capture all his men, leaving his King 
alone on the board. 

A good player strives to get rid of 
his Pawns as rapidly as possible. 

Fifteen or twenty moves may be 
easily calculated ahead in this game 
on account of the large number of 
forced moves. 

It differs greatly from the Give- 
away game in CHECKERS, because 
in the latter game he who has, at 
the end of the game, the superiority 
of force can win, whereas in thq 
corresponding Chess game it is not 
possible to say whether it is best to 
hold a lesser or greater number of 
pieces than your antagonist. 

Four-handed Chess. This game 
is now played in all the principal 
clubs on both sides of the Atlantic. 

It is played on a board which 
may be described as an ordinary 
Chess board taken for a center, to 
which is added four other boards, 
placed one on each side. These 
added boards are but three squares 
deep, that is, they have each 24 
squares. The whole has, therefore, 
160 squares. 

A player sits at each of the sides 
of the board, the two players facing 
each other playing as partners, and 
the move changes from the player 
who has just moved, to his opponent 
on the left. Two sets of men are 
used, the one black and white and 
the other red and blue, the red and 
black being used by one pair of 
partners, and the blue and white by 
the other pair. The men are set in 



CHESS 



182 



CHESS 



the same manner as in the two- 
handed game, with the exception 
that the Kings are placed upon the 
right of the Queens, and the men are 
moved as in the ordinary game. No 
international code has, as yet, been 
adopted for this variety of the game, 
although several books upon the sub- 



ject have been published in England 
and Germany. The rules here given 
are those in use in New York, and 
differ but slightly from those of 
Europe. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

I. Before beginning a game an 
agreement must be arrived at as to 




WHITE. 

Four-handed Chess Board. 



whether the games shall be consulta- 
tion ones or not. If not, then perfect 
silence regarding the play must be 
maintained between the partners 
under penalty of the loss of the game. 
2. The men are placed in the two 
first rows of the four wings of the 
board in the same manner as in 



ordinary Chess, except that the Kings 
must all be placed on the right of 
Queens ; the Kings, therefore, do 
not face each other as in the regu- 
lar game. 

3. The three rows of the wings 
form the territories of the four Kings, 
and the 64 squares of the main 



CHESS 



183 



CHESS 



board forms the neutral or fighting 
ground. 

4. The Pawns may be moved one 
or two squares on the first move of 
each, afterwards but one. A Pawn 
having reached the other side of the 
board, remains blocked. [In Europe 
the rule is that the Pawn changes 
direction upon reaching the four- 
teenth rank. The question, however, 
is of very little importance, since the 
chance of a Pawn in the four-handed 
game reaching the other side of the 
board is not one in a thousand,] 

4. A Pawn having pushed against 
another Pawn or piece, no matter to 
whom it belongs, cannot move until 
the obstacle is removed, or a man 
should be, or come upon, the con- 
tiguous diagonal so that it may be 
taken by it. 

5. Pawns are Queened only upon 
the King row of one of the enemies' 
territories. These squares can only 
be reached by the Pawns moving 
diagonally when capturing the ene- 
my's men. As soon as a Pawn 
reaches one of the three ranks of 
the enemy's territory, it changes its 
direction of motion and moves to- 
ward the King row of the territory 
just reached. At the same time it 
receives a great increase in power, for 
it can capture a man on any of the 
four contiguous diagonals. If, how- 
ever, by reason of taking a man it 
returns to its own territory, or to the 
neutral ground, then it loses its added 
force and takes up its original direc- 
tion. This change of the force and 
direction of the Pawn causes no con- 
fusion, as its position proclaims its 
power. 

6. The game is won only when 
both the opposing Kings are check- 
mated. 

7. When one of the Kings has 
been checkmated, his pieces are dead 
for the time being, and none of them 
can be captured or the squares upon 
which they stand be occupied by a 
man, either friend or foe. 

8. A King is not officially in check 
until his turn comes to move. 



9. A King is not mated until his 
turn comes to move, when, if in 
check and unable to get out of it, he 
is checkmated. 

10. A partner is not required to 
cover a check to his partner's King, 
nor is he prevented (interdicted) 
from moving one of his pieces and 
thereby uncovering a check upon his 
partner. 

11. A checkmate having been re- 
leased by one partner removing a 
piece, or otherwise, the other part- 
ner having to move also before the 
checkmated King, cannot take one 
of the latter's pieces, as the check- 
mate is not officially annulled until 
the mated King's turn comes to 
move. 

12. Castling is permitted in this 
game, but cannot be made use of 
until the game is far advanced. 

13. When one of your antagonists 
is checkmated, his men being dead, 
your King may move to and remain 
upon any square commanded by the 
dead pieces. The moment, how- 
ever, the mate is released, your King 
comes into check and must be got- 
ten out when your turn comes to 
move. This rule does not apply to 
Kings, which cannot be brought 
into close proximity at any time. 

Method of Play. If great care be 
not taken in the opening, mate will 
be given on the third or fourth move. 
The opening move generally adopted 
is Pawn to Q.B. 3 for the first three 
players, and P. to K. 3 by the fourth 
player. This move of P. to Q.B, 3 
is made in preference to the old 
move of I, P. to K. 3, because it is at 
once defensive and attacking. The 
fourth player is compelled to play i, 
P. to K. 3, to prevent getting into 
trouble. 

A check in this game is much 
more to be feared than in an 
ordinary game, for the reason that 
the partner of the man who gives 
the check seizes the opportunity to 
inflict all the damage he can upon 
the one who is in trouble. The great 
aim, therefore, of a player of this 



CHESS 



184 



CHESS 



game, is to endeavor to have a check 
threatened against one or both of his 
opponents' Kings and keep his own 
King so covered up that his oppo- 
nents cannot give him check. Un- 
like the ordinary two-handed game, 
the Queens are brought out in the 
early part of the game because their 
power of giving check is very great. 
Before making a move, the partner's 
position must be carefully examined 
as well as the player's own, and if he 
see that the former is in greater 
straits than himself he is called upon 
to sacrifice himself and aid his friend. 
Ability and promptness in doing 
this is considered one of the great 
virtues in Four-handed Chess. 

The King's Rook's Pawn moved 
two squares is a strong defensive 
move and is frequently made as a 
second or third move. 

A double check by each of the 
opponents must be carefully avoided, 
as the result is often a mate. 

The order of succession of the 
moves must be carefully considered, 
as a failure to observe which of the 
opponents will first move will spoil 
a player's calculations and result in 
disaster. 

History. The origin of Chess has 
been claimed by many nations and 
ascribed to various persons. Some 
writers say that it was invented by 
Japhet, the son of Noah ; others by 
King Solomon, the Greek Palamedes, 
Han-sing, a Chinese Mandarin, Shat- 
reuscha, a Persian astronomer, etc. 
But these stories are purely imag- 
inary. 

Thanks to the recent researches 
of Dr. Forbes, all doubts have been 
set at rest, and the best modern 
writers concur in the belief that the 
game is of Hindoo origin. Dr. 
Forbes has discovered in Hindoo 
literature documents dating back to 
3000 years B.C., describing a game 
which certainly represents, in a 
primitive form, the modern game of 
Chess. It was called Chaturanga, 
which means Four Parts, because it 
was played by four persons. The 



board had 64 squares, as now, but 
all of the same color. Each player 
had four Pawns and four Pieces — 
King, Elephant, Horse, and Ship, 
corresponding to our King, Bishop, 
Knight, and Rook. The moves were 
at first determined by throwing 
DICE, but afterward the player 
moved which he pleased. The King, 
Horse, Ship, and Pawns moved like 
our King, Knight, Rook, and Pawns, 
but the Elephant (our Bishop), 
could advance only two squares at a 
time. The Hindoos took the game 




One of Charlemagne's Chessmen. 

to Persia, where the name was cor- 
rupted to Shatranj, and from that 
country it spread to Arabia, and 
thence to Europe, being probably 
taken first to Spain by the Moors. 
But before the game left India the 
number of players was reduced to 
two, each with a double set of men 
as at present. Instead of having two 
Kings, however, one of them was re- 
duced to a mere counselor or general 
(our Queen), who was allowed to 
move only one square diagonally. 
During the Middle Ages, but at what 
times is not known, the powers of 
the Bishop and Queen were increased. 



CHESS 



185 



CHESS 



the Pawns were allowed to jump two 
squares at the first move, and cast- 
ling was introduced. 



The names of the Chessmen vary- 
in different countries, though the 
principal piece is everywhere called 





Ancient Chess Kings. 

the King, and the second, Queen or f was originally a minister or general. 
Lady. The latter, as has been said, | called in Persian Farz or FirZy 




Modern Chessmen. 



which in Europe became Farzta or | this was corrupted into Vterge 
Fercia. Some say that in France [ (Virgin), and thus the piece came to 



CHESS 



1 86 



CHESS 



be called Dame (Lady). The Per- 
sian Pil (Elephant) became in Ara- 
bic Al-Fi'l, and in Spanish Alferez. 
The French Fou (fool) is corrupted 
from the same word. The German 



Ancient Chessmen. 



name is Laufer (runner), and the 
pieces are called Bishops in no lan- 
guage but Enghsh. The Hindoo 
Roka (ship) becomes our Rook and 
the Italian Rocca. The latter word 



means a rock or fortress, so the 
piece is called also Castle in English, 
Tour (tower) in French, and Thurm 
(tower) in German, and is made to 
look like a Tower. The Cavalry- 
piece, which was a Horse in India, 
has become a Knight in English and 
Cavalier in French, though it is still 
made hke a Horse's head. The Ger- 
mans call it Springer (leaper). The 
Pawn was first called Foot Soldier, m 
French Pion, whence our Pawn. 
The Germans call the Pawns Bauern 
(peasants). 
The game itself is called in French 





^^^^^^^mS^^^^^^^^^^^^m^ 






^^^^/^^l^^ ^A^^^^^ 



Game of Chess with Living Chessmen. (See page i88.) 



Echecs, and in German Schach, 
which, with our word Chess, are 
probably all from the Persian Shah, 
King, though some say they are from 
the old Hindoo name of the game, 
Chaturanga. The word checkmate 
is probably from the Persian Shah- 
mat (the King is dead). 

From its earliest history Chess has 
been a favorite game with great men. 
Timur or Tamerlane, the Tartar con- 
queror, invented what he called the 
" Great Game," on a board of i lo 
squares, and invited the principal 
men to play with him in every town 



he entered, sending them away with 
presents, whether he lost or won. 
The Caliph Haroun Al Raschid, sent 
to Charlemagne a fine set of Chess- 
men, one of which is shown in the 
illustration. The game was a fav- 
orite also with Voltaire, Napoleon, 
Frederick the Great, and many other 
celebrated persons. 

Chess is said to be the only game 
now considered harmless by all relig- 
ious sects, but in the Middle Ages 
it was often condemned with other 
games by the rulers of the church. 
In the countries most remote from 



CHESS 



187 



CHESS 



European influence it is still played 
in the old way, with the original 



Hindoo or Persian moves ; but in 
most parts of the world it is played 




The Automaton Chess Player. (See page 188.) 



as with us. A great many books 
have been written about it, one of the 
first of which was by Abul Abbas, a 
physician of Bagdad, in the year 899. 
The first to bring Chess into public 
notice in this country was Benjamin 
Franklin, who also wrote an essay 
on "The Morals of Chess." The 
game was little played here, how- 
ever, before 1825. In 1858 Paul 
Morphy, an American, was Chess 
champion of the world, and he is 
considered by some the finest player 
that ever lived. 

The forms of Chessmen have varied 
from time to time. The Persians 
and Arabs, and other Mohammedan 
peoples, being forbidden by their 
religion to have images of any kind, 
usually made their pieces in rude 
shapes, though sometimes with an 
approach to a figure. In Christian 



Europe, they assumed many shapes, 
some of which are shown in the pic- 




Circular Chess Board. 

tures. The last figures on page 185 
show examples of modern Chessmen. 



CHIVALRY 



l88 



CHLORATE OF POTASH 



In the Middle Ages the game was 
sometimes played by monarchs with 
living Chessmen in a court yard paved 
to represent a Chess board, as shown 
on page i86. A circular chess-board 
was sometimes used in old times. 
The numbers in the illustration cor- 
respond to the following names : i, 
King ; 2, Queen ; 3, Rock (Rook) ; 
4, Alfin (Bishop) ; 5, Knight ; 6, 
Pawn. 

A so-called Automaton Chess 
Player was first exhibited in Vienna, 
in 1769, by Wolfgang von Kempe- 
len, an Austrian mechanician, and it 
was bought about 1805 by John 
Maelzl, who brought it to this 
country. It consisted of a figure of 
a Turk seated behind a box which, 
when opened, appeared to be nearly 
full of machinery that was supposed 
to move the figure, but it was after- 
ward discovered that a man ingeni- 
ously concealed in the box was the 
real player. The man could tell what 
pieces were moved by means of little 
magnets under the board, which rose 
or fell as the squares were occupied 
or not, the Chessmen containing 
pieces of iron. In 1842 the automa- 
ton was bought by a gentleman in 
Philadelphia, and in 1854 it was de- 
stroyed by fire in that city, but sev- 
eral imitations of it have since been 
exhibited, in which the figure was 
called by various names, such as 
" Mephisto " and " Ajeeb." It is of 
course impossible to make a mere 
machine which will play a game like 
Chess. 

CHIVALRY, a game played by 
two persons on a board like that in 
the figure. The squares are alter- 
nately light and dark, and the letters, 
spots, and stars are gilt. Each 
player has twelve pieces like Pawns 
in Chess and eight others, slightly 
different, called Knights. Each 
places his common pieces on the 
two rows of spots nearest him, and 
his Knights on the squares marked 
K., and the players take turns in mov- 
ing, the object being to occupy the 
two opposite gold stars with any two 



pieces. Both Knights and men have 
three kinds of moves, 

1. The common move, by which 
the piece advances one square in any 
direction, Hke the King in Chess. 

2. The canter, by which a piece 
leaps a friendly piece to the next 
space beyond in any direction, pro- 
vided that space is vacant. The 
leaped piece remains on the board. 
The same piece can make as many 
canters as it wishes in one move, 
but is not obliged to canter at all. 

3. The jump, by which a piece 
leaps an enemy's piece in any direc- 
tion, provided there is a vacant space 
just beyond. The jumped piece is 
removed from the board. The jump; 









lir 


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• 


• 


• 


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® 


• 


• 


• 


• 


• 


• 


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® 


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• 


• 


• 


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(k) 










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1 



Chivalry Board. 

must be made, if there is a chance 
and as many as possible must bi 
made by the same piece in one move 

The plain pieces can move, canter, 
or jump, but can never combine tw( 
of these methods in one play. Th( 
Knights can combine the canter an( 
jump, provided that all canters pre 
cede all jumps, but cannot combini 
a simple move with either of th( 
others. The game differs fro 
CHECKERS in allowing a piece t( 
pass over one on the same side. I 
is entirely a game of skill. 

CHLORATE OF POTASH, Ex 
periment with. Melt a teaspoonfu! 
of chlorate of potash in a test-tube 



CHLORINE 



189 



CHOOSING SIDES 



and when it begins to boil drop into 
it a bit of charcoal the size of a pea. 
The charcoal will take fire and jump 
about in the tube. The reason is 
that heating the chlorate of potash 
sets free the oxygen in it, and it is 
this that causes the charcoal to burn 
so vividly. 

CHLORINE, Experiments with. 
Chlorine gas is described in C. C. T. 
The easiest way to make it is to put 
a few teaspoonfuls of chloride of 
lime in the bottom of a glass jar, 
and pour on it just enough dilute sul- 
phuric acid to cover it. Chlorine 
will at once begin to be formed, and 
owing to its weight will remain in 
the jar if a piece of paper be placed 
over the mouth to prevent draughts. 
The experimenter must avoid breath- 
ing the gas, as it is very irritating to 
the lungs. If it be desired to keep 
the jar clean, the chloride of lime 
maybe put into a small wide-mouthed 
bottle, like a vaseline bottle, which is 
lowered into the jar by a string tied 
around the neck, and the sulphuric 
acid is then poured into the small 
bottle by means of a funnel. When 
enough gas has been made to fill 
the jar, the little bottle is withdrawn 
by means of the string. The chlo- 
rine, made in this way, comes from 
the chloride of lime. Chlorine may 
be prepared in several other ways, 
but the one just given is the simplest. 
In making and experimenting with 
this gas, it is best to stand in a 
draught, so that what escapes may 
be carried away from the experi- 
menter. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

I. One-third fill a small jar of 
chlorine with water ; then place the 
hand tightly over the mouth of the 
jar and shake the contents a few 
minutes. It will be found that the 
hand sticks to the jar, as if the air had 
been partially pumped out by an air 
pump (C. C. T.). The reason of this 
is that water dissolves chlorine easily 
and thus makes the pressure in the 
jar less than that of the air without. 

Note. Owing to the attraction of 



chlorine for water it often gets laden 
with moisture, and to insure the 
success of some of the following ex- 
periments, the gas may have to be 
dried. This may be done by shaking 
in the jar several bits of pumice stone 
wet with strong sulphuric acid. 

2. It will be found impossible to 
burn a jet of chlorine in the air, but 
it may be burned in hydrogen, using 
the apparatus described in the arti- 
cle Oxygen, for burning oxygen in 
hydrogen. 

3. Lower a burning candle, or a 
lighted wood-splinter, into a jar of 
chlorine. It will continue to burn, 
but will give off a dense black smoke, 
The reason is that chlorine likes 
hydrogen but not carbon (see C. C. 
T.). Candles and wood contain 
both these elements, so the chlorine 
unites with the hydrogen and throws 
off the carbon in a cloud of black 
particles. 

4. Dip in oil of turpentine a bit 
of cotton fastened to the end of 
a piece of wire. Heat it by holding 
it over a stove for a moment, and 
then plunge it into a jar of chlorine. 
If it has been warmed enough it will 
take fire, burning with a dense black 
smoke. 

5. To bleach with chlorine. Hang 
in a jar of chlorine a bit of colored 
cloth, or a flower, and the color will 
be taken out. Ink spots can be re- 
moved from cloth or paper in the 
same way. It is necessary that 
either the chlorine or the article to 
be bleached be slightly moist, as dry 
chlorine will not bleach. A solu- 
tion of the gas, called chlorine water, 
may be prepared as in experiment i, 
and can be used for bleaching or as 
a disinfectant. Pour some on any 
ill-smelling or colored substance, and 
in most cases the bad odor, or the 
color, will disappear. 

6. Into a jar of chlorine sprinkle 
powdered antimony. It will take fire 
as it enters the gas. 

CHOOSING SIDES, or Choos- 
ing Up. In many games where 
the players are divided into two 



CHOOSING SIDES 



190 



CHRISTMAS SPORTS 



opposite parties, some way of choos- 
ing sides is necessary. In most 
cases two captains are first agreed 
upon. The captains decide which 
shall have first choice, and then, in 
turn, choose the other players, one 
by one. As soon as a player is 
chosen he stands near his captain. 
The first choice is determined by 
lot, and there are many ways of 
deciding it, some of which are given 
below. 

I. By drawing cuts. One captain 
holds in his hand a long and a short 
piece of paper or wood, of which he 
shows only the ends. The other 
draws one of them, and the player 
holding the short piece has first 
choice. 

II. By throwing up a coin. One 
captain throws a coin into the air 
while the other cries either " head " 
or " tail." If the side of the coin 
which he mentions comes uppermost, 
he has first choice ; otherwise, the 
tosser has it. The side with the 
date on is always considered the 
head ; the other the tail. 

III. In games played with a racket, 
the racket is used as the coin is 
above, except that the cries are 
" rough " and " smooth," correspond- 
ing to the rough and smooth sides 
of the racket. 

IV. In games played with a bat or 




Fig. I. — Choosing Sides. 



stick of any kind, like baseball or 
hockey, the first choice is often de- 
cided thus : One of the captains. A, 
holds the bat upright, and throws it 
to the other B, who catches it in one 
hand, also holding it upright. A 
then grasps the bat in one hand 
above where B is holding it and as 
Icose to B's hand as possible. B 
then lets go and grasps the bat above 
A's hand in like manner. Thus they 
go on in turn, and the one who holds 
the bat nearest its end (as in Fig. i, 
without letting his hand reach be- 
yond it), has first choice. A hand is 
judged to be below the end of the bat 
when a stick laid across that end. 




Fig. 2.— Choosing Sides. 

as in Fig. 2, does not touch the 
hand. 

V. A number of playing cards 
equal to that of the players, half red 
and half black, may be shuffled and 
then dealt one to each. The holders 
of black cards play on one side, and 
those of red cards on the other. 

VI. One of the captains shuts his 
eyes or turns his back on the other, 
who holds up as many fingers as he 
chooses and says " Odd or even ? " 
If the first named captain answer 
correctly, he has the first choice ; if 
not, the other has it. 

CHRISTMAS SPORTS. Christ- 
mas Day, the 25th of December, is 
celebrated throughout the Christian 
world by the giving of presents in 
different ways, which will be de- 
scribed separately. 

Christmas Trees. The present 
are hung on an evergreen tree, which 



J 



CHRISTMAS SPORTS 



191 



CHRISTMAS SPORTS 



is decorated and lighted with candles. 
The best Christmas trees are of 
spruce, but hemlock, cedar, or any 
evergreen may be used. A symmet- 
rical and graceful tree should be 
selected, one whose limbs incline up- 
ward but little, and stout enough to 
bend but slightly when laden with 
presents. 

Stands to keep the tree upright 
may be bought in cities, but one can 
easily be made from an old packing 
box by nailing strips of wood across 
to hold it in place, as shown in the il- 
lustration. If the tree is tall, the box 
should be weighted by fiUing with 
stones, or sand, after it is put in its 
place. A sheet or rug should be 
spread on the floor to catch candle 




Manner of Fastening Tree. 

drippings, and another one over 
the box and close around the 
tree. 

Decoration. Many beautiful or- 
naments of glass or metal are to be 
bought at toy-shops for tree decora- 
tion ; others may be made at home. 
Almost anything bright colored or 
shining looks well on a Christmas 
tree. Pasteboard cut into odd shapes 
and covered with gilt or colored 
paper, bits of new tin or looking 
glass, or small fruits, may be used 
with effect. Pop corn strung on 
thread and intertwined among the 
branches looks well. Fruit or nuts 
may be painted with gold paint, or 
covered with gilt paper, and hung to 
the tree with colored ribbon. 



Lighting. Trees are usually 
lighted with colored tapers, about 
three inches long, fastened to the 
branches with holders. The best 
holders are fitted to a wire, which 





Candle Holders. 

in most cases, 
be lighted and 



has at the lower 
end a colored ball 
the weight of which 
keeps the candle 
upright. Others 
are fastened to the 
branch with sharp 
ends but have the 
disadvantage that 
a motion of the 
branch tips them. 
Both kinds are 
shown in the cut. 
The candles should 
be distributed as 
evenly as possible. 
A row of candles 
along only one 
branch looks bad 
Each candle should 
allowed to burn a 
few seconds before putting it in place. 
In placing the candles, it should be 
seen that all loose things above them 
are trimmed off, so that there is no 
danger of fire. One or two extra 
candles should be provided to light 
the tapers with, and a sponge or rag 
saturated with water to extinguish 
any that appear likely to set fire to 
the tree. It should be the sole busi- 
ness of one person, while the tree re- 
mains lighted, to take charge of the 
sponge, and each candle, as it burns 
down into the socket, should be put 
out. A tree may be lighted with gas 
by having a gas-fitter run pipes up 
the back of the trunk and along the 
branches, but nothing equals the 
effect of tapers. There should be 
plenty of them : a small tree six feet 
high should have not less than 50, 
and larger sizes in proportion. A 



CHRISTMAS SPORTS 



192 



CHRISTMAS SPORTS 



tree twelve feet high would need 
about 400 candles. 

Presents. The presents may be 
hung on the tree, or placed on the 
box and floor beneath. Presents on 
the tree are fastened to the branches 
by strings or ribbons, which are to be 
cut by the one who removes them. 
Each present should be marked 
plainly with the name of giver and 
receiver, which should be read aloud 
when they are taken down. Instead 
of a Christmas tree, the presents are 
sometimes hung on a ladder, on the 
rounds of which tapers are fastened, 
the presents and decorations being 
hung to it just as to a tree. The 
ladder should be wound with a green 
wreath before decorating. A Christ- 
mas ladder is much more easily pre- 
pared than a tree, and looks very 
well. 

Christmas Ship. Presents may 
be hung also on a toy ship instead 
of on a tree. The ship may be 
bought at a toy shop, and the pres- 
ents should be placed inside and 
hung on the masts and rigging, which 
are wound with greens and decorated 
with tapers. Or the model of a 
floating ship may be made, water 
being represented by green cloth, 
beneath which, under the ship, is a 
box, where the presents are stowed, 
and from which they can be taken 
out through the hatchways. 

Bran Pie. Presents are some- 
times given in a large imitation pie, 
which is placed on the table Christ- 
mas morning. The presents, wrapped 
in paper, are put into a large pan 
and the spaces between them filled 
with bran or sawdust. The top is 
covered with pie crust, which is 
browned in the oven, provided none 
of the presents can be injured by 
heat. Another way is to make the 
top of the pie of thick brown paper. 
When set on the table, part of the 
crust is removed and the presents 
are taken, one by one, out of the 
bran. 

Stockings. Small Christmas pres- 
ents are often put into stockings. 



hung by the fireplace on Christmas 
eve, larger ones being laid on chairs 
near by. Sometimes a large stock- 
ing, several feet long, made especially 
for the purpose, is hung up to receive 
all the presents. 

Santa Claus. Santa Claus may 
be personated by a boy or man 
dressed in a thick fur coat, cap, and 
gloves, and stuffed out with pillows 
so as to look very fat. His face 
should be so muffled that only eyes 
and nose are visible, and his nose 
and cheeks should be colored red 
with carmine. 

There are several effective ways 
of having Santa Claus enter the room. 
One way is for him to rattle a string 
of sleighbells just outside, first very 
softly, and then louder and louder as 
if his sleigh were approaching ; finally 
he cries " Whoa ! " and then enters 
the house — through a window if it 
can be arranged ; otherwise through 
the door. He may carry the presents 
on his back in a pack, or they may 
be already arranged on a tree for him 
to distribute. 

Another way is to place a wooden 
mantel in front of a door, and cover 
the upper part of the doorway with 
cloth, so that the whole looks like a 
chimney-piece. Santa Claus can 
thus enter the room through the 
fireplace under the mantel, as if he 
had come down the chimney. A 
chair should be placed at one side of 
the doorway, behind it, and Santa 
Claus should step down from it, so 
that to those on the other side he 
will appear to be descending from the 
roof. He may carry all his presents 
at once, or, if there are too many, 
leave them in the "chimney," and 
return now and then for a fresh 
supply. Large stockings may be 
hung on either side of the imitation 
chimney-piece, into which he may 
cram the presents, which are then 
taken out by some one else and dis- 
tributed. The one who takes the part 
of Santa Claus should talk in a gruff 
voice as he gives the presents, mak- 
ing remarks appropriate to each one. 



CHRISTMAS SPORTS 



193 



CHRISTMAS SPORTS 



History. The celebration of a day 
as the birthday of Christ was begun 
very early. By some it is said to 
have been instituted by Pope Teles- 
phorus, v^ho lived early in the second 
century. At first different days v^ere 
kept in different parts of the world, 
the Eastern churches observing gen- 
erally some day in April or May. In 
the fourth century learned men were 
ordered to determine the exact birth- 
day of Christ, and they settled on 
the 25th of December, which has 
since been adopted by all Christians, 
though it is probable that that was 



not the day after all. It is said that 
this date was originally celebrated 
at Rome because a heathen festival 
called the Saturnalia had been held 
at that time, and so the common 
people would not have to change 
their time of revelry. During the 
middle ages Christmas was cele- 
brated by the performance of re- 
ligious plays called " mysteries " or 
" moralities," where different people 
took the parts of the Virgin Mary, 
Joseph, King Herod, etc. These 
plays are acted even now in some 
parts of Germany, and the illustra- 




The Star-bearer, Mary and Joseph, and the Angel. 



tions show the costumes of some of 
the characters. The festival was 
also the time for singing, dancing, 
and all kinds of revels. " Feasts of 
Fools and Asses," as they were 
called, were held, in which every- 
thing serious was burlesqued. These 
were sometimes called " December 
liberties." In Germany and the 
North of Europe the season became 
especially devoted to children. In 
England the Christmas festivities in 
every large house were in charge of 
a " Lord of Misrule," or " Abbot of 
Unreason." and they continued till 



Candlemas Day, February 2. In 
every house was built a great fire of 
logs, the largest of which, called the 
'•' Yule log " (Yule being the ancient 
Saxon name for Christmas), was 
brought into the house with great 
ceremony. Among the favorite 
Christmas games were giving rid- 
dles, Hot Cockles, Snap Dragon 
(See Halloween), Forfeits, and 
dancing. The Christmas dish was 
a boar's head, which was brought in 
on a silver platter with much cere- 
mony. The custom of decorating 
houses and churches with greens is 



CHRISTMAS SPORTS 



194 



CHRISTMAS SPORTS 



said to have been derived from the 
ancient Druids, who thought that if 
a green branch was suspended in 
the house the good spirits of the 




Satan. 

woods would take refuge in it dur- 
ing the cold of winter. The Puri- 
tans disapproved of Christmas rev- 
elry, and put a stop to it largely 
when they came into power. The 
last " Lord of Misrule " in England 
is said to have been appointed in 
1627. 

In many parts of Europe it is cus- 
tomary for a man with a mask over 
his face, dressed in outlandish fash- 
ion, to go the rounds of the houses in 
a village, pretending that he is going 
to punish bad children. This char- 
acter is called Ruprecht in Germany, 
Krampus in lower Austria, Hans 
Trapp in Alsace, and has other names 
in other places. Sometimes he ac- 
companies a man dressed as St. 
Nicholas or Santa Claus, or a girl 
dressed as the Christ-child, who 
brings presents. 

The Christmas tree is supposed to 
be derived from the old German leg- 



end that the world was a great tree 
whose top was in Paradise. It was 
first decorated in honor of the god- 
dess of spring while the Germans 
were still pagans. At the time of 
the Reformation, the Protestants, 
who wished to break away from all 
Roman Catholic customs, adopted 
this tree for their Christmas festivities 
instead of the Presipio, or manger, 
which is still used largely in Roman 
Catholic countries. Some Presipios 
cost large sums of money and rep- 
resent the Holy Family gathered 
around the infant Jesus, while angels 
sing in the clouds above. Presipios 
are used in churches and in private 
houses, just as we have Christmas 
trees for Sunday-schools and at 
home. 

In Poland, Christmas gifts are 
hidden in various places thoughout 
the house, and the members of the 
family search for them. In Sweden 
and Denmark presents are wrapped 
up in all sorts of queer ways, some- 
times in bundles of hay or wool, and 
thrown in at doors or windows at 
unexpected times. The packages 
are called Jueklapps (Christmas 
boxes). Each one is labeled with 
the name of the person for whom it 




The Three Kings. 

is intended, and sometimes a vers( 
or quotation is added. 

Settlers from different countriei 
brought their various customs witl 
them to this country, so our cele- 
bration of Christmas is made up of 



CIRCULAR SAW 



195 



CLAP IN AND CLAP OUT 



those of several nations. The Eng- 
hsh brought theirs to Virginia, the 
Dutch to New York, and the Swedes 
to Delaware. In New England, 
owing to the opposition of the Puri- 
tans to the celebration of the day, it 
was not observed at all in old times. 
The Christmas tree is taken from 




The Pharisees. 

Germany, and the legend of Santa 
Claus (St. Nicholas) was brought 
by the Dutch to New York. In the 
South the day is made the occasion 
for setting off fire-crackers and fire- 
works, which makes it seem much 
like Fourth of July in the North. 

CHROMOTROPE. See Fourth 
OF July. 

CIRCULAR SAW, a toy consist- 
ing of a disk of tin, through which 
are bored two holes from an inch to 
an inch and a half apart, and equi- 
distant from the center. A string 



two or three feet long is passed 
through each of these holes, and the 
ends tied. Holding one end in each 
hand so that the disk is in the mid- 
dle, the player twirls the disk till the 
string is well twisted, and then pull- 
ing his hands apart, forces the string 
to untwist and spin the disk. At 
the moment when all the twist is out 
of the string the hands are brought 
slowly together again, and the disk 
goes on twirling, twisting the string 
in the opposite direction. By pull- 
ing the hands apart again, the disk 
will spin in the opposite direction, 
and it can thus be kept on spinning 
as long as the player chooses. Teeth 
can be cut on the edge of the disk to 
imitate a circular saw. The edges 
of the holes in a tin saw cut the 
string, so similar toys are sometimes 
made of stiff pasteboard, but these 
are not so durable. The saws are 
sometimes called water cutters, be- 
cause, when the edge is made to 
touch the surface of the water in a 
basin, a shower of spray is sent out. 
The toy may be made of any con- 
venient size, but it is usually from 
three to six inches in diameter. 

CLAP IN AND CLAP OUT, a 
game played by any number of boys 
and girls. The boys stand each be- 
hind a chair, and the girls go into 
another room. One of the players, 
who acts as keeper of the door be- 
tween the two rooms, asks one of 
the boys to choose a girl. The door- 
keeper then opens the door and calls 
the girl thus chosen, who must sit 




Circular Saw. 



down in one of the chairs. If she 
sit in front of the boy who chose her, 
he kisses her and she keeps her seat, 
but if not, all the boys clap their 
hands as a sign that she is wrong, 



and she must leave the room again. 
The door-keeper asks another boy 
to choose, and the game goes on 
till all the chairs are filled. The 
boys then leave the room, the girls 



CLIPPED SQUARES 



196 



COASTING 



stand behind the chairs, and the 
game is repeated. The play is often 
varied by calling in three or four at 
a time. 

CLIPPED SQUARES, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
with paper and scissors. Each 
player cuts a square, and then clips 
it into four pieces by two straight 
cuts of the scissors. He then mixes 
the pieces and passes them to the 
player on his left. All the players 
now try to arrange the bits so as to 
make the original square, and at the 
expiration of five minutes, or any 
other period agreed on beforehand, 
those who have been successful score 
one point. Each one now passes 
his pieces to the left again, and so on 
till each has had before him all the 
clipped squares, in regular order. 
He who has scored most points is 
the winner. The time limit must be 
arranged according to the skill of 
the players. If no one has solved 
his puzzle at the expiration of the 
time it should be longer ; if almost 
all have succeeded, it should be 
made shorter. 

The task of putting the pieces to- 
gether seems very simple at first, 
but in reality it is difficult. The four 
pieces can be put together in no less 
than 256 different ways, only one of 
which forms a square. 

The game can be played as a 
SOLITAIRE by simply clipping a 
square and then trying to put it to- 
gether again, which will be found 
almost as difficult as though the 
clipping had been done by another 
person. 

CLUB SWINGING. See Gymnas- 
tics. 

CLUMPS, a guessing game played 
by any number of persons. Two of 
the players, who act as captains, 
choose sides, and then each captain 
sends one of his men out of the room. 
The two thus sent agree on the 
name of any person or object, real 
or fictitious, to be guessed by the 
rest of the company. Each of the 
two then sits down among the 



players of the opposing side, who 
try to guess the object that has been 
selected, by asking him questions, to 
which he is permitted to reply only 
"yes," "no," or "I do not know." 
The players on the side that succeeds 
first in guessing announce the fact 
by clapping their hands, and the 
winning captain can then choose a 
man from the defeated side. Two 
men are then sent out again, and the 
game may go on till all but one of 
the players on one side have been 
chosen, when it must cease, because 
two on a side at least, are necessary, 
one to ask questions, and one for 
the enemy's side to question. As 
this generally takes a long time, an 
hour may be agreed on beforehand, 
when the players are to be counted, 
and the side with the greater number 
wins. The sides are often called 
Clumps. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. The two Clumps must sit in 
separate rooms or, if this is impossi- 
ble, at opposite ends of the same 
room. 

2. The questioning shall begin at 
exactly the same time on each side, 
by any signal that may be agreed on. 

3. To avoid confusion, the captain 
on each side shall put the questions 
for his Clump, which may be sug- 
gested to him by members of the 
Clump in any order. 

4. If any question is put in such a 
form that it cannot be answered by 
"yes," "no," or "I do not know," 
no answer at all shall be made. 

5. As soon as the subject is guessed 
each of the questioned players shall 
return to his own Clump, unless he 
be the one chosen by the winning 
side. 

6. Neither of the captains shall be 
chosen. 

COASTING. (See C.C.T., Sleigh). 
There are three principal ways of 
riding on a sled ; sitting, lying, or 
kneeling on one knee, each of which 
positions has its advantages. In 
sitting, if the rider runs against any- 
thing his feet bear the shock, but he 



COASTING 



197 



COASTING 



cannot easily take a run in starting. 
In lying flat, the coaster starts by 
holding his sled upright in both 
hands, taking a short run, then 
stooping and throwing himself face 
downward on the sled. Besides the 
advantages gained by such a start it 
is easier to steer in this position, but 
he is more apt to be hurt in a col- 
lision, since his head is foremost. 
Many coasters prefer the third 
position, kneeling on one knee, or 
fitting sidewise on the rear of the 
gled, and steering with one leg, 
which is trailed behind. This is the 
best plan when more persons than 
one are on the same sled. All sit 
upright but the hindmost one, who 
does the steering. The steersman 
should keep a sharp lookout ahead 
for curves and obstacles of all kinds. 

On a hill crowded with coasters, 
it is the duty of those who are walk- 
ing up to keep out of the way of the 
sliders. A coaster should never 
descend a hill on which there is a 
vehicle going either way, and if 
there is much passing, ihere should 
be no coasting there at all. In many 
places coasting on such hills is for- 
bidden by law, but in some towns 
certain streets are set apart specially 
for the use of coasters. 

The two chief kinds of sleds are 
the high and the low, the former 
sometimes called cutters, and the 
latter in some pkces " pickerel " or 
" pig-stickers." The former have 
runners of open framework, shod 
with iron ; the latter have solid wood 
runners shod with bars of steel, 
fastened only at the ends. The run- 
ners of the high sleds curve upward 
sharply in front, while those of the 
low ones curve but slightly and end 
in a sharp point. The low sleds are 
best suited for a coaster lying flat, 
and for smoothly worn hills, while 
the others are fitted for tracks on 
which the loose snow is an inch or 
so deep. The sleds called " bobs " 
or " double rippers " are formed by 
joining two ordinary sleds of the 
same height by a plank ten to twenty 



feet long. This plank is fastened 

firmly to the rear sled, and pivoted 

to the forward one so that it will 

turn freely. The steering is usually 

done with the forward sled ; if it 

projects beyond the plank, the 

steersman lies at full length and 

holds the curved ends of the runners 

one in each hand, thus being able to 

turn the rudder-sled in whichever 

direction the bob is to be steered. 

i Sometimes the pivot on which the 

sled turns is brought up through the 

I plank and fitted with a lever, so that 

I the helmsman may sit upright as he 

I steers. A short bob may have both 

i sleds fixed, and be steered behind, 

like an ordinary sled, and sometimes 

the guiding is done with an extra 

runner, something like the rudder of 

an ice-boat. In any case, the last 

passenger on the bob starts it by 

I running and pushing, and jumps into 

j his seat just as the proper speed is 

attained. 

Some bobs are expensively made 
of fine wood, beautifully polished 
and fitted with cushions for the pas- 
sengers. There is usually a hand- 
rail on each, by which the coasters 
may hold on. 

Accidents in coasting, as in other 
sports, occur usually through heed- 
lessness or neglect. With a single 
sled, the coaster is responsible only 
for his own safety, but in " bobbing " 
a load of from four to ten passengers 
are at the mercy of the steersman, 
and they should be careful to ride 
with no one who is not clear-headed 
and prudent. If the hill is a proper 
one and the bob or sled is well 
steered, coasting is as safe as any 
other sport. 

Coasting has undoubtedly been fol- 
lowed as a sport in cold countries 
from the most ancient times in some 
rude form or other. Even animals 
practise it, the otter being very fond 
of sliding down slippery banks either 
of mud or snow, on his belly. The 
sport was probably first reduced to 
a system in Russia. (See the history 
of TOBOGANNING.) 



COBALT CHLORIDE 



198 



COINS 



COBALT CHLORIDE, Experi- 
ments with. I. Write on a piece of 
paper with an ink made of cobalt 
chloride dissolved in water. The 
marks will be nearly invisible till 
heated, when they will turn greenish 
blue. 

2. Draw a landscape in ordinary 
ink, afterward filling in the leaves 
and grass with cobalt chloride. The 
picture will represent winter or sum- 
mer according as it is damp or dried. 

COHESION FIGURES. Figures 
formed by dropping oil on water. 
Let a drop of pure sperm oil fall into 





Oleographs of Tallow and Lard. 

a basin or plate full of water. The 
drop will quickly enlarge into a cir- 
cular film of oil, which breaks at the 
edges into ragged holes. Finally the 



center becomes filled with little holes, 
forming curious figures. The film 
continues to change for about half an 
hour. Castor oil gives smaller figures, 
and in general every kind of oil gives 
figures of a different shape. These 
figures can be preserved by laying a 
piece of glazed paper carefully on 
the surface of the water after the 
film has assumed the desired shape. 
The paper is then laid on an inked 
plate, or an inked roller is passed 
over it. The ink sticks to the paper 
except where the oil has made it 
greasy, hence the cohesion figures 
appear in white on a black ground. 
These are sometimes called oleo- 
graphs. The illustrations show oleo- 
graphs of tallow and lard. 

COINS, Tricks with. i. Head 
or Tail. To tell blindfold whether 
a spun coin falls head or tail upward. 
The coin used must be prepared by 
cutting on the edge of one face a 
minute notch causing a little point of 
metal to project. When the coin is 
spun, if it goes down with the notched 
side underneath, this point will catch 
on the table causing the coin to fall 
suddenly, instead of gradually as it 
otherwise would. With a little prac- 
tice the two sounds may be easily dis- 
tinguished. 

2. To rub One Coin into Two. 
Previously stick a coin with wax 
underneath a table, close to the edge. 
Borrow a similar coin and rub it 
violently with the ball of the thumb 
against the edge of the table. The 
fingers will thus naturally be beneath 
the table, and the waxed coin can 
easily be removed at any time and 
added to the one that is being 
rubbed. 

3. The Wandering Coin. Have 
ready two coins each slightly waxed 
on one side. Borrow a similar coin 
and secretly exchange it for one 
of the waxed ones, which is then 
laid on the table, waxed side upper- 
most. Draw two cards from a 
pack, and take them in the same 
hand with the other waxed coin, 
which will thus stick to the under- 



COINS 



199 



COINS 



most. Lay this card on the table near 
the coin which is already there and 
cover that coin with the other card, 
pressing lightly on it so that it will 
stick. A coin may now be made 
to appear under whichever card the 
performer wishes, for if he bends the 
card slightly upward in lifting the 
coin will not stick to it ; otherwise it 
will. To the audience it will appear 
as if there were but one coin, which 
the performer caused at will to pass 
from one card to the other. 

4. The Animated Coin. Have 
ready a long piece of black thread, 
to one end of which is fastened a bit 
of wax. The waxed end lies on the 
table in front of the performer ; the 
other is held by an assistant in an 
adjoining room. On the table stands 
an ordinary goblet. The performer 
borrows a coin, and contriving to 
stick the wax to it throws it into the 
goblet, calling on the spectators to 
ask it questions which it will answer 
by jingling in the glass. It may be 
agreed that one clink shall mean 
" yes " and two " no," The assistant 
must be near enough to hear the 
questions, and answers them, ac- 
cording to his fancy, by pulling the 
thread, making the coin jump up and 
down in the glass. 

5. Coin and Card. Balance a card 
on the tip of your forefinger. On 





Coin and Card. 



top of it balance a coin about the 
size of a nickel five cent piece. Hit the 
edge of the card a smart horizontal 
blow with some object like a pencil, 
or snap it with your finger, if you can 



do it directly forward without tend- 
ing to drive the card up or down, 
and the card will fly away, leaving 
the coin balanced on your finger. 
6. Coin and Goblet. Support a 




Coin and Goblet. 

glass goblet upside down on two 
coins, as shown in the picture, on 
a table covered with a cloth. Place 
a third coin within, and ask the com- 
pany to remove it without touching 
or removing the glass. This may 
be done by scratching on the cloth 
near the glass. 

7. Coins in Water. Fill a glass 




Coins in Water. 



goblet brimful of water, and then 
ask the company how many coins 



COIN COPYING 



200 



COMMERCE 



can be dropped in without spilling it 
over. The guesses will all be too 
«mall, for a surprising number can be 
put in if it be done carefully. 

COIN COPYING. To obtain an 
'ixact copy, in copper, of a coin or 
medal, first make a mold of wax or 
Dlaster of Paris. A wax mold is 
nade by pressing the coin down on 
I piece of warm wax, brushed over 
vith sweet oil to prevent sticking. 
, \ plaster of Paris mold is made by 
' itting a little paper rim around the 
'toin and pouring into it a mixture of 
plaster of Paris and water, which will 
f »oon become hard. In this case the 
«!oin should be brushed over with 
fiweet oil for the same reason as 
l)efore. The mold must then be 
covered thickly with finely powdered 
graphite, which can be obtained by 
crushing either graphite stove black- 
ing or pencil leads. When the mold 
is well covered with a thin layer of 
this, it is attached to the negative 
wire of a battery and hung in a solu- 
tion of copper sulphate (blue vitriol). 
The positive wire of the battery is 
attached to a copper coin suspended 
in the same vessel. The electric 
current will decompose the copper 
sulphate depositing copper on the 
mold. After a time the layer of 
copper may be pulled off the mold, 
and its lower surface will be an exact 
copy of the coin from which the 
mold was made. The process is ex- 
actly like that of ELECTROPLATING. 

COIN WINDIVIILL. A coin can be 
made into a toy windmill with the 
aid of two pins. Lay the coin flat 
on a table or on the knee and press 
the points of the pins against opposite 
edges, keeping the pins exactly in 
the same straight line. The coin 
may now be lifted by the pins, but if 
it hangs vertically this shows that it 
is not perfectly balanced, and another 
trial must be made. When it is 
properly balanced it will keep hori- 
zontal as it is lifted. By blowing 
on one side, the coin may now be 
made to spin very rapidly between 
the pins. 



COLLISION BALLS, Experiments 
with. Take half a dozen large glass 
marbles and paste a little strip of 
leather to each so that it may be sus- 
pended by a thread. The paste 
should be slightly moistened gum 
tragacanth, which, though it does 
not hold the leather to the glass when 
wet, sticks strongly after it dries. In- 
sert a broom straw between theleather 
and glass before the paste is dry, 
and afterwards, when it is removed, 
a hole will be left for the thread. 
These glass balls must be hung side 
by side on a frame or to the edge of 
a table or shelf. They should just 
touch each other, without pressing 
against each other at all. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1. Draw aside the end ball and 
let it fall against the next. All the 
balls will remain at rest save the 
one at the other end which will fly 
off. As it falls back against its 
neighbor the first one will fly aside 
again, and so the end balls will con- 
tinue to move alternately. Soon the 
middle balls will begin to move a 
little and at the end the whole half- 
dozen balls will sway to and fro 
slightly. If the balls were perfectly 
elastic the middle balls would never 
move, but always remain still as 
at first. The first ball struck is 
squeezed together a little, and ex- 
panding, squeezes its neighbor, and 
so on till the last ball is reached, 
which, having no neighbor, flies 
aside. 

2. Draw aside the two. end balls 
and let them fall together. The two 
balls at the opposite end will fly off 
together. 

COIVIiVIERCIE, a game played by 
any number of persons, with one or 
more full packs of cards, according 
to the size of the company. The 
dealer gives each player five cards, 
two and three at a time, and then 
deals five others face upward on the 
table. The latter are sometimes 
called the " widow." The player at 
the dealer's left may exchange any or 
all of his cards for an equal number 



COMMERCE 



20I 



COMPASS 



in the widow, placing those he dis- 
cards face upward on the table with 
those he leaves, or he may "pass," 
that is, decline to exchange. The 
next player in order has the same 
privilege, and so on till each has had 
two chances, but any player who 
passes on the first round must do 
the same on the second. The hands 
are then shown, and he who has the 
lowest retires from the game. The 
value of the hands is the same as in 
Draw Poker. At the close of the 
next hand another player retires, and 
so on till only one is left, who is the 
winner. Sometimes, if the company 
is large, two or three players retire 
each time instead of one. In this 
case, if more than one player is left 
at the end, he who has the highest 
hand wins. There are many varie- 
ties of this game ; some of the most 
common of which will be described. 

A retired player is sometimes 
allowed to enter the game again if 
he can induce an active player to 
speak to him. In this case the 
player who so speaks must retire 
from the game. 

Sometimes a player does not retire 
until he has twice 
held the lowest 
hand. 

The game is of- 
ten played with- 
out any widow. 
Each player in 
turn must either 
trade, barter, or 
stand. In trad- 
ing, the player ex- 
changes one of his 
cards for the top 
card of the remain- 
ing pack, the re- 
jected card being placed under the 
pack ; in bartering, he exchanges a 
card with his left-hand neighbor ; if 
he is satisfied with his hand as it is, 
he says "I stand." No player's 
left-hand neighbor may refuse to 
barter, unless he intends to stand. 
In bartering, each may select the 
card he wishes to exchange, but may 



not see the other player's card till 
the change is made. When any 
player stands, trade and barter cease, 
and the hands are shown at once. 

When parties are given at which 
this game is played, it is customary 
for the hostess to give one or more 
prizes to the winners. Sometimes 
a boy's prize and a girl's prize are 
offered, in which case the boy and 
girl holding the lowest hands respec- 
tively retire at the end of each round. 

Three-Card Commerce. Each 
player is dealt three cards, and the 
hands are as follows in the order of 
their value, beginning with the high- 
est : 

1. Tricon, three cards of a kind. 

2. Sequence, three cards in succes- 
sion. 

3. Flush, three cards of the same 
suit. 

4. A Pair, two cards of a kind. 

5. Point, the greatest number of 
pips on the cards held, counting the 
Ace as eleven, and face cards ten 
each. 

COMPASS. A simple mariner's 
compass may be constructed as fol- 
lows. Magnetize an ordinary knit- 




Home-made Compass. 

ting needle, E (see MAGNETS), and 
pass it through a small cork, F, from 
side to side, so that the cork is exactly 
in the middle of the needle. Thrust 
a pin lengthwise through the same 
cork, and then stick in it two sharp- 
ened matches, C, so that they project 
downward diagonally. On the ends 
of the matches fix balls of wax. The 



COMPLIMENTS 



202 



COMPRESSED MAN 



whole arrangement can now be 
balanced on a thimble, D, by resting 
the point of the pin in one of the 
little holes on the top. If the knit- 
ting needle is not horizontal, pull it 
through the cork to one side or the 
other, or alter one of the wax balls. 
The whole is placed in a common 
earthenware pudding dish, T, and 
covered with a pane of glass. A disk 
of paper. A, with the points of the 
compass marked on it, may be fixed 
under the needle, when the whole 
arrangement will appear like the 
illustration. For experiments with 
the compass see MAGNETS. 

COMPLIMENTS, a game played 
by any number of persons, who sit 
in a circle. One of the players begins 
by wishing that he were some animal, 
bird, or other object, living or not, as 
he may choose. He asks his right- 
hand neighbor to give a reason for 
this choice and the answer must not 
be complimentary. He then asks 
the same question of his left-hand 
neighbor, who must return a com- 
plimentary reply. Each player makes 
a similar wish in turn and asks the 
same questions of his neighbors. 
Should any one's answer be compli- 
mentary, instead of uncompliment- 
ary, or the reverse, the offender must 
pay a forfeit. 

For example, suppose the player 
wishes to become a dog. His right- 
hand neighbor may give as a reason, 
" That you may indulge your pro- 
pensity for making hideous noises "; 
and his left-hand neighbor may say, 
" Because of the faithfulness, intelli- 
gence, and noble character of the 
animal." 

COMPRESSED MAN, THE, a 
trick performed by two boys. One 
asks the other if he is willing to be 
compressed to half his height, and the 
two then retire from the room. One 
stands in front of the other and two 
poles are placed on their shoulders 
to imitate the poles of a bier or 
stretcher. A small pillow is placed 
across the poles behind the rear boy, 
who leans his head back upon it and 



rests his arms at full length along 
the poles, which must be long enough 
to allow his hands nearly to reach 
the back of the forward boy. Boots 
are placed on his hands, and then 
his arms are covered with a blanket. 




Compressed Man. 



This arrangement causes him to 
look as if he were carried by two 
men on a stretcher, reduced to a 
heighthof about three feet. The 
spectators will not notice at first that 




Compressed Man. 



the rear bearer's head is invisible, or 
they will think that it is underneath 
the stretcher, concealed by the 
blanket. 

Fig. I shows the arrangement 






CONDUCTION OF HEAT 



203 



THE CONFESSOR 



before the blanket is put on ; Fig. 2, 
the appearance afterward. An " ex- 
tended man " can be made in a sim- 
ilar manner by placing the boots on 
sticks held in the hands of the rear 
performer, but the effect is not so 
striking. While the performers are 
absent from the room one of them 
should saw a piece of wood, while 
the other should groan, and a little 
sulphur may be burned to excite the 
interest of the spectators. 

CONDUCTION OF HEAT, Expen- 
merits on. i. Take a copper wire, 
an iron wire, and a glass rod, and 
dip them in melted wax, so as to 
form a coating on each. Lay them 
on a table with the ends projecting 
about two inches over the edge and 
crossing each other. Hold an alco- 
hol lamp under the place where they 
cross so as to heat them all equally. 
The conduction of the heat along 
the rods can be traced by the melt- 
ing of the wax, which will take place 
fastest on the best conductor of heat. 
Beyond a certain point on each rod 
the wax will not melt. This is be- 
cause the heat escapes from the air 
on all sides of the rod, so that there 
is not enough left to melt the wax 
beyond that point. The wax, how- 
ever, will be melted much farther on 
a good conductor than on a poor 
one. 

2. To the lower surface of an iron 
rod stick at intervals, by means of 
wax, balls of wood or bullets. Heat 
one end of the bar in an alcohol 
flame and the balls will drop off one 
by one as the wax is melted, begin- 
ning with the one nearest the flame. 
If bars of different substances be 
used, it will be seen that some of 
them conduct the heat of the flame 
faster than others. 

3. Hold a scrap of paper beneath 
a wooden penholder so that half is 
in contact with the wooden handle 
and half with the metal part that 
holds the pen. Hold the penholder 
and paper over the flame of an alco- 
hol lamp, and the part touching the 
wood will be charred, while that un- 



der the metal is yet white. This is 
because the metal conducts the heat 
more quickly than the wood does. 

4. Place one within another two 
tin pails, of such sizes that when to- 
gether there will be a space about 
two inches wide between them. Fill 
this space, including that at the bot- 
tom, with old newspaper crumpled 
into balls and packed in very tightly. 
Fill the inside pail with water at 
100^ Fahrenheit, put on the cover, 
pack the space above it with paper, 
and then put on the outer cover. 
This arrangement makes a vessel 
which conducts heat very slightly. 
If the water is tested after several 
hours its temperature will be only a 
degree or two lower, whereas water 
in an ordinary pail will cool to the 
temperature of the room in the same 
time. 

5. Water may be boiled in a paper 
box, as shown in the illustration, ow- 
ing to the fact that the heat is all 




Boiling Water in a Paper Box. 

required to boil the water, so that 
the paper is kept below the charring 
point. 

THE CONFESSOR, agame played 
by any number of persons, one of 



CONSEQUENCES 



204 



CONTUMACY 



whom is chosen as confessor and the 
others personate penitents. Each 
of the players is given a pencil and a 
slip of paper. The confessor writes 
on his slip what he wishes to con- 
sider the capital sin, and then, ad- 
dressing the player at his left desires 
him to confess his sins, at the same 
time handing him a tetotum. The 
penitent spins the tetotum on a 
table, and the number that it turns 
up shows how many sins he must 
confess. He writes them on his paper 
and hands it to the confessor, who 
reads the sins aloud, and then pro- 
ceeds to the next player on the 
right. Any player who confesses 
the capital sin, or any one of the 
sins that have already been confessed, 
must pay a forfeit. The name of the 
capital sin is not told to the company 
till all have confessed. Then, if 
desired, another confessor is chosen 
and the game goes on, entirely new 
sins still being required, on penalty 
of a forfeit. The game is made 
more amusing if the confessor and 
the penitents act out their parts. If 
it is so agreed before the game, any- 
one who laughs may be made to pay 
a forfeit. 

CONSEQUENCES, a game played 
by any number of persons, each with 
pencil and paper. The players 
usually sit around a table and the first 
writes at the top of his paper an ad- 
jective describing a man, then folds 
the paper over the word so as to 
hide it, and passes it to his left-hand 
neighbor. Each then writes, just 
under the hidden word, the name of 
a man, either a historical character or 
some acquaintance, and folding the 
paper, passes it as before. After this 
the following things are written in like 
manner, the paper being folded and 
passed after each. (3) An adjective 
describing a woman. (4) A woman's 
name. (5) Where the man and 
woman met. (6) What he said. 
(7) What she replied. (8) What 
the consequences were. (9) What 
the world said. When all these 
have been written, the papers are 



mixed in the middle of the table, 
and each player draws one which he 
must read aloud ; or, all the papers 
may be read by one player, chosen 
for the purpose. The reader fills in 
the words necessary to make a con- 
nected story. 

The names of the players are 
often used with amusing effect. 
For instance, one of the papers may 
read, " The gentlemanly Henry VHI. 

and the slovenly Mary B , met in 

the Metropolitan Museum. He 
said, ' Do you like apples } ' and 
she replied, * Not on Sundays.' The 
consequence was a tremendous ex- 
plosion, and the world said, ' What 
else could you expect } " 

The words and sentences written 
may be varied as agreed on at the 
beginning of the game. For in- 
stance, " What he gave her " and 
" What she gave him " are often put 
in. In its simplest form the game 
consisted of writing merely a man's 
name, a woman's name, where they 
met, and the consequences. 

A different way of playing the 
game is for the players to write each 
of their words or sentences on a 
separate card or slip of paper, num- 
bering them as above. The slips are 
then gathered in piles, each pile 
containing those of one number, 
and each player draws one from 
each pile, arranges them in order, 
and reads the story that results. 
Or, if there are just as many players 
as piles, each may be given one, and 
then each, in the order of the num- 
bers, may read one of his cards. 

The game may be played many 
times with the same cards if each 
pile is shuffled after every read- 
ing. Sometimes words or sentences 
printed on cards of different colors 
are sold at the toy shops, to be used 
in playing this game or similar 
ones. 

CONTUMACY, a game of cards 
played by three persons with a 
EUCHRE pack. The players cut for 
deal, and he who cuts the lowest 
card gives three cards to each player. 



COPENHAGEN 



205 



CORN AND BEANS 



Beginning with the eldest hand, each 
may then discard his hand, if not 
satisfied with it, and call for a new 
one. No one can discard part of a 
hand, and when any player has said 
he is satisfied he must keep his hand. 
Each of the other players may thus 
draw two new hands, and the dealer 
may draw three. The dealer then 
leads from any suit he pleases, and 
names another. The other players 
are expected to play in the named 
suit, taking just as if they were fol- 
lowing suit. Thus, if the dealer 
lead the Five of Clubs and says 
" Hearts," the Six of Hearts will take 
the trick, but the Six of Clubs will 
not. If either player wish to play a 
suit which has neither been named 
nor played, he can do so, but to take 
the trick his card must be the second 
one above the card which would 
otherwise take it. He may play thus 
from choice or because he cannot do 
otherwise. In either case he is said 
to be " contumacious." It will be 
seen that the first contumacious 
player in any round has two suits to 
choose from, but one at third hand, 
where the second hand has already 
been contumacious, has but one. 
Thus, if the dealer lead the Four of 
Spades, and say " Hearts," and the 
second player (choosing to be con- 
tumacious) play the Six of Clubs, the 
third, if he also is contumacious, 
must play a Diamond higher than 
the Seven to take the trick. But in 
the named suit (Hearts), a Seven 
would take it. The dealer continues 
to lead till the hands have been 
played. He must not name the 
same suit twice in succession, nor 
must he name the suit he leads. 
The cards rank as in ecarte, the 
Ace being between the Ten and 
Knave. The Ace of Spades is a 
special card, and is not allowed to 
win a trick in contumacy. When 
played in the named suit it has its 
ordinary value, but when led it must 
always take the trick. 

COPENHAGEN, a game played 
by any number of persons, who stand 



in a circle holding a rope whose ends 
are tied together. One of the play- 
ers stands in the middle of the ring, 
and tries to slap the hands that hold 
the rope, using only one of his own 
hands at a time. The players must 
always hold the rope with at least 
one hand, and can try to escape being 
slapped only by changing hands 
rapidly, taking hold first with one 
and then with another. If any one's 
hand is slapped or he lets the rope 
go altogether, he must take the place 
of the one in the ring. As the game 
is often played, a girl tries to slap 
only boys' hands and a boy only 
girls' hands, and when a hand is 
slapped the players kiss as they 
change places. 

CORK, Experiment with a. Place 
in the neck of a wide-mouthed bottle 
a cork considerably too small for it, 
and try to blow it into the bottle. 
Instead of going in, it will generally 
fly out. The reason is that the 
blowing compresses the air within 
the bottle and this, recoiling like a 
spring, drives the cork out. To suc- 
ceed, the experiment must be tried 
with bottle and cork perfectly dry so 
that one will not stick to the other. 

CORK, The, a game in which the 
players try to knock a cork from the 
top of a bottle. The bottle is placed 
on a table and the cork set loosely on 
the neck so that it can easily be 
knocked off. Each player in turn, 
standing on the opposite side of the 
room, holds his arm directly before 
him, with forefinger extended. He 
must then walk slowly toward the 
bottle and with a single movement of 
the arm knock off the cork without 
disturbing the bottle. The player 
wins who succeeds in doing this the 
greatest number of times in a num- 
ber of turns previously agreed upon. 
The task, though seemingly easy, is 
really difficult. Most players will 
strike above the cork, the reason 
being that he has an involuntary fear 
of hitting the bottle. 

CORN AND BEANS, a game 
played by any number of persons, 



COTTON 



206 



COUNTING OUT 



one of whom, called the Professor, 
reads questions from a card, while 
the others hold cards bearing the 
answers. The Professor's card 
bears any number of questions, 
usually forty, on historical or other 
subjects, and there are the same 
number of other cards each con- 
taining the answer to one of the 
questions. After a Professor has 
been chosen, the answer-cards 
are distributed equally among the 
others. A quantity of corn and 
beans, for use as counters, is also 
distributed equally. The Professor 
begins by reading any question he 
chooses. The holder of the answer 
must cry " Corn ! " and all the oth- 
ers must cry " Beans ! " If the 
holder cry first, he reads the answer 
and hands the card to the Professor. 
If one or more cry " Beans " first, he 
must give each of them a corn or 
bean and hold the answer-card till 
the question is asked again. If any 
one cry either " Corn " or " Beans " 
wrongly, he must give a corn or bean 
to each of the others. If the Profes- 
sor ask a question which has already 
been answered, the first one to dis- 
cover it cries " Corn and Beans," and 
changes places with the Professor, 
who becomes an ordinary pupil. The 
game lasts until the Professor has all 
the answer-cards. Should any one 
pay out all his corn and beans, he 
must borrow of a neighbor. The 
first one to dispose of his answer 
cards is called the " Model Scholar "; 
the first one out of corn and beans, 
the " Bankrupt," and the player hav- 
ing most corn and beans at the end 
of the game, the " Millionaire." 

COTTON, Experiment with. 
Take a glass nearly full of alcohol, 
and as much loose cotton wool as 
can be held in an ordinary stiff hat. 
Put the cotton into the alcohol, a 
little at a time, pushing it down with 
a glass rod slowly, so that the alcohol 
will have time to soak it thoroughly. 
It will be possible to put all the cot- 
ton into the glass without making 
the alcohol run over. The reason is 



that the cotton really takes up very 
little room, as would be seen if it 
were squeezed or pressed together 
very tightly. 

COUNTING OUT, deciding who 
shall be leader of a game, or take 
some special part in it. In this 
country the one who takes such a 
part is called " It." In England he 
is sometimes called " He," in France 
Le (It), and in Germany he is said to 
be daran (in). Sometimes to be It 
is a desirable thing, and sometimes 
not. When it is desirable, the 
players often shout " I choose to be 
It," or some similar form of words, 
and he who shouts first is given the 
post. When it is undesirable, it is 
often agreed that all shall run to 
some tree or gate, and that he who 
gets there last shall be It. The 
question is often decided by lot in 
some of the various ways described 
undqr CHOOSING Sides. Sometimes 
one of the players numbers the 
others, counting from one to seven 
and then begining again. Each 
seventh player drops out, till finally 
only one is left, who must be It. 
But the most common method is by 
" counting out rhymes," of which 
there are a great number. The 
players stand in a row, and one recit- 
ing the rhyme, points to them in 
order, indicating one at each word. 
He to whom the last word falls, 
drops out of the line, and the rhyme 
is thus repeated till only one is left, 
who must be It. The counter-out 
of course points to himself in the 
proper order. Most counting out 
rhymes have a whole word for each 
beat or accent, but, some have more 
than one, and in this case some 
counters-out point once for each 
word, and others once for each ac- 
cent. Thus in the lines, — 

Little boy driving cattle. 
Don't you hear his money rattle, 

some persons point only for the 
accented words in the second line, 
while others point for each word. 
Several of the most common count- 



CRAMBO 



207 



CRAMBO 



ing-out rhymes are given below. 
Most of them have almost countless 
variations. 

Overy, uvery, ickory, Ann, 
Fillisy, follasy, Nicholas John, 
Queevy, quavy, Irish Mary, 
Stingalum, stangalum, Buck. 



Eeny, meeny, mona, my, 
Barcelona, bona, stry, 
Kay bell, broken well, 
We, wo, wack. 



Intery, mintery, cutery, corn, 
Apple seed, briar thorn. 
Wire, briar, limber lock. 
Three geese in a flock ; 
One flew east, one flew west. 
One flew over the cuckoo's nest, 
O-u-t, out ! 



One, two, three, four, 
Lily at the kitchen door. 
Eating grapes off the plate, 
Five, six, seven, eight. 



Monkey, monkey, bottle of beer. 
How many monkeys are there here ? 

One, two, three. 

Out goes he (or she). 



Stick, stock, stone dead, 

Set him up, set him down, 

Set him in the old man's crown. 



Onery, twoery, dickery, davery, 
Hallibone, crackabone, tenery, lavery. 
Discontent, American pine, 
Humble-ey, bumble-ey, twenty-nine. 



One-i-zol, two-i-zol, zig-i-zol, zan. 
Bobtail, vinegar, tickle, and tan, 
Harum-scarum, Virgin Marum, 
We, wo, wack. 

COURT TENNIS. See Tennis. 
COVENTRY, The Earl of. See 

Earl of Coventry. 

CRAMBO, a game played by any 
number of persons, who try to guess 
a word by means of another which 
rhymes with it. One of the players 
thinks of a word, and then tells the 
others what it rhymes with. The 



players who guess do not speak the 
words that occur to them, but tell 
their meaning. Thus, one chooses 
the word pin, and says, " I think of 
a word that rhymes with tin." An- 
other asks, " Is it a part of the face ? " 
and the answer is, " No, it is not 
chin." " Is it a loud noise .'^ " "No, 
it is not din," and so the game goes 
on till the word is guessed. Those 
guessing often try to make the 
meanings they give hard to under- 
stand, so that most of the guessing 
is on the other side. If the one 
who thinks of the word cannot 
understand his questioners he may 
ask them to repeat the question dif- 
ferently. The guesses need not be 
made by the players in order. 

Acting Crambo, or Dumb Crambo, 
a kind of Crambo in which, instead 
of telling the meaning of the words 
that are guessed, the players act 
them in dumb-show. Two of the 
company generally choose sides, and 
one side leaves the room, returning 
to act its guesses after being told 
what the chosen word rhymes with. 
The acting may be done by one per- 
son and be simply a movement of 
the hand or body; as, for instance, 
in guessing the words " shake " or 
" bend," or the whole side may act 
a long CHARADE, Sometimes a 
game played in this way will last a 
whole evening. The game of Ques- 
tions AND Answers is also some- 
times called Crambo, but it is quite 
different. 

History. The name Crambo was 
given in old times to several rhyming 
games. The Spectator speaks of 
" those who play at Crambo or cap 
verses." The word means a rhyme, 
and is said to be from the Latin 
cra77tbe (repetition). This word 
meant cabbage in Greek, and came 
to signify a tiresome repetition 
through the proverb, " a cabbage 
twice boiled is death." 

The natives of the Samoan Islands 
in the Pacific Ocean play a kind of 
Crambo. A traveler there says: "One 
party would choose the names of 



CRIBBAGE 



208 



CRIBBAGE 



trees, and another the names of men. 
Those who sided with the trees 
would say, ' There is the Tan tree ; 
tell us a name which will rhyme 
to it.' " 

CRIBBACE, a game of cards 
played by two, three, or four persons, 
with a full pack. Two-handed six- 
card Cribbage, the common game in 
this country, will be described first : 

Points. The following is a list of 
the points that can be made in Crib- 
bage. 

A pair (two of a kind, as two 
Queens or two Eights) counts 2. 

A pair royal (three of a kind) 
counts 6. 

A double pair royal (four of a 
kind) counts 12. 

A sequence (three or more cards 
in succession, of the same suit or 
not), counts as many points as there 
are cards in it. In a sequence the 
Ace counts below the Two, and not 
above the King. Any number of 
cards the sum of whose spots is 15 
(counting face cards as 10), counts 2. 
A Knave of the same suit as the 
trump card counts i (called " one for 
his nob"). Turning up a Knave as 
trump counts the dealer 2 (called 
" two for his heels "). A flush (four 
or five cards of the same suit), counts 
4 or 5 as the case may be. 

The deal is determined by cutting 
(see Cards ), and six cards are dealt 
one by one to each player. Each 
now takes out two cards from his 
hand to form what is called the Crib. 
This is the property of the dealer, 
but he must not look at it till the 
hand is played ; the four cards that 
form it are placed by themselves, 
face down, on the table. The non- 
dealer now cuts the pack, and the 
dealer turns up the top card of the 
lower pile as trump. Beginning 
with the non-dealer, the players in 
turn then lay down their cards, one 
by one, face upward, each making a 
pile of his own. As each card is put 
down, its owner calls out the sum of 
the spots on all the cards which 
have been played (face cards count- 



ing 10) ; thus, A may put down a 
Six and say "six," B a Seven and 
say "thirteen" and A a Queen and say 
"twenty-three." When thirty-one 
is reached the counting begins over 
again. If either one makes exactly 
thirty- one he scores two points, and 
if neither can do so he who come: 
nearest it scores one, which is called 
a " go." Thus, taking up the play 
of A and B where we left it, sup 
pose B plays a Five and calls out 
" twenty-eight." If A has nothing 
lower than Four he must say "Go 
meaning that B can score one for a 
Go, as he has come nearest 31. If 
B can play again, he must do so 
before scoring, and if he can make 
31 he scores two instead of his Go. 
He who plays the last card in the 
hand also scores one. In playing, if 
any of the groups in the above list 
are formed, except a flush» he who 
plays the last card in the group 
scores for it but the cards must be 
played in succession. The cards of 
sequence may be put down in any 
order ; thus, 2, 5, 3, 4, would be 
counted by the one playing the last 
card as a sequence of four (2, 3, 4, 5) ; 
and if the next player should then 
play an Ace, he would count a se- 
quence of five (i, 2, 3, 4, 5). The 
same cards can be counted again to 
make a higher group : thus, if A 
plays an Eight, and B another Eight 
making a pair and scoring two. A 
may play a third Eight, making with 
the other two a pair-royal, and scor 
ing six. But when thirty-one is 
reached, all making of groups must 
begin anew. Fifteen counts only at 
the beginning of play; thus if A plays 
a Six, B a Ten, and A a Five, A 
cannot call the Ten and the Five 
fifteen. Making points during play is 
called, from the mode of counting 
" pegging." When play is over, 
each gathers up his hand and reck 
ons up the points in it. The non- 
dealer counts his first, and is said to 
" have first show." This is an ad- 
vantage, especially at the end of a 
close game, when he who has first 



Cribbage 



209 



CRIBBAGE 



show often wins. The cards must 
be spread on the table face upward, 
so that both players may see. In 
reckoning, the trump card counts as 
part of each hand. All the cards in 
one group cannot be counted as part 
of a larger group as in playing, but 
any number less than the whole can 
be so counted. Thus, if a player 
have three Queens he can count them 
only as a pair royal and not as 
separate pairs also ; and if he have 
for instance. Nine, Ten, Knave, Queen, 
he can count only a sequence of four 
and not the separate sequences of 
three. But if he have Nine, Ten, and 
two Knaves, or Nine, two Tens, and a 
Knave, he can count two sequences 
of three, only two cards being the 
same in both groups. This is called 
a double sequence of three, and evi- 
dently scores eight, counting the pair. 
A double sequence of four would in 
the same way count ten. So, too, 
with one Five and three face cards, 
three fifteens can be formed, and 
with two Fives and two face cards 
four fifteens. 

The dealer counts his Hand 
before looking at his Crib, and the 
Hand and Crib are reckoned 
separately. The trump card is 
counted with the Crib also, and the 
Crib is reckoned like the Hand, ex- 
cept that a flush of four does not 
count in it. In counting fifteens the 
score is added to the word fifteen ; 
thus, if a player has three of them he 
says he has fifteen-six, and if five 
of them, fifteen-ten. Experienced 
players reckon their hands very fast, 
and this part of the game is excellent 
training in addition. After the 
reckoning, the players deal alter- 
nately, until one has made 61 
points, which wins the game. The 
score may be kept simply with pencil 
and paper, but it is usual to mark it 
with pegs on a Cribbage board like 
that in the illustration. In marking, 
each player uses one side of the 
board, his peg traveling the outside 
row of holes, returning by the inside 
row, and finishing in the end hole. 



Each player usually has two pegs, 
and the points are marked with them 
alternately, so that the number of 







; '■ 


a 



' 




': \ 


\ \ 




N 


\ \ 




\ \ 


\ \ 




\ - 


: : 




• 


": ; 









Cribbage Board. 

holes between them always shows 
the last score that was made. 

The game will be made clearer by 
carefully playing through the follow- 
ing sample hand. Suppose the cards 
to be dealt and that they are dis- 
tributed as follows, A being the 
dealer. 

A puts in the Crib a pair of Eights, 
because they form a group with 
nothing else in his hand, and because 
the Crib is his own. If it had been 
B's Crib he would have hesitated 
before giving his opponent a pair. 
B should put in his Seven and Queen, 
leaving himself a flush. The cards 
in brackets thus form the Crib. B 
cuts, and A turns up the Five of 
Clubs. 

B leads with his Four of Clubs, say- 
ing " four." 

A plays his Four of Spades, saying 
" eight" (and scoring two for a 
pair). 

B (having no Seven to make 15) 



CRIBBAGE 



CRIBBAGE 



plays his Six of Clubs, saying " four- 
teen." 

A plays his Five of Hearts, saying 
" nineteen " (and scores three for 
the sequence 4, 5, 6). 

B his Nine, saying " twenty-eight." 
A (having no card that w^ill make 
with this 31, or less), says " Go " (and 
B scores one). 

A plays his King, saying " ten." 
B his Knave, saying "twenty." 
A his Six, saying " twenty-six " 
(and scores one for the last card). 
The score in pegging thus stands 6 
for A to I for B. B, having first 
show, spreads out his hand. The 



n 


(- 


4. 4. 

4. 4^ 
4. 4. 

4. 4. 







♦ ♦ 

♦ ♦ 


4. 4- 
4. 4. 
4. 4, 


^^^ 
^^^ 

<? ^ 




s 


1 



trump card makes one fifteen with 
his Knave, another with his Four and 
Six, and his Nine and Six make a 
third. His cards and the trump card 
are all clubs. Therefore his score is 
" fifteen-six ; a flush of five makes 
II, and one for his nob makes 
12." A has two fifteens in his own 
hand, and can make two more by 
using the trump. His Four, Five, and 
Six, with the trump, give him a 
double sequence of three as before 



shown. His score is "fifteen- eight, 
and a double sequence of three 
makes 16." The points in the crib 
are " fifteen-six and a pair makes 
eight." A's total score for the hand 
is 30, and B's is 13. 

Five-Card Cribbage. Each player 
has five cards, two of which he dis- 
cards for the Crib as before, leav- 
ing him only three. The method of 
play is the same as in the six-card 
game, except that when thirty-one is 
reached, play stops, and the remain- 
ing cards are not put down. A 
flush of three counts in the hand, but 
not in the crib, where it must consist 
of five cards as before. In opening 
this game, the non-dealer is allowed 
three points to begin with. Five- 
card cribbage is considered a more 
difficult game than six-card. It re- 
quires more skill, and is preferred by 
many players. 

Three-Handed Cribbage» a kind of 
Cribbage played by three persons, 
each on his own account. Each has 
five cards, and an extra one is dealt 
to the crib, to which each adds one 
card. The board for this game is 
three-sided. 

Four-Handed Cribbage, a kind of 
Cribbage played by four persons, in 
partnerships of two. Each is dealt 
five cards and discards one for the 
crib. The one at the dealer's left 
cuts for the trump and begins to 
play, and the others follow in suc- 
cession to the left. The method of 
playing and the rules are the same 
in three-handed and four-handed as 
in two-handed cribbage, but more 
care is required, the greater the num- 
ber of players. The board for four- 
handed is like that for two-handed 
cribbage. The counting is done by 
one player on each side, and neither 
of the others may touch the pegs. 

Skill in Cribbage is shown both in 
laying out, or discarding, for the 
Crib, and in playing the cards. In 
the former the player must bear in 
mind to whom the Crib belongs. If 
it were his own he would not object 
to discarding a pair or a fifteen, 



CRIBBAGE 



CRIBBAGE 



whereas if it were his opponent's he 
would probably prefer to spoil his 
own hand rather than to give his 
enemy an advantage unless he were 
very far ahead. In Five-card Crib- 
bage it is considered of more impor- 
tance to " balk " or spoil an oppo- 
nent's Crib, than to keep good cards 
for one's own hand, since the Crib 
is larger than either hand. As re- 
gards sequences a player should 
avoid discarding close cards for his 
opponent's Crib, and choose them 
for his own. It is a good plan to 
retain a sequence in hand if possi- 
ble, as there is a good chance of the 
turn-up card's making it a double 
sequence. 

In playing, the best card to lead is 
one below a Five, as the adversary 
cannot then make fifteen. A good 
player frequently declines to make a 
pair or small sequence, suspecting 
that his opponent desires him to do 
so that he may then make a pair 
royal, or larger sequence. For the 
same reason, if it is possible to make 
either fifteen or a pair the former 
should be chosen. Numbers which 
would enable the adversary to make 
fifteen and a pair, or a thirty-one 
and a pair, at the same time, should 
be avoided. Thus a player should 
never count fourteen or thirty with 
an Ace, thirteen or twenty-nine 
with a Two, twelve or twenty-eight 
with a Three, and so on. 

In counting the hand, beginners 
often overlook points. They should 
therefore look over the hand syste- 
matically, taking fifteens first, for in- 
stance, sequences next, and then, in 
order, pairs, flushes, and nob. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. The player who cuts the lowest 
card deals, Ace counting as low. 

2. There must be a fresh cut for 
deal after each game, unless a rub- 
ber is to be played, when the deal 
alternates throughout the rubber. 

3. The cards must be dealt one at 
a time. If two are dealt at once, the 
dealer may correct his mistake, if he 



can do so by moving only one card, 
otherwise there must be a new deal. 

4. If the dealer expose one of his 
adversary's cards, or give either too 
few or too many cards, the adversary 
may take two points and call for a 
fresh deal, but he m.ust do so before 
looking at his hand. Except that if 
too few cards have been given the 
non-dealer, he, after looking at his 
hand, may ask to have it completed, 
instead of demanding a new deal. 

5. If a player deal out of turn, and 
the error is discovered before the 
trump is turned, there must be a new 
deal by the proper person, but if the 
trump has been turned the deal is 
good. The one who should have 
dealt deals next, and so on alter- 
nately as if no mistake had been 
made. 

6. The dealer may insist on his 
adversary discarding first. 

7. If a player discard, having too 
many cards, his adversary may score 
two, and either call for a new deal 
or draw the surplus card from his 
opponent's hand. 

8. If a player discard, having too 
few cards, he must play out the hand 
with the number he has. 

9. If a player take back a dis- 
carded card, his opponent may score 
two and call for a new deal. 

10. The Crib must not be touched 
during play. 

11. If the dealer turn up more 
than one card for trump, the non- 
dealer may take his choice of them. 

12. If the dealer turn up a Knave, 
and neglect to score for " his heels " 
before he has played, he loses the 
two points. 

13. No card that is properly played 
can be taken up again, but if one is 
laid down, making the count more 
than 31, it must be taken back, and 
there is no penalty. 

14. If a player say " Go " when he 
has a card that can be played, his 
opponent may require it to be played, 
or mark two points. 

15. In reckoning, a player's Hand 
or Crib must remain in full sight till 



CRICKET 



212 



CRICKET 



his opponent is satisfied that the 
count is correct. 

1 6. If a player score too much, the 
adversary may correct him and add 
the same amount to his own score. 
If he score too Httle, the adversary is 
not bound to correct him. 

17. A player's pegs must not be 
touched by his opponent, except to 
correct a false score ; nor by himself, 
except in scoring. If he displace his 
foremost peg he must put it behind 
the other. 

18. When a player has quitted his 
peg, he cannot alter his score. 

CRICKET, a game of ball, played 
usually by 22 persons, 11 on each 
side. It is played on a field arranged 
as in the diagrams below. Two 
" wickets " are set up, 22 yards apart, 
each consisting of three upright sticks 
called stumps, 27 inches high, so 
close together that the ball cannot 
pass between them. Across the top 




I. Pad. 2. Wicket. 3. 

Cricket Implements. 



Bat. 



of each wicket are placed two pieces 
of wood called bails. In front of 
each wicket and 4 feet from it is a 
line marked on the ground called a 
Popping Crease, and in line with 
each wicket is a Bowlijig Crease 
similarly marked, 6 feet 8 inches 
long, having at its end short lines at 
right angles to it called Return 
Creases. The choice of innings is 



generally decided by lot, and the 
game is then begun by the players of 
the side that has the field taking 
positions round the wickets,while two 
of the other side take position one in 
front of each wicket, inside the Pop- 
ping Crease, with bats Hke those in 
the illustration. The duty of each 
of these players, who are called Bat- 
ters, is to keep himself from being 
put out as explained below, and to 
make as many runs as possible. 

The players on the fielding side 
take whatever positions in the field 
their captain directs. There are al- 
ways a Bowler and a Wicket Keeper, 
but the positions of the other men 
vary with the opinions of the captain 
and the changes of the bowling. The 
first diagram shows an arrangement 
of the field for fast bowling and the 



s.- 



u. 



4 3 

7 8 

5 6 

Fig. I. — Field for Fast Bowling. 

S. S., Strikers ; U. U., Umpires ; i, Bowler ; 2, 
Wicket-keeper ; 3, Point ; 4, Slip ; 5, Third man 
up ; 6, Cover point ; 7, Mid-off ; 8, Long-off ; 
9, Long-on ; 10, Mid-on ; 11, Short-leg. 



-S. • 



10 



II 



Fig. 2. — Field for Slow Bowling. il 

S. S., Strikers ; U. U., Umpires ; 1, Bowler ;3)pi 
Wicket-keeper ; 3, Longstop ; 4, Point ; 5, Slip ; 
6, Cover slip ; 7, Cover point ; 8 Mid-off ; 9; Mid- 
on ; 10, Short leg ; 11, Long leg. 

second one for slow bowling. The 
names of the various positions in 
which the captain distributes his 



CRICKET 



213 



CRICKET 



men, as he deems most advanta- 
geous, vary slightly in different places, 
but are usually those given in the 
diagrams of the field inserted below. 
The Bowler begins play by deliver- 
ing the ball at the opposite wicket, 
standing with one foot behind the 
Bowling Crease. The Batter tries to 
protect the wicket by striking the 
ball with his bat. If the ball neither 
is struck nor hits the wicket, the 
Wicket Keeper returns it to the 
Bowler. If any part of the wicket is 
knocked down, the Batter is " out," 
and another takes his place, and so 
on in an order decided on by the 
captain of the batting side. If the 
player strike the ball far enough he 
may run to the opposite wicket, 
changing places with the batsman 
there, who runs at the same time 
with him. If the two cross the pop- 
ping creases of the wickets toward 
which they run, or put the bat inside 
them before either wicket is knocked 
down (either by the ball thrown by a 
fielder or by a fielder with the ball in 
hand), they together score one run. 
Otherwise the one who leaves the 
knocked-down wicket is out, unless 
they have crossed, when he who 
approaches it is out. The players 
may make as many runs as they can, 
crossing to and fro several times, and 
scoring one for each run. A player 
who is out takes no farther part in 
the game until all on his side are out. 
The side wins which makes the 
greater number of runs in two in- 
nings, or sometimes in one inning, if 
it be so agreed. An inning is com- 
pleted when both sides have been at 
the bat and have been put out. 
When the Bowler has bowled a cer- 
tain number of balls (generally five 
in England and Canada, and six in 
the United States) at one wicket, the 
Umpire calls " over," and the next 
" over " is bowled at the opposite 
wicket, the fielders all changing their 
. places correspondingly. 
[ Besides the ways of putting out 
I the Batter that have been mentioned 
he may be put out by a fielder's 



catching and holding the batted ball 
before it strikes the ground, by his 
knocking down his own wicket, when 
in the act of playing the ball, stopping 
the ball with his body, or in other 
ways described in the rules below. 
The batsman and wicket keeper, 
when playing against fast bowling, 
generally have the legs protected by 
guards, and wear buckskin gloves. 
The size of the bats and ball is 
regulated by the first and second 
rules below. The duties of some of 
the players will now be described in 
detail. 

T^e Bowler. The Bowler is the 
most important player on the field. 
He sometimes varies his balls, like 
the Pitcher in Base Ball, deliver- 
ing some fast, some slow, some with 
one twist and some with another, so 
as to puzzle the batter. But as a 
rule a fast or slow Bowler will stick 
to his particular style, as his field is 
set for that style only, and a change 
of even one ball might prove ex- 
pensive. The figure shows the 
courses of the balls as delivered by 
different bowlers. The ball usually 
bounds once, and the place where it 
bounds is called the " Pitch." If the 
ball is pitched close to the batsman, 
it is called " full pitched " ; if it 
pitches sooner than a full pitched 
ball it is " short pitched," and if later, 
"over-pitched." A ball that does 
not hit the ground before reaching 
the batsman is called a " full ball." 
A short pitched ball, reaching the 
wicket by a long bound, is a " long 
hop " ; an over-pitched ball, which 
can be hit back or "driven," is a 
" half volley " ; one that strikes the 
ground just where the batsman's bat 
is, is a " Yorker," and one which keeps 
close to the ground after it pitches, 
is a " shooter." One which bounds 
several times is a " grounder " or 
" sneaker." Grounders and full balls 
are too easily played by good bats- 
men to be used often, but are some- 
times effective. If the bowling be 
fast, the ball will move in almost a 
straight line from the Bowler's hand 



CRICKET 



214 



CRICKET 



to the Pitch ; if slow, in more or less 
of a curve. In underhand bowHng, 
formerly more used than now, the 
ball rises from the Bowler's hand in 
a very decided curve. This is called 
"lobbing." The different twists 



given the ball make it bound high or 
low or to one side as the Bowler may 
wish, the ball rolling slightly on the 
ground during the instant it touches 
it, and so varying its direction as it 
rises. The Bowler suits his balls to 




Fast Round-arm. 



Medium Pace. 



,/ 



^ ^^>:^/ 






Slow Round-arm. 




Low Underhand (Lobs). 



Break in from Leg. 



Screw Ball. 
Different Kinds of Bowling. 



the Batsman, trying to give him 
those hardest for him to play. He 
should hold the ball with his fingers, 
not in the hollow of the hand, take a 
short run before delivering the ball, 
and " pitch " it as near to the Bats- 



man as the latter's style of hitting 
will allow. If the Bowler send the 
ball outside the limits of the opposite 
Bowling Crease, it is a " wide ball " ; 
if he does not follow the rules in 
delivering it, it is " no ball," and in 



CRICKET 



215 



CRICKET 



either of these cases, when the um- 
pire so calls it, at least one run is 
scored for the opposite side (see 
Rule 13). After an "over" has 
been bowled by one player another 
Bowler takes his turn. Sometimes 




The Bowler. 

the same player acts as Bowler 
and Wicket Keeper alternately. If 
an " over " is bowled without a run 
being made, it is called a " maiden 
over " or " maiden." Besides deliver- 
ing the ball, it is also the Bowler's 
place to watch for chances to put 
the Batsman out at the wicket near 
which he stands. 

The Batter. The Batter wears 
leg pads and gloves, both of which 
should fit easily. He should select 
a bat to suit his size, and should 
practice with the same one with 
which he intends to play in a match. 
Heavy bats send the ball farther 
than light ones, when given the 
same speed, but as it requires greater 
strength to give them that speed, the 
Batter, when in doubt as to weight, 
should choose the lighter of two 
bats. The Batsman should stand 
easily, with his two heels not more 



than a few inches apart. Before the 
Bowler delivers the ball the Bat- 
ter should "take guard," as in the 
illustration. The stump nearest the 
Batter is called the "leg stump," the 
other outside one the " off stump," 
and the third the " middle stump." 
If the Batter hold his bat directly 
before the middle stump, he is said 
to "take middle," if in front of both 
the middle and leg stumps, to " take 
middle and leg" for guard. The 
bat should be held about three inches 
inside the popping crease. The right 
or " pivot " foot should be placed as 
near as possible to the wicket with- 
out being in the way of any part of 
it. The object of thus taking guard 
is to find out where to place the feet 
so as best to guard the wicket with 
the bat. 

As the Bowler begins to run be- 
fore delivering the ball, the Batter 
straightens himself, raising his bat 
slightly, and when the ball is de- 
livered he draws the bat back to the 
bails of the wicket, where he holds it 
till he is ready to strike. If he lean 
slightly toward the wicket, in strik- 
ing, he is said to " play back," while 
if he lean toward the ball he " plays 
forward." In general the former is 
better, especially for learners, as it 
gives a longer time to see the ball. 
The skillful Batter plays forward or 




Taking Guard. 

back according to the way in which 
the Bowler gives him the ball, and 
the beginner can best learn by ex- 
perience which to do in any case. 
In general, he should so bend his 



CfelCltEt 



216 



CRICKET 



body that the bat strikes the ball 
about one-fourth the length of the 
blade from its end ; that is, in the 
thickest part. When the Batsman 
" has command of the pitch," that 
is, can nearly reach with his bat 
(held straight) the spot where the 




Preparing for Action. 

ball bounds, he should play forward, 
always holding the bat close to the 
ground, so that the ball will not go 
underneath as it rises from the 
bound. The reason for playing such 
balls forward is that any twist the 
Bowler may have given the ball, that 
it may bound in an 
unexpected direc- 
tion, has not time 
to act. The hits 
which a Batter may 
make are given dif- 
ferent names, ac- 
cording to the di- 
rection and manner 
of striking the ball. 
If it is hit toward 
" Point," " Cover 
Point," or into the 
" Slips," it is a 
" cut "; if it is hit 
forward o n t h e 
" half volley " it is 
a "drive"; if it is hit to the "on 
side " back of the wickets, it is a 
"leg hit," and if it is sent in this 
direction by allowing the ball to hit 
the bat, it is a " draw." 

The Batter at the opposite wicket 
should be ready to run, but must be 
careful not to do so till the ball is out 



of the Bowler's hand. He may get 
a start by beginning to run as soon 
as the ball is delivered, but should 
not go so far that he cannot return 
in time to save his wicket if no hit 
is made. Neither need run unless 
he wishes, but if one runs the other 
must, otherwise a wicket 
would be left unguarded. 
It is best for the Batter 
to decide whether to run, 
when the ball is hit in 
front of the wicket, and 
for his partner to decide 
when the hit is behind 
the wicket. 

The Wicket Keeper. 
This player always wears 
leg pads and gloves. He 
stands in a stooping po- 
sition behind the wicket, 
varying his distance from 
it according to the swiftness of the 
bowling, but he must not stand 
over it, or with hand or foot in front 
of it, till the ball has passed the 
wicket or been struck. After that 
he may stand where he chooses, but 
if the Batsmen are running he should 




Playing Forward. 

SO stand that the ball will be thrown 
in to him over the wicket, which he 
will thus be able to put down with- 
out turning around. He should also 
be on the watch for a chance to put 
down the wicket when the Batter is 
not on his ground (called " stumping 
out"). As soon as he receives the 



CRiClCEt 



^i7 



CRiCiCET 



ball from the Bowler he should re- 
turn it easily. If the Wicket Keeper 
allow a ball that has not hit the bat 
to pass him, and so give the Bats- 
man a chance to make a run, such a 
run is called a " bye." If the ball hit 
the Batsman's person (not his bat or 
hand) and he make a run, 
it is a" leg bye." As the 
Wicket Keeper has a bet- 
ter view of the field and 
the ball than any other 
player, he is generally the 
captain of the team, and 
directs, or communicates 
with the other Fielders 
and the Bowler, by a sys- 
tem of signs previously 
agreed upon. 

Point is the most im- 
portant of the remaining 
fielders, as he has more 
chances for catches than 
the others. In case of a hit he often 
" backs up " the Wicket Keeper, or, 
if it is a long one, runs out toward 
the fielder nearest the ball, in case 
there should be a short throw. 

The duty of the Long Stop is 
principally to prevent byes. When 



other chance of putting it down 
quickly. Of late years owing to the 
increasing skill of Wicket Keepers, 
the custom of playing a man in this 
position has been almost entirely 
given up, the extra man thus gained 
being used elsewhere. The posi- 





The Cut. 

the Batsmen are not running he re- 
turns the ball to the Wicket Keeper, 
but in case of a run he sometimes 
throws to the Bowler in hope of put- 
ting a man out at the opposite wicket. 
Sometimes he throws directly at the 
nearest wicket, where there is no 



Playing Back. 

tions of all the fielders are varied by 
the captain in many ways to suit 
different styles of bowling and strik- 
ing, so that the field looks quite 
differently at one time and another. 
Only the Bowler, Wicket Keeper, 
and Long Stop keep about the same 
places. These changes of position 
are directed by signs from the cap- 
tain. 

Scoring. A sample score card is 
given on pages 220-221. 

The runs are kept by making 
opposite the player's name marks 
which are summed up in the 
" Total " column after he is out. 
Abbreviations often used in the 
" Out " column and elsewhere in 
the score are : 
b. 
c. 

St. 

l.b.w. 
h.w. 
w. 
n.b. 
B. 
l.b. 
The runs 
Wides, No 



bowled 
caught 
stumped 

leg before wicket 
hit wicket 
wides 
no balls 
byes 
leg byes 

made or allowed 
Balls, Byes, and 



for 
Leg 
Byes are kept separately at the 



CRICKET 



218 



CRICKET 



bottom of the score, and added to 
the Grand Total for the innings. 
In the Out column the name of the 
person who put the Batsman out is 
always mentioned, and if he was 
caught out, the Bowler's name is also 




Leg Hit. 

put down, since his bowling con- 
tributed to the result. 

The right half of the score card 
consists of a Bowling Analysis, 
which is made as follows : opposite 
the name of each Bowler a record is 
kept of each of his balls. If it 
results in neither a run nor in 
putting down a wicket it is re- 
corded by a dot ; If runs are 
made from a ball, the number of 
such runs appear in place of the 
dot. If a wicket is put down, the 
letter W is put in place of a dot. 
" Wides " and " No balls " are 
kept record of by themselves and 
all are footed up at the close of 
each inning. Thus a " Maiden 
Over" appears thus — ::: or (:.: if 
only five balls are allowed). An 
Over where two runs were made 
from the second ball and none 
from the third would be ; ^ ; on the 
record. If the last ball put down 
the wicket, it would be shown by 
the mark * [ w Sometimes, in case 
of a Maiden Over, the letter M is 
made by joining the dots, so that 



Maidens can be counted up more 
quickly in running the eye over the 
record. The following are the 
rules of Cricket as adopted by 
the Marylebone Cricket Club of 
London, they contain the latest 
revisions and the famous altera- 
tions of 1889. 

The M. C. C. rules govern the 
play of all matches in England 
and Australia. In the United 
States they are generally followed 
except that six balls instead of 
five are bowled to the Over. The 
Cricketers' Association of the 
United States has adopted cer- 
tain modifications of the M. C. 
C. rules, but in no case are the 
changes of much importance. 

I. A match is played between 
two sides of eleven players each, 
unless otherwise agreed to ; each 
side has two innings, taken alter- 
nately, except in the case pro- 
vided for in Law 53. The 
choice of innings shall be de- 
cided by tossing. 

2. The score shall be reckoned by 
runs. A run is scored : — i. So often 
as the Batsmen after a hit, or at any 
time while the ball is in play, shall 
have crossed, and made good their 




Wicket Keeper. 

ground, from end to end. 2. Foi 
penalties under Laws 16, 34, 41, anc 
allowances under 44. Any run or 
runs so scored shall be duly recordec' 
by scorers appointed for the purpose. 
The side which scores the greatest 



CRICKET 



219 



CRICKET 



number of runs wins the match. No 
match is won unless played out or 
given up except in the case provided 
in Law 45. 

3. Before the commencement of 
the match two umpires shall be ap- 
pointed, one for each end. 

4. The ball shall weigh not less 
than five ounces and a half nor more 
than five ounces and three-quarters. 
It shall measure not less than nine 
inches nor more than nine inches and 
one quarter in circumference. At 
the beginning of each innings either 
side may demand a new ball. 

5. The bat shall not exceed four 
inches and one-quarter in the widest 
part ; it shall not be more than 
thirty-eight inches in length. 

6. The Wickets shall be pitched 
opposite and parallel to each other at 
a distance of twenty-two yards. 
Each Wicket shall be eight inches in 
width and consist of three stumps, 
with two bails upon the top. The 
stumps shall be of equal and suffic- 
ient size to prevent the ball from 
passing through, twenty-seven inches 
Dut of the ground. The bails shall 
be each four inches in length, and 
when in position on the top of the 
stumps shall not project more than 
half an inch above them. The 
Wickets shall not be changed dur- 
ing a match, unless the ground be- 
tween them become unfit for play, 
and then only by the consent of both 
sides. 

7. The Bowhng Crease shall be in 
a line with the stumps ; six feet 
eight inches in length ; the stumps 
in the center ; with a return crease 
at each end, at right angles behind 
the Wicket. 

8. The Popping Crease shall be 
marked four feet from the Wicket, 
parallel to it, and be deemed unlim- 
ited in length. 

9. The ground shall not be rolled, 
watered, covered, mown, or beaten 
during a match, except before the 
commencement of each inning and 
of each day's play, when, unless the 
in-side object, the ground shall be 



swept and rolled for not more than 
ten minutes. This shall not prevent 
the batsman from beating the ground 
with his bat nor the batsman nor 
bowler from using sawdust in order 
to obtain a proper foothold. 

10. The ball must be bowled; if 
thrown or jerked the umpire shall 
call " No ball." 

11. The bowler shall deliver the 
ball with one foot on the ground be- 
hind the Bowling Crease, and within 
the Return Crease, otherwise the um- 
pire shall call " No ball." 

12. If the bowler shall bowl the 
ball so high over or so wide of the 
Wicket that in the opinion of the 
umpire it is not within reach of the 
striker, the umpire shall call " Wild 
ball." 

13. The ball shall be bowled in 
Overs of five balls from each Wicket 
alternately. When five balls have 
been bowled, and the ball is finally 
settled in the bowler's or wicket- 
keeper's hands, the umpire shall call 
" Over." Neither a " No ball " nor 
a " Wide ball " shall be reckoned as 
one of the " Over." 

14. The bowler shall be allowed 
to change ends as often as he pleases, 
provided only that he does not bowl 
two Overs consecutively in one in- 
ning. 

15. The bowler may require the 
batsman at the Wicket from which 
he is bowling to stand on that side of 
it which he may direct. 

16. The striker may hit a "No 
ball " and whatever runs may result 
shall be added to his score ; but he 
shall not be out from a " No ball " un- 
less he be run out or break Laws 26, 
27, 29, 30. All runs from a " No 
ball " otherwise than from the bat 
shall be scored " No balls," and if no 
run be made, one run shall be added 
to that score. From a " Wide ball " 
as many runs as are run shall be 
added to the score as " Wide balls," 
and if no run be otherwise obtained 
one run shall be so added. 

17. If the ball not having been 
called " Wide " or " No ball " pass the 



CRICKET 



220 



CRICKET 



striker without touching his bat or 
person, and any runs be obtained, 
the umpire shall call " Bye " ; but if 
the ball touch any part of the strik- 
ers person (hand excepted), and any 
run be obtained, the umpire shall 
call " Leg bye," such runs to be 
scored " Byes " and " Leg byes " re- 
spectively. 

18. At the beginning of the match 
and of each innings the umpire at 



the bowler's Wicket shall call " Play "; 
from that time no trial ball shall be 
allowed to any bowler on the ground 
between the Wickets, and when one 
of the batsmen is out, the use of the 
bat shall not be allowed to any per- 
son until the next batsman shall 
come in. 

19. A Batsman shall be held to be 
" out of his ground " unless his bat 
in hand or some part of his person 

SCORE 



Bowlers. 


Wides 


No 
balls 


Overs, with runs.&c. from eachTaaU. 




i. 






M 


•?, . , 


M 


- 1 ■ 


1 • 1 


M 


■ /■ • 
1 ' • 


•■Hf' 
i • 3 




• • V 


;^,:Ml::: 


• •/ 


, .-/ 


M 








- -2 


































.cnjoAiA/ 


/ 




M 


;;; 


i. ■} 




1 • 1 


',", 








/ • 


m 


A. 


». •' 


. / . 


Z' • 


.2;. 










M 




'K/ 


./ • 


M 


M 


U 


^ 


••7t 


























































/ 








































JlLlL, 






M 




'i- 






































































yhrtrc& 






M 


. .i« 


• -J 

• 1 . 


0/-/ 






































































inff, ^V^ Innings of (^■£a^^/J,J..,^ fi.f!. 








Bowlers. 


BalbT 
3owled 


MaideD 
overs 


Wis 

obfc 


Notches against B. Averi 


Average 
Notches 
per w. 


Bowlers. 


BalU 

Bowie 


MaidepSw'ts 


Notches against B.ATor 


^SfJ 


Rons 


Wid. 


Nob, 


rotal 


d overs 


oUM 


Ran 


9 Wid 


Nob 


Total 


^r^tlfet 




(f>tr 


s 


J 


jy 


? 





3i 


/7. 




















jBoAia/ 


f^t 


/> 


¥ 


v-^ 


/ 





V7 


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(( 


s 


f 


0' 


g 





i 


6 




















0.^^?2UU/ 


z^- 


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6 





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Total 


I 03 


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9 


irr 


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Total 


















TImp!r« j:..(?A^ojkrJA^ 


^.yj 


'>r-£/&A,^AJf^ff^,a.r..,^.E,r?l%.-fn^7n^.^Aa.. .'.i.^£..- 


Marks for Bowling Analysis 




"^^f — -m 


N.n J/iu, £., Ji^a^../-.f ,^,. ^ 


A Wid, _ 


^1 




For t(uh I 

It i. al.o « 

lint thu. 








JV 


>te. 


Byt 


*,md 


Mam 


iNo 


^alUa 


to not 


x//ecf 


Maid, 


mOve 


r«. 












111 


put a broad 



be grounded within the line of the 
Popping Crease. 

20. The Wicket shall be held to be 
" down " when either of the bails is 
struck off, or if both bails be off when 
a stump is struck out of the ground. 

The Striker is out — 

21. If the Wicket be bowled down, 
even if the ball first touch the 
striker's bat or person : " Bowled." 

22. Or if the ball from a stroke of 



the hand or bat, but not the wrist, 
be held before it touch the grounc 
although it be hugged to the body 
of the catcher: " Caught." 

23. Or if in playing at the ball, 
provided it be not touched by th( 
bat or hand, the striker be out of his 
ground and the Wicket be put dowr 
by the Wicket keeper with the ball 01 
with hand or arm with ball in hand; 
" Stumped." 



CRICKET 



221 



CRICKET 



24. Or if with any part of his 
person he stop the ball, which in the 
opinion of the umpire at the bowler's 
Wicket shall have been pitched in a 
straight line from it to the striker's 
Wicket and would have hit it : "Leg 
before Wicket." 

25. Or if in playing at the ball he 
hit down his Wicket with his bat or 
any part of his person or dress: 
" Hit Wicket." 

CARD. 



26. Or if under pretense of run- 
ning or otherwise either of the 
batsmen willfully prevent a ball 
from being caught : " Obstructing 
the field." 

27. Or if the ball be struck or be 
stopped by any part of his person 
and he willfully strike it again, ex- 
cept it be done for the purpose of 
guarding his Wicket, which he may 
do with his bat, or any part of his 



batting 
Order 



ISiS 



JfU^. YliytLtrOo 



^i.Ji ^^n/JA/ 



s^-,%;d/, 



Runs as scored. 



Howand.whei^e 
put oubi. 



7 }h //^Ar 



'>nuL-wi<Jv^- 



(^,^ 



iBoMer. 



■AcLo'nii/' 



cJku 



J- 



J^ 



Total 
Huns 



lA. 



J. ^^y>jM/ 



Z//iU2. fYf, 



'/Zyji^/ 



}(f^y*ty(U^^ 



J± 



A 



V/iZ^ASL iCyy^ 



%c/&t/ 



Zd_ 



3o 



^sK^ 



^<<^ iQiMcit 



iJM. 



<ruA7 



10 

11 



I'JicMt 



Jht-^^' 



s- 



(^■X'gi^^^J^ 



12 



/-^-f^ 



J^khLJsJJLM. 



iAm/ 



Remarks. 



J 6'>th,M../.~ 



?'.^^.^g^^^_ 






Total frQm.thfi 1 



ByeS- 



Leg Byes iSss^ 



ILQjballs. 



won by. 



■yurfi, qT J^rPTy 



TotaLExtras- 



by- 



Total of ^-In nings. 



Rnnii at the fall of each wicket 
Order of coming out 
(by numbers) 



Al. 



Total for the Match 



T\me of/rlnning3.HSi 
An. ■?«T nning9 i^ 



Ifote. JS.vg» uMainOi 



■S-Offc 



or Ei® Mm bulla, calm OS Mmi» m-n> ba(l» OCA scored at WicUi <n- No balU and. do not 
enter' bataman'a aslixer 



person except his hands : " Hit the 
ball twice." 

Either Batsman is out — 

28. If in running or at any other 
time while the ball is in play he be 
out of his ground and his Wicket be 
struck down by the ball after touch- 
ing any fieldsman, or by the hand or 
arm with ball in hand of any fields- 
man : " Run out." 

29. Or if he touch with his hands 



or take up the ball while in play, un- 
less at the request of the opposite 
side : " Handle the ball." 

30. Or if he willfully obstruct any 
fieldsman : " Obstructing the field." 

31. If the batsmen have crossed 
each other, he that runs for the 
Wicket which is put down is out ; if 
they have not crossed, he that has 
left the Wicket which is put down is 
out. 



CRICKET 



222 



CRICKET 



32. The striker being caught no 
run shall be scored. A batsman 
being run out, that run which was 
being attempted shall not be scored. 

33. A batsman being out from any 
cause the ball shall be " dead." 

34. If a ball in play cannot be 
found or recovered, any fieldsman 
may call " Lost ball," when the ball 
shall be " dead " ; six runs shall be 
added to the score ; but if more than 
six runs have been run before " Lost 
ball " has been called, as many runs 
as have been run shall be scored. 

35. After the ball shall have been 
finally settled in the Wicket keeper's 
or bowler's hand, it shall be dead ; 
but when the bowler is about to de- 
liver the ball, if the batsman at his 
Wicket be out of his ground before 
actual delivery, the said bowler may 
run him out ; but if the bowler throw 
at that Wicket and any run result, it 
shall be scored " No ball." 

36. A batsman shall not retire 
from his Wicket and return to it to 
complete his innings after another 
has been in without the consent of 
the opposite side. 

37. A substitute shall be allowed 
to field or run between Wickets for 
any player who may during the 
match be incapacitated from illness 
or injury, but for no other reason, ex- 
cept with the consent of the opposite 
side. 

38. In all cases where a substitute 
shall be allowed, the consent of the 
opposite side shall be obtained as to 
the person to act as substitute and 
the place in the field which he shall 
take. 

38. In case any substitute shall be 
allowed to run between Wickets the 
striker may be run out if either he or 
his substitute be out of his ground. 
If the striker be out of his ground 
while the ball is in play, that Wicket 
which he has left may be put down 
and the striker given out, although 
the other batsman may have made 
good the ground at that end, and 
the striker and his substitute at the 
other end. 



40. A batsman is liable to be out 
for any infringement of the laws by 
his substitute. 

41. The fieldsman may stop the 
ball with any part of his person, 
but if he willfully stop it otherwise, 
the ball shall be " dead" and five 
runs added to the score ; whatever 
runs may have been made five only 
shall be added. 

42. The Wicket keeper shall stand 
behind the Wicket. If he shall take 
the ball for the purpose of stumping 
before it has passed the Wicket, or if 
he shall incommode the striker by 
any noise or motion, or if any part of 
his person be over or before the 
Wicket the striker shall not be out 
excepting under Laws 26, 27, 28, 29, 
and 30. 

43. The Umpires are the sole 
judges of fair or unfair play, of the 
fitness of the ground, the weather, 
and the light for play ; all disputes 
shall be determined by them, and if 
they disagree the actual state of 
things shall continue. 

44. They shall pitch fair Wickets, 
arrange boundaries where necessary, 
and the allowances to be made for 
them, and change ends after each 
side has had one innings. 

45. They shall allow two minutes 
for each striker to come in and 
ten minutes between each innings. 
When they shall call play the side 
refusing to play shall lose the match. 

46. "They shall not order a bats- 
man out unless appealed to by the 
other side. 

47. The umpire at the bowler's 
wicket shall be appealed to before 
the other umpire in all cases except 
in those of stumping hit Wicket, rur' 
out at the striker's Wicket or arising 
out of Law 42, but in any case 
which an umpire is unable to give 
decision he shall appeal to the othel 
umpire whose decision shall be finali| 

48a. If the umpire at the bowler's 
end be not satisfied of the absolute 
fairness of the delivery of any ball he 
shall call " No ball." 

48b. The umpire shall take espt 



CRICKET 



223 



CRICKET 



cial care to call " No ball " instantly 
upon delivery : " Wide ball " as soon 
as it shall have passed the striker, 

49. If either batsman run a short 
run the umpire shall call " One 
short," and the run shall not be 
scored. 

50. After the umpire has called 
" Over " the ball is " Dead," but an 
appeal may be made as to whether 
either batsman is out ; such appeal, 
however, shall not be made after the 
delivery of the next ball nor after 
any cessation of play. 

51. No umpire shall be allowed to 
bet. 

52. No umpire shall be changed 
during a match unless with the con- 
sent of both sides except in case of 
violation of law 51 ; then either side 
may dismiss him. 

53. The side which goes in second 
shall follow their innings if they have 
scored 80 runs less than the oppo- 
site side. 

54. That on the last day of a match 
or if a one day match at any time, 
the in-side shall be empowered to 
declare the innings at an end. 

One Day Matches, i. The side 
which goes in second shall follow 
their innings if they have scored 60 
runs less than the opposite side. 

2. The match unless played out, 
shall be decided by the first innings. 

3, Prior to the commencement of 
a match it may be agreed that the 
over consist of five or six balls. 

Single Wicket. A kind of Cricket, 
which may be played by two or more 
persons on a side. There is but one 
Wicket and one striker at a time, and 
a bowling crease or stump 22 yards 
in front of the wicket. The laws are, 
where they apply, the same as the 
above, with the following alterations 
and additions. 

I. Orue Wicket shall be pitched as 
in Law 6 with a bowling stump oppo- 
site to it at a distance of twenty-two 
yards. The bowling crease shall be 
in a line with the bowling stump and 
drawn according to Law 7. 

%, When there shall be less than 



five players on a side bounds shall 
be placed twenty-two yards each in 
a line from the off and leg stump. 

3. The ball must be hit before the 
bounds to entitle the striker to a 
run, which run cannot be obtained 
unless he touch the bowling stump 
or crease in a line with his bat, or 
some part of his person, or go beyond 
them and return to the popping 
crease. 

4. When the striker shall hit the 
ball one of his feet must be on the 
ground behind the popping crease, 
otherwise the umpire shall call " No 
hit," and no run shall be scored. 

5. When there shall be less than 
five players on a side neither byes, 
leg-byes, nor overthrows shall be 
allowed, nor shall the striker be 
caught out behind the Wicket nor 
stumped. 

6. The fieldsman must return the 
ball so that it shall cross the ground 
between the Wicket and the bowling 
stump or between the bowhng stump 
and the bounds ; the striker may run 
till the ball be so returned. 

7. After the striker shall have 
made one run, if he start again he 
must touch the bowling stump or 
crease and turn before the ball cross 
the ground to entitle him to another. 

8. The striker shall be entitled to 
three runs for lost ball and the same 
number for ball willfully stopped by 
a fieldsman otherwise than with any 
part of his person. 

9. When there shall be more than 
four players on a side there shall be 
no bounds. All hits, byes, leg-byes, 
and overthrows shall then be allowed. 

10. There shall be no restriction 
as to the ball being bowled in overs, 
but no more than one minute shall 
be allowed between each ball. 

Wicket, a kind of Cricket once 
much played in parts of the United 
States. The Wicket is low and 
broad, the bail being four or five feet 
long on stumps about six inches 
high, placed one at each end. The 
ball is larger and softer than a Cricket 
ball, and the bat shaped something 



CRICKET 



224 



CRICKET 



like a hockey stick with a large flat 
end, or a lacrosse stick having its 
lower end entirely of wood instead 
of being strung. The method of 
playing was similar to Cricket. It has 
not been played much since 1865. 

The largest individual scores at 
Cricket are as follows : 

England, 485, A. E. Stoddart, 
Hempstead, Aug. 4, 1886. Austra- 
lia, 328 (not out), W. Bruce, Mel- 
bourne, Jan. 19 and 26, 1884. 
Canada, 204, A. Browning, Ottawa, 
July I, 1880. United States, 182 
(not out), C. S. Farnum, Philadel- 
phia, July II, 1885. 

The largest recorded total scores 
in one inning are as follows : 

British, 920 runs, Orleans Club, 
Rickling Green, England, Aug. 4-5, 
1882. 

American, 418, Germantown Club, 
Philadelphia, June 18 and 28, 1887. 

History. Cricket was probably 
at first a mere game of bat and ball, 
without the Wicket, and French au- 
thors say it was derived from the 
French Crosse, which is also called 
Criquet. The name is probably 
from the Saxon Cric, a crooked stick, 
referring to the early bats, which 
were curved, instead of straight as 
now. In the wardrobe account of 
King Edward I. for the year 1300, is 
an item in which is mentioned playing 
at Creag, supposed to have been an 
early form of Cricket. At first the 
only players seem to have been bats- 
man and bowler ; fielders appear for 
the first time in a picture of 1344. 
In the 15th century the game was 
called " Hondyn and Hondoute " 
(Hand in and Hand Out), showing 
that there was then an In and an 
Out side. Under this title it was 
among the games forbidden by Ed- 
ward IV. in 1477, as interfering with 
the practice of archery. The first 
appearance of the present nam.e is in 
1593, in a lawsuit about a piece of 
ground, in which a man testified that 
he had played " at Crickett " there 
fifty years before. Early in the i8th 
century the game became popular, 



being played by all classes of people, 
and in 175 1 Frederick, Prince of 
Wales, died from a hit with a Cricket 
ball while playing at Cliefden House. 
It was a favorite especially in the 
southern counties of England, and 
matches between players in the dif- 
ferent counties began to be held, 
which have continued to the present 
day. There are now Cricket clubs 
in every village in England, and it is 
known as the national game of that 
country. 

In the early history of cricket, as has 
been said, the Wicket did not exist. 
A circular hole was used instead, 
into which the ball was bowled. 
The first Wicket consisted of one 
stump only 18 inches high, then a 
second was placed two feet from it, 
and they were connected by a cross- 
bar. The hole was still retained 
between the stumps. About 1775 
the third stump was added, and the 
Wicket was gradually made smaller, 
till in 1817 it reached its present size. 
The bats were made first with a 
sweeping curve, the present straight 
bats coming into use about 1825. 
The bowling was always underhand 
till 1785, when round arm or straight 
arm bowling was introduced. It 
was declared unfair, but since 1825 
has been adopted, and in 1864 all re- 
strictions as to the height of the arm 
in bowling were removed, causing a 
revolution in the game, by giving 
much greater power to the bowler. 

In the United States it has been 
played since the middle of the i8th 
century, but it has never been popu- 
lar. The earliest recorded match 
in this country was between eleven 
men from London and eleven from 
New York, and was played on May 
I, 1 75 1, where Fulton Market now 
stands, in New York city. The 
New Yorkers won. A club was 
formed in Boston in 1809, and Benja 
min Franklin took to Philadelphia 
from England a copy of " The Laws 
of Cricket," still in possession of a 
club in that city. Cricket is now 
played principally in and about Phil- 



CROOKED MAN 



225 



CROOKED MAN 



adelphia, though there are 150 organ- 
ized clubs in the United States, and 
in 1878 the Cricketer's Association of 
the United States was formed. Base 
Ball has always been more popular 
here. Ball players say that Cricket 
is too slow, since a game generally 
lasts a whole day or even two days, 
whereas a ball game is over in a few 
hours. 

Since 1859, English and Australian 
Cricketers have made several tours 
in the United States and Canada 
and have as a rule been victorious. 
Matches are played annually be- 
tween the United States and Canada 
in which the former generally gets 
the best of it. In 1874 and 1875 a 
Philadelphia team won a silver cup 
at Halifax and Philadelphia, respec- 
tively, against British and Canadian 
teams. In 1878 and 1882 Austra- 
lian teams came to this country and 
won or drew every match they 
played ; in 1879 two English teams 
met with similar success, and during 
this year an Irish team won every- 
where except in Philadelphia, where 
it was badly beaten ; but in 1884 a 
Philadelphia team won eight matches 
in England, losing five and drawing 
five. In 1885 a strong English team 
received, at Philadelphia, the first de- 
feat inflicted on organized Enghsh 
cricketers in this country, but in 1886 
another English team won every 
match they played in the United 
States. "In 1887 a Canadian team 
visited Great Britain and played 
eighteen matches, winning four, los- 
ing five, and drawing nine." 

" In 1888 an Irish team was suc- 
cessful everywhere in this country 
except in Philadelphia, where they 
were twice defeated." 

"In 1889 a second Philadelphia 
team visited Great Britain playing 
twelve matches, of which it won four, 
lost three, and drew five." But 
attempts to arouse general interest in 
the sport in the United States have 
met with little success. 

CROOKED MAN, a game played 
by any number of persons, in which 



each player jumps from one to 
another of a series of pictures drawn 
on a floor or pavement. The pic- 
tures illustrate roughly the nursery 
rhyme : 

" There was a crooked man. 
He went a crooked mile. 
And found a crooked sixpence 
Against a crooked stile ; 
He bought a crooked cat, 
Who caught a crooked mouse, 
And they all lived together in a little 
crooked house." 

There are seven pictures, represent- 
ing the words at the end of each 
line ; that is, a man, a milestone, a 
sixpence, a stile, a cat, a mouse, and 




Crooked Man Diagram. 

a house. These are drawn with 
chalk close together in any desired 
order, and each is surrounded with 
a circle. One of the players takes 
his place in the middle of the group 
of pictures, and the others sing the 
rhyme to any well-known tune which 
can be made to fit it, for instance 
" John Brown's Body." At the last 
word of each line he must jump to the 
corresponding figure. The verse is 
then repeated, and this time he 
must jump to the figure just before 
it is mentioned, giving a second 
jump at the proper word. While 
the last line is sung, he must step 



CROQUET 



226 



CROQUET 



from one figure to the other as fast 
as he can, going over them all, and 
ending on the last at the last word. 
If he jumps to a wrong figure, puts 
his feet outside the circles, turns 
quite around, or jumps before the 
proper time, he must pay a forfeit. 
The players take turn in jumping 
like the first. 

This game is played in a slightly 
different form by German students. 

CROQUET. A lawn game played 
with mallets and balls, on a field set 
with nine or ten wire arches or 
wickets, and two Stakes, generally 
of wood. An ordinary Croquet set 
contains eight balls, each of a differ- 
ent color or marked by a different 
colored ring, and eight mallets, each 
similarly marked, to correspond with 
the balls. The two stakes also are 
painted with rings of the same col- 
ors; arranged in the same order. 

The arches and stakes are set in 
various ways, for the most common 
of which see Fig. i, in which the un- 
broken line marks the course of the 
ball from the starting point to the 
lower stake, and the dotted line its 
return path. If played on an un- 
limited field, as a park, or lawn, the 
boundary is designated by a white 
cord fastened to stakes, A, B, C, D. 
Any ball passing beyond this border 
may be returned for play to the point 
where it left the field. The dotted 
inner border F, G, H, I, represents a 
line 30 inches from the outer border, 
and when the field has a fixed bor- 
der, made by placing boards four or 
five inches high (not more) on edge 
around it, balls, having passed to, or 
over this border, are placed on this 
inner line for convenience of striking. 
On grounds without a lawn, this in- 
ner line is marked by a slight scratch 
in the soil. The letters e, e, e, e, rep- 
resent corner pieces 18 inches long. 
This style of ground, with fixed bor- 
der, and field carefully scraped and 
sanded and rolled, was for many 
years (till 1889) the standard field of 
the National Association. 

The game may be played by two. 



four, six, or eight persons, but two 
or four make the best game. 

Four-handed Croquet is played 
exactly like the two-handed game, 
except that each player has but 
one ball, so that the two balls on 
one side are played by partners in- 
stead of by the same person. In Six 

A B 



IF 



Lower Stake 




Starting fl^— — ° 

Point • 

Stake 



H 



Fig. I. — Croquet Ground. 

and Eight-handed Croquet each 
player has a ball, and there are two 
sides as before. The order of play 
must be decided on before the game 
is begun and kept the same through- 
out, no one playing directly after any 
of his partners. The length of time 
required for a Six or Eight ball game 
is such that it is rarely engaged in. 
When two play, each player uses two 
balls ; when more than two, each 
player generally has but one ball. In 
all tournament contests by members 
of the National Association there are 
two players, each playing two balls 
(see Scientific Croquet below), 
but friendly or social games, so 



CROQUET 



227 



CROQUET 



called, have four players, each, of 
course, using one ball, the first and 
third, and the second and fourth, be- 
ing partners. The following de- 
scription is of the two-handed game. 

The players take turns, each using 
his two balls alternately, in the order 
of their colors on the stakes. The 
first play may be decided by lot. 
Play is begun by placing the ball 
half-way between the starting stake 
and the first arch, and striking it 
with the mallet, generally so that 
it will pass through the first arch. 
If, however, the arches are nar- 
row, a good player rarely attempts 
to make the first arch at the outset, 
but strikes so as to leave his ball at 
the lower end of the field, or at some 
distance from the starting point, pre- 
ferring to wait till he has all the balls 
in play and then, by their help, make 
several arches, as described below. 
The player's object is to pass through 
each of the arches in turn, strike the 
opposite stake, called the turning 
stake, and then return to the starting 
stake in Hke manner, by the path 
shown in Fig. i. A ball after hav- 
ing been struck from the starting 
point is generally regarded " in 
play," whether such ball has made 
the first arch or not. Early rules 
recognized the " booby " as one who 
attempted, but failed, to make the 
first arch, but this term is now 
discarded. 

When a player's ball passes 
through an arch, or hits the lower 
stake, he is said to " make a point." 
When his ball, from a stroke of the 
mallet, hits another, either friend or 
foe, it is said to " roquet " it. This 
gives the privilege of roquet-croquet, 
which must be taken, and is done by 
placing the player's own ball in con- 
tact with the roqueted ball, and then 
striking the former so as to move, 
however slightly, the roqueted ball 
and sending his own by the same 
stroke a greater or less distance as 
may be desired. After making a 
point, and also at the beginning of 
every turn, the player has the privi- 



lege of roqueting any ball he may 
choose, but no ball can be roqueted 
more than once in any turn unless a 
point be made. Then the player's 
ball is said to be " alive " on all the 




Fig. 2.— Position by Split Shot. 

balls, and when he has played on all, 
he is " dead " on them. There are 
two ways of taking roquet-croquet. 
The one above described is called 
"loose" croquet, because neither ball 
is held during the stroke. The other 
is " tight " croquet, when the playing 
ball is placed against the roqueted 
ball, and held either between the 
fingers or by the foot so that when it 
is struck the object ball moves in any 
desired direction. If the struck ball 
moves from the hand or from under 
the foot, it is called a "flinch " and play 
ceases. The hand is used upon care- 
fully prepared grounds to prevent the 



CROQUET 



228 



CROQUET 



indentations made by holding a ball 
firmly under the foot. 

The privilege of roquet-croquet, 
being continued after every point 
made, enables a skillful player to 
make several arches, frequently the 
entire round from start to finish, in 
one turn. This is called " making 
a run," in which sometimes only one 
ball is " used," either his own or his 
opponent's, but so placed each time 
beyond the arch to be made that 
when the playing ball passes through 
the arch it can use the other to get 
in front of the next arch (called 
" getting into position "). 



In loose Croquet, roquet-croquet 
may be taken by means of several 
kinds of strokes, or " shots," so 
called: " follow shots," in which one 
ball follows the other more or less 
closely according to the skill of the 
player ; " split shots " (Figs. 2 and 4), 
in which they move in different direc- 
tions, and " sHce shots " (see Fig. 3). 
In Figs. 2 to 6 the player's ball is 
lettered A and the roqueted ball B, 
except in Fig. 4, where C shows the 
direction of the mallet-stroke, and 
A and B that of the balls respectively. 
In the " slice shot," the object ball is 
only slightly displaced or made only 








Fig. 3.— Slice Shot. 



to shake y this latter being deemed suf- 
ficient to prevent the player from 
losing his shot, for if either of these 
shots be attempted and the object 
ball be not moved play ceases, and 
the struck ball may be returned or 
not (according to the wish of the 
opponent) to the position it had be- 
fore the stroke. In the follow shot, 
the balls will roll off together if the 
stroke be slow and pushing, but if it 
be sharp and quick, only the object 
ball will go to any great distance. 
By varying the direction and speed 
of stroke, a skillful player can send 
each of the balls exactly where he 
wishes them to go. 

Many players have one end of their 
mallets made of soft rubber, by an 
ordinary stroke of which both balls 



will go the whole length of the field 
together. 

When a player's ball has made all 
the points in the game except strik- 
ing the finishing stake, it is called a 
Rover, but remains in the game to 
assist his other ball till it also be- 
comes a Rover. Rovers can be put 
out only by partners, and when a 
Rover is thus made to hit the stake, 
and his partner, without removing 
the other ball from the field, fails to 
hit the stake on the next shot neither 
is regarded as out. They must go 
out in successive shots by the same 
player. A Rover has no additional 
privilege of play on account of being 
a Rover. 

Suggestions. In Croquet, the 
skillful player tries to keep his own 



CROQUET 



229 



CROQUET 



balls together as much as possible 
and to separate those of his oppo- 
nent. That one of the enemy's balls 
played last (called the " innocent 
ball," because it can do no harm 
till three others have had their turns) 
can be used and left near either of a 
player's balls without danger, but 
the other ball (called the " guilty " 
or " danger " ball) should either be 
sent to a distance after it has been 
used, or so placed that the wire of 
an arch or a stake will be between 
it and the other balls. In the latter 
case it is said to be " wired." Figs. 
5 and 6 show two different methods 
of wiring. 

When his ball is wired, a skilled 
player may, provided the ball be far 
enough from the wire to allow it, 
make what is called a " jump shot," 
by striking the ball downward so 
that it bounds over the wicket. 
When no obstruction prevents one 
ball from hitting another the shot is 
said to be " open." Bold and con- 
fident players, especially in friendly 
or social contests, frequently take the 
danger ball with them in making 
a run, "tying it up," or "wiring" it, 
just before an attempt to make the 
difficult center or basket arch (some- 
times called also the cage. This 
style of play is universally adopted 
by skilled players). A player should 
not try to roquet the danger ball at 
all, if by missing it he would give it 
a better chance for play than it had 
before. At the end of a play, or at 
the beginning, when there is little 
chance of a run, the player should 
place his ball w^here it will aid his 
other ball. 

Field and Implements. Croquet 
is usually played on closely shaven 
turf, but skilled players prefer a 
ground of rolled earth, sanded (very 
slightly) to hold the balls. The size 
of the field varies from 40 by 60 to 
60 by 100 feet, the latter being un- 
necessarily large ; the match games 
of the National Association are 
played on fields about 45 by 80 feet. 
The arches or wickets are often as 



wide as 6 or 7 inches, but on the 
grounds of clubs belonging to the 
National Association they are only 
3I inches wide, making it difficult for 
a ball to make its arch unless it be 
directly in front of it. The wickets 
are sunk about 6 inches in the ground 
and usually set in buried blocks of 
wood to make them more firm. The 
inside measurements of Fig. i are as 
follows : The stakes are 7 feet from 
the middle point of the end border, 
with five arches in a straight line be- 
tween them, the center one being a 
double one, formed of two arches 
placed 18 inches apart and set cross- 
wise of the ground. It is 7 feet 
from each stake to the first arch, 
which is 7 feet from the second arch. 
The side arches are about 14 feet 
from the second arches nearly or 
quite at right angles. But in case 
the field selected should be of dif- 
ferent dimensions from those given 
above, any similar setting of arches, 
with proportionate distances, will 
prove satisfactory. [For diagram 
and construction of grounds adopted 
in 1889 by the National Association 
see Scientific Croquet,'] The mallets 




-1 — ^, 



Fig. 4.— Split Shot. 

are made in various styles and sizes, 
and of different materials, according 
to the owner's taste, there being no 
restriction in any respect. Those 
approved by the National Associa- 
tion either have solid heads of box- 
wood, brass-ringed, 7 to 7^ or 8 



CROQUET 



230 



CROQUET 



inches long by 2i to 2^ inches in 
diameter; and handles from 8 to 15 
inches long, or have hard rubber ends 
jfirmly ringed with brass rings shrunk 
on, these ends screwing on to a 
center piece of beautiful wood, into 
which the handle screws, so as to be 
readily taken apart for convenience 
in carrying (see Fig. 7). 

Though short-handled mallets like 
those just described are now pre- 








Fig. 5. — Wiring by Direct Roquet 
Croquet. 

fered by skilled players, the ordi- 
nary mallet handles are from 3 to 
4 feet long, so that the player may 
strike his ball without stooping. The 
ordinary balls are of wood, lignum 
vitas being the best, but balls of 
various compositions are used. The 



National Association has adopted 
hard rubber balls, 3^ inches in diam- 
eter, so that in passing through a 
wicket a ball has only one quarter of 
an inch of spare space, or an eighth 
of an inch on each side. The colors 
adopted are the national colors, red, 
white, and blue, and always in that 
order, therefore easy to be remem- 
bered. The fourth ball is the natural 
color of the rubber, black, and fol- 
lows in order ; so that red and blue 
are partners, and black and white 
their opponents. Metal or wooden 
spring " clips," so called (patent 
clothes fasteners are excellent for the 
purpose), colored to correspond with 
the balls, are placed on the tops of 
the arches to determine without dis- 
pute the arch through which the ball 
of corresponding color must next 
pass. 

[Balls and clips can be very easily 
painted by using a solution of white 
shellac in alcohol, and mixing with 
this as wanted, Chinese vermillion 
for red, Prussian blue with a little 
zinc white for a light blue, and zinc or 
flake white for white, painting with 
separate brushes and mixing colors 
in separate dishes. Thus painted 
they will dry in a few minutes and 
wear for several days.] 

Scientific Croquet. As played by 
experts the game differs from ordi- 
nary croquet in many particulars, 
some of which have been hinted 
at in the previous description. To 
be full in all respects, we append 
the description of the grounds 
adopted in 1889 by the National As- 
sociation, and also the rules amended 
to June, 1890. [Although the grounds, 
as here described, are those upon 
which all tournament contests shall 
be played, some clubs, owing to 
the expense required to change, still 
adhere to the style as given in 
Fig. I.] 

The plan of the ground is as shown 
in Fig. 8. A full-sized ground is 
45 by 80 feet ; the ground to be 
raised two inches at the border, the 
slope extending thirty inches into 



CROQUET 



231 



CROQUET 



the field, the base of which is the 
boundary Hne. The stakes or posts 
are to be one inch in diameter, and 



one and one-half inches high, situ- 
ated at the base of the rise at the 
center of the width of the grounds. 





Fig. 6.— Wiring by Split Shot. 



The first wicket to be seven feet from 
the post ; the second seven feet from 




Fig. 7.— a a, Brass Rings ; b, center piece 
of wood screwing into the hard rub- 
ber ends. 

the first, each on a line extending 
though the middle of the field. The 
side arches to be five feet from the 



foot of the rise on a line with the 
second arch from each stake; the 
cage, or double wicket in the 
center, to be eighteen inches long 
and three and three-eighth inches 
between the wires, and set at right 
angles with a straight line drawn 
from stake to stake. The border at 
the top of the slope is to be made of 
maple or other hard wood, about 
four by six inches, laid flat to serve 
as a cushion, whence caroms can be 
made. The corner pieces to be of 
same material and eight feet long, 
inside measurement. All arches ex- 
cept the center arch to be three and 
one-half inches in the clear. 



CROQUET 



232 



CROQUET 



In this game four balls make a 
set, and two or even three games of 
four balls each, thus accommodat- 
ing eight or twelve persons, may 
be played on the same ground, and 
with but little confusion or interrup- 
tion, provided one set of balls is 




Fig. 8. — S S, Stakes ; a a, Boundary ; 
continuous line going, dotted line 
returning. 

colored, another set numbered, and 
the third marked with rings to dis- 
tinguish the sets and the players. 
This is frequently done in the West- 
ern States, where the grounds are 
covered, and play is enjoyed regard- 
less of cold or storm outside. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

The following are the rules adopted 
by the National Croquet Association 
of America : 

I. Interfering with Players. No 
player or other person shall be per- 
mitted to interfere with the result of 
a game by any word or act calcu- 
lated to embarrass the player, nor 



shall any one except a partner speak 
to a player while in the act of strik- 
ing. 

2. Order of Colors. The order 
of colors shall be Red, White, Blue, 
Black. 

3. Mallets. There shall be no re- 
striction as to kind or size of mallet 
used— one or two hands may be 
used in striking. 

4. No player shall change his 
mallet during a game without per- 
mission of his opponent, except in 
case of accident, or to make a " jump 
shot." 

5. Should a ball or mallet break 
in striking, the player may demand 
another stroke, with a new ball or 
mallet. 

6. Clips or Markers. Every player 
shall be provided with a clip or in- 
dicator of the same color as his ball, 
painted on one side only, which he 
must affix to his arch next in order 
in course of play, before his partner 
plays, with the painted side toward 
the front of the arch. Should he fail 
to do so his clip must remain upon 
the arch it rested on before he 
played, and he must make the points 
again. Should he move his marker 
beyond or back of the point he is for, 
his attention must be called to such 
error before he plays again, other- 
wise it shall stand. Should a player 
put a ball through its arch, he must 
move the corresponding clip to its 
proper arch before the next ball is 
played, otherwise the clip remains 
as before. 

7. opening of Game. All games 
shall be opened by scoring from an 
imaginary line through the middle 
wicket and playing toward the turn- 
ing stake. The balls must be so 
played that they rest below the first 
arch from the turning stake, and if 
dislodged, must be replaced — all 
balls being in play from where they 
rest, the ball nearest the stake play- 
ing first. 

8. Balls— How Struck. The ball 
must be struck with the face of the 
mallet, the stroke being delivered 



CROQUET 



233 



CROQUET 



whenever touching the ball it moves 
it. Should a stake or wire inter- 
vene, the stroke is not allowed, unless 
the ball is struck at the same time, 
and if the ball is moved, without 
being struck by the face of the mal- 
let, it shall remain where it rests, 
and should a point (or roquet) be 
made, it shall not be allowed, except 
by the decision of the umpire as to 
the fairness of the shot. All balls 
moved by a foul shot may be re- 
placed or not at the option of the 
opponent. 

9. When making a direct shot 
(i. e. roquet) the player must not 
push or follow the ball with his 
mallet ; but when taking croquet 
from a ball (two balls being in con- 
tact), he may follow his ball with the 
mallet ; but must not strike it twice. 

10. If a player strikes his ball be- 
fore his opponent has finished his 
play, the stroke shall stand, or be 
made over, at the option of the op- 
ponent. 

11. Should a ball rest against or 
near a wire, and the umpire or other 
person agreed on should decide that 
in order to pass through the arch, an 
unfair or push shot must be made, 
it shall not be allowed if made. 

12. Foul Stroke. Should a player 
in making a stroke move with his 
mallet any other than his object 
ball, it shall be a foul, and his 
play ceases, and all balls moved 
shall be replaced as before the stroke 
or remain where they rest, at the op- 
tion of the opponent. 

13. If a dead ball, in contact with 
another ball, moves on account of 
the inequality of the ground, while 
playing the other ball, away from it, 
the player does not lose his shot. 

14. Balls — When not to be 
Touched. A ball must not be touched 
while on the field, except after a ro- 
quet, when it is necessary to place 
it beside the roqueted ball for the 
purpose of croquet, or to replace it 
when it has been moved by acci- 
dent — except by permission of the 
opponent. 



15. Roquet and Croquet. A ball 
roquets another when it comes in 
contact with it by a blow from the 
player's mallet, or rebounds from a 
wicket or a stake ; the border also 
when it comes in contact with it 
when croquet is taken from another 
ball. 

16. A player after making a ro- 
quet shall not stop his ball for the 
purpose of preventing its hitting an- 
other. Should he do so his play 
ceases, and all balls shall be re- 
placed as before the stroke, or re- 
main, at the option of the opponent. 

17. Roquet gives to the player the 
privilege of croquet only, and play 
must be made from the roqueted 
ball. 

18. If a player in taking a croquet 
from a ball fails to move it, such 
stroke ends his play, and his ball 
must be returned, or left where it 
stops, at the option of the opponent. 

19. A player, in each turn of play, 
is at liberty to roquet any ball on 
the ground once only before making 
a point. 

20. Should a player croquet a ball 
he has not roqueted, he loses his 
turn, and all balls moved by such 
play must be replaced to the satisfac- 
tion of the umpire, or adversary. 
Should the mistake not be discovered 
before the player has made another 
stroke, the play shall be valid, and 
the player contmue his play. 

21. In taking croquet from a ball, 
if player's ball strikes another to 
which he is "dead," such stroke 
does not end his play. 

22. If a player roquets two or 
more balls at the same stroke, only 
the first can be roqueted. 

23. Making of Points. A player 
makes a point in the game when his 
ball 7iiakes an arch or hits a stake in 
proper play. 

24. If a player makes a point, and 
afterwards at the same stroke roquets 
a ball, he must take the point, and 
use the ball. If the roqueted ball is 
beyond the arch, as determined by 
Rule 45, and playing ball rests through 



CROQUET 



234 



CROQUET 



the arch, the arch is held to be first 
made, {Note. While this is not 
mathematically correct, the rule is so 
made to avoid disputes and difficult 
measurements.] 

25. If a ball roquets another, and 
afterwards at the same stroke makes 
a point, it must take the ball and 
reject the point. (See note to 
Rule 24.) 

26. A player continues to play so 
long as he makes a point in the 
game, or roquets another ball to 
which he is in play. 

27. A ball making two or more 
points at the same stroke, has only 
the same privilege as if it made but 
one. 

28. Should a ball be driven through 
its arch, or against its stake by cro- 
quet or concussion, it is a point made 
by that ball, except it be a Rover. 

29. Playing on Dead Ball. If a 
player play by direct shot on a dead 
ball, all balls displaced by such shot 
shall be replaced in their former posi- 
tion, and the player's ball placed 
against the dead ball on the side 
from which it came ; or all balls shall 
rest where they lie, at the option of 
the opponent. 

30. If a player, in making a direct 
shot, strike a ball on which he has 
already played, i. e. a dead ball, his 
play ceases. Any point, or part of a 
point or ball struck, after striking the 
dead ball, is not allowed. And both 
balls must be replaced in accordance 
with the preceding rule. A dead 
ball displaced by other than direct 
shot shall not be replaced. 

31. If playing ball in passing 
through its arch strike a dead ball 
that is beyond the arch, as deter- 
mined by Rule 45, the ball shall not be 
considered a dead ball if playing ball 
rests through its arch, and the point 
shall be allowed. 

32. Balls Moved or Interfered 
with by Accident or Design. A ball 
accidentally displaced, otherwise than 
as provided for in Rule 12, must be 
returned to its position before play 
can proceed. 



33. If a ball is stopped or diverted 
from its course by an opponent, the 
player may repeat the shot or not as 
he chooses. Should he decline to 
repeat the shot, the ball must remain 
where it stops, and, if playing ball, 
must play from there. 

34. If a ball is stopped or diverted 
from its course by a player, or his 
partner, the opponent may demand 
a repetition of the shot if he chooses — 
Should he decline to do so, the ball 
must remain where it stops, and, if 
playing ball, must play from there. 

35. If a ball, while rolling, is 
stopped or diverted from its course 
by any object inside the ground, not 
pertaining to the game or ground, 
other than provided for in Rules 33 
and 34, the shot may be repeated or 
allowed to remain at the option of the 
player. If not repeated the ball must 
remain where it stops, and, if playing 
ball, play from there. 

36. Balls in Contact. Should a 
player, on commencing his play, find 
his ball in contact with another, he 
may hit his own as he likes, and then 
has subsequent privileges the same 
as though the balls were separated 
an inch or more. 

Concerning Boundary, [The boun- 
dary is a line extending around the 
field, usually thirty inches from the 
border and parallel with it.] 

37. A ball shot over boundary line 
or border must be returned at right 
angles from where it stops before 
play can proceed. 

38. A ball is in the field, only when 
the whole ball is within the boundary 
line. 

39. No play is allowed from be 
yond the boundary line, except when 
a ball is placed in contact with an 
other for the purpose of croquet. 

40. If a player strikes his ball when, 
over the boundary hne, he shall lose 
his stroke and the balls shall be re- 
placed or left where they stop, at the 
option of the opponent. 

41. If a player roquet a ball off the 
field by a direct shot his play ceases, 
and the roqueted ball is placed on the 



CROQUET 



235 



CROQUET 



boundary opposite the point where 
it lay before being thus hit. But if a 
ball off the field is hit from a croquet 
the hit shall not be allowed, the ball 
shall be properly replaced in the field, 
and the play shall not cease, 

[The three following rules apply to 
grounds square-cornered and with- 
out slope.] 

42. The first ball driven over the 
boundary line into a corner must be 
placed on the corner at the intersec- 
tion of the two boundary lines. 

43. If a ball, having been struck 
over the boundary line, is returnable 
at the corner, another ball being on 
or entitled to the corner, it shall be 
placed on that side of the corner on 
which it went off. 

44. If two balls, having been shot 
over the boundary line, rest directly 
behind one another at right angles 
with boundary line, they shall be 
placed on the line alongside of each 
other in the direction from whence 
they were played off. This can oc- 
cur only when the centers of the two 
balls rest directly behind one another 
at right angles with the boundary 
line. 

45. Ball — When Through an 
Arch. A ball is not through an 
arch when a straight edge, laid 
across the two wires on the side from 
whence the ball come, touches the 
ball without moving the arch. 

46. Balls — When in Position. If 
a ball has been placed under an 
arch, for the purpose of croquet, it 
is not in position to run that arch. 

47. If a ball be driven under its 
arch from the wrong direction, and 
rests there, it is not in position to 
run that arch in the right direction. 

48. If a ball shot through its arch 
in the right direction, rolls back 
through or under that arch, the 
point is not made, but the ball is in 
position if left there. 

49. Hitting Ball while Making 
Wicket. The cage wickets may be 
made in one, two, or more turns, 
provided the ball stops within limit 
of the cage. 



50. Any playing ball within, or un- 
der, a wicket, becomes dead to ad- 
vancement through the wicket from 
that position, if it comes in contact 
with any other ball by a direct shot. 

51. Rovers. A Rover has the 
right of roquet and croquet on every 
other ball once during each turn of 
play, and is subject to roquet and 
croquet by any ball in play. 

52. Rovers must be continued in 
the game until partners become 
Rovers, and go out successively, and 
a Rover that has been driven against 
the stake cannot be removed to make 
way for the next Rover. 

53. Playing Out of Turn, or 
Wrong Ball. If a player plays out 
of his proper turn, whether with his 
own or any other ball, or in his proper 
turn plays the wrong ball, and the 
mistake is discovered before the next 
player has commenced his play, all 
benefit from any point or points 
made is lost, and his turn of play 
forfeited. All balls moved by the 
misplay must be returned to their 
fvynTier position by the umpire or ad- 
versary. If the mistake is not dis- 
covered until after the next player 
has made his first stroke, the error 
must stand. 

54. Points Remade. If a player 
makes a point he has already made, 
his marker not being on that point, 
and the mistake is discovered before 
the proper point is made, the play 
ceases with the shot by which the 
wicket was remade, and the marker 
remains where it stood at the begin- 
ning of this play. All balls shall be 
left in the position they had at the 
time the wicket was remade. If not 
discovered before the proper point is 
made, the points so made are good, 
and play proceeds the same as if no 
error had been made. 

55. Error in Order of Play. If 
any error in order is discovered after 
a player has struck his ball, he shall 
be allowed to finish his play provided 
he is playing in the regular sequence 
of his partner's ball last played. In 
case of dispute as to proper sequence 



CROQUET 



236 



CROQUET 



of balls, it shall be decided by the 
umpire ; if there is no umpire, by lot. 
No recourse shall be had to lot un- 
less each party expresses the belief 
that the other is wrong. 

56. At any time any error in order 
is discovered, the opposite side shall 
follow with the same ball last played 
(the proper sequence) ; but before 
playing, their opponents shall have 
privilege to demand a transposition 
of adversaries' balls. 

Example. Black plays by mistake 
after Red — the error is not discov- 
ered — Blue plays in the proper se- 
quence of his partner Red, and see- 
ing that Black has just played, is 
thus led to believe it the innocent 
ball, and upon concluding his play 
leaves Black by Red. Now if error 
in order is discovered the player of 
Red and Blue can demand that the 
position of Black and White be trans- 
posed. 

57. Changing Surf ace of Ground. 
The surface of grounds shall not be 
changed during a game by either 
player, unless by consent of the um- 
pire, and if so changed at the time of 
playing the shot shall be declared 
lost. 

58. Direction through Wickets. 
In making, all side or corner arches, 
the playing ball shall pass through 
them toward the center. 

59. Penalty. If a rule is violated, 
a penalty for which has not been 
provided, the player shall cease his 
play. 

TERMS USED IN CROQUET. 

To Roquet. To hit with one's own 
ball another ball for the first time. 

To Croquet. To place player's 
ball against the roquetted ball and 
then striking his own ball, moving 
both. 

In Play. A ball is in play so long 
as points are made, or balls hit, in 
accordance with the rules. 

Points. See Rule 24. 

Dead Ball. A ball on which the 
player has played since making a 
point. It is then dead to the player 
till he makes another point. 



Direct Shot — Roquet. This is a 
direct shot, whether the ball in pass- 
ing to its destination does or does 
not carom from a wire, a stake, or 
the border. 

Drive or Block — English " Rush." 
A roquet played so as to send the 
object ball to some desired spot. 

Slice or Cut. To drive the object 
ball to a desired position, by causing 
player's ball to hit it on one side. 

Run. The making of a number 
of points in the same turn. 

Set up. To locate the balls, so as 
to afford facility for making the next 
point or run. 

Wiring. To leave the balls so 
that the next player finds a wire or 
stake between his ball and the object 
ball. 

Object Ball. The ball at which 
the player aims. 

Jump Shot. Striking the ball so j 
as to make it jump over any obstacle 
between it and the object aimed at. 
To do this, the ball should be struck 
with considerable force on the top 
just back of the center. 

Guilty or Danger Ball. The 
next ball to play on the adversary's 
side. 

Innoce7it Ball. The last played 
ball of the adversary. 

Rover. A ball that has made all 
the points except the last. 

Loose Croquet. Striking a ball 
when it is in contact with another, 
where it has been placed for the pur- 
pose of Croquet, thus moving both 
balls. 

Tight Croquet. Holding with thi 
hand or foot a ball placed agains 
another for the sake of croquet, thu 
allowing only the latter to be moved. 

Carom. Rebounding from an arch, 
a stake, a ball, on the border. 

Variations. The most important 
variation in the game is the " tight 
croquet," which is often substituted 
at pleasure for the roquet-croquet or 
" loose croquet." This method, em- 
ploying either the hand or the foot, 
has been already described. In the 
early form of the game the tight 



r- 

I 



I 



CROQUET 



237 



CROQUET 



croquet was the usual method, but 
it has long been discarded by scien- 
tific players, except in the Western 
States, where it is carried to a high 
degree of skill. The word " croquet " 
as formerly used, always meant the 
tight croquet, but is sometimes used 
by modern players to designate loose 
croquet. To avoid confusion the ap- 
propriate adjective should be used. 
Some of the preceding rules can be 




Pall Mall. 

construed and used only in " loose 
croquet." All others may be used 
for tight croquet, and adopted there- 
fore. The Western Clubs use the 
rules of the National Association 
herein published, which are sufficient 
for all purposes. Tight croquet 
gives a splendid chance for showing 
skill in placing balls, accurate hitting, 
and driving balls, as the act of cro- 
quet leaves the playing ball near 
where the roqueted ball rested. 
; Dead Ball Game. In this a ball 
1 1 is after the first turn never alive on 



AJ 



any ball if such ball has been once 
hit since making an arch. This 
form of the game is rarely played 
because of its great difficulty. 

Parlor Croquet. Croquet sets for 
use in the parlor are sold at toy 
shops. The hoops are mounted on 
stands so that they will stand up- 
right on the floor, and hoops, mal- 
lets, and balls are all 
smaller than those used 
in the lawn game, the 
mallet handles being 
usually from one to 
three feet long. Some- 
times, however, a bil- 
liard or other level 
cloth-covered table, 
with elastic border, is 
fixed with arches and 
stakes, like a diminutive 
croquet field. This af- 
fords an opportunity for 
much skill with short- 
handed mallets and 
ivory balls, and as an 
indoor amusement is 
next to billiards. 

History. It is 
thought that croquet is 
derived from the an- 
cient game of Paille- 
Maille (Ball - Mallets) 
which was played in 
France as early as the 
1 3th century, and which, 
under the name of Pall 
Mall, was fashionable 
in England in the time 
of the Stuarts, and has 
given its name to one 
of the principal streets 
in London. Pall Mall, 
or Mall, was played 
with a mallet, a ball, 
and two hoops, or a 
hoop and a stake. From the name 
of this game is derived our word 
pell-mell. 

Croquet, as it is now played, was 
taken to England from Ireland, 
where it was introduced from France. 
The illustration shows a kind of cro- 
quet played in that country in 1826. 



li 



d; 



\i 



\ 



P 



V 



¥ 



Croquet i n 

France in 

1826. 



CROSS QUESTIONS 



238 



CRYSTALLIZATION 



It was first played in Ireland as a 
fashionable game about 1852, and in 
England about 1856, It was intro-. 
duced into the United States about 
1865, and for many years was the 
most popular of lawn games ; but of 
late it has been almost superseded in 
England, and in many parts of the 
United States, by Lawn Tennis. 
Since its introduction into the United 
States croquet has been much modi- 
fied. The number of arches has been 
increased, their positions have been 
changed, and the size of the ground 
has been diminished. In 1882 the 
National Croquet Association was 
organized in New York, and since 
that year it has held annual tourna- 
ments. The clubs in the Association 
are mostly from New England and 
the Middle States. The chief 
Western clubs, whose style of play 
is slightly different, have never been 
represented, though they have been 
invited. 

The Association has fine grounds 
at Norwich, Conn., where the annual 
tournaments have been held since 
1883. Cottage City, Martha's Vine- 
yard, is a great place for croquet 
during the summer season. The 
grounds there are among the finest 
in the country, and it is a general 
practice ground for many during the 
summer who participate afterwards 
in the annual tournament at Nor- 
wich. 

CROSS QUESTIONS, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
who sit in a circle. Each puts a 
question to his right hand neighbor, 
and receives an answer. Each of 
the players in turn then repeats aloud 
the question that his left hand neigh- 
bor asked of him and the answer 
that his right hand neighbor gave. 
In order that the result may be more 
amusing, it should be agreed before- 
hand what kind of questions are to 
be asked. For instance, it may be 
agreed that each is to ask why his 
neighbor does a certain thing, real or 
fictitious. Thus B asks C, on his 
right hand, " Why do you sit so near 



the fire ? " C answers, ' Because I 
like the heat." A asks B, "Why 
did you fall into the water yester- 
day.^" and he replies, "Because I 
went too near the edge." When it is 
B's turn, he must tell A's question 
and C's answer, thus, " Why did you 
fall into the water .^" "Because I 
like the heat," and so on. 

The game is often played by giving 
the right hand neighbor a predica- 
ment and the left-hand a solution, 
and then telling the predicament that 
comes from the left and the solution 
from the right. It is then called 
Predicaments. 

CRYSTALLIZATION, Experi- 
ments in. I. Dissolve salt in water 
till it will hold no more, and then dip 
a slip of glass into the solution, so 
that when it is removed it will be 
wet with the liquid. Watch the 
glass, holding it in the sun, and 
presently little specks will appear in 
the film of liquid. These will grow 
larger, and others will appear, until the 
glass is covered with crystals of salt. 
If the formation is watched through 
a magnifying glass it will be more 
interesting. 

2. Try, in the same way, other sub- 
stances which will dissolve in water, 
such as sugar, washing soda, sal am- 
moniac, chlorate of potash, or alum. 
The crystals formed by each sub- 
stance have their own shape and 
method of formation, some branch- 
ing out over the glass like the growth 
of a plant. 

3. Project the growing crystals on 
the wall by holding them before a 
lens in a beam of light from a HELI- 
OSTAT, as directed under MaGIC 
Lantern, and the crystals will ap- 
pear enormous and seem to grow 
very rapidly. 

4. Dissolve in hot water as much 
alum as it will hold, and place in the 
solution any object you wish to cover 
with crystals. Set the solution in a 
quiet place, and in a few hours crys- 
tals of alum will be deposited on all 
of the objects. In this way baskets 
made of iron wire may be covered, 



CRYSTALLIZATION 



239 



CUP AND BALL 



or dried grasses may be made to look 
as if laden with frost. 

5. Fill one third of a bottle or jar 
with silicate of soda, often called 
" soluble glass," and the rest with 
clear water, and shake till the two 
fluids have thoroughly mixed. Then 
drop into the bottom of the jar crys- 
tals, the size of a pea, of one or more 
of the following substances : alumi- 
num sulphate, potash alum, proto- 
sulphate of iron, copperas, or blue 
vitriol. If the jar is large several 
may be used. Set the jar in a quiet 
place and in a few hours a growth of 
crystals will begin from each sub- 
stance, branching upward like vege- 
tation, but different in each case. 
When the growth has reached the 
surface it may be stopped by pour- 
ing water gently into the jar, which 
will carry off the soluble glass grad- 
ually in the overflow. The crystals 
may thus be preserved, but if the jar 
is to be moved a layer of sand quar- 
ter or half an inch thick must be put 
into the bottle to begin with, the 
crystals of alum and the other sub- 
stances are pressed down into this 
with a glass rod, and are thus held 
firmly in their places. 

6. Put a twig or bit of a shrub in 
a jar, stem upward. Drop a few 
crystals of benzoic acid on a plate 
of hot iron, and invert the jar over 
them. The crystals will turn to va- 
por which will crystallize again on 
the shrub in a form resembhng hoar 
frost. 

7. Dissolve in a quantity of hot 
water, sufficient to half fill the glass 
or tube in which the experiment is to 
be tried, ten times its weight of hypo- 
sulphite of soda. Having warmed a 
tall narrow glass, or test-tube, by 
means of boiling water, pour the 
solution slowly into it. Make a simi- 
lar solution of acetate of soda and 
pour carefully in above the first solu- 
tion, on which it will float. On this 
pour a layer of boiling-hot water. 
Allow the solutions to cool slowly, 
and then lower into the glass a crys- 
tal of hyposulphite of soda on the 



end of a thread. It will pass through 
the upper solution without disturb- 
ing it, but as soon as it reaches the 
lower one, that one will crystallize at 




Crystallization. Experiment 7. 

once. A similar crystal of acetate of 
soda is now lowered into the upper 
solution which then crystallizes in 
like manner, 

CUP AND BALL, a game played 
by one or more persons with a 
wooden or ivory ball connected by a 
string with a shallow cup, just large 
enough to fit the ball, on the end of 
a handle about a foot long. The 
other end of the handle is pointed 
and made to fit a corresponding hole 
in the ball. The game consists in 
trying to catch the ball in the cup. 
The player, taking the cup by its 
handle, throws the ball upward in the 
air and catches it in the cup as it 
falls. This is easily done after 
sufficient practice. If more than one 
person play, each has a trial in turn, 
and he who catches the ball after a 
stated number of trials, agreed on 
beforehand, is the winner. When 
the player can easily catch the ball 
in the cup, he should try to do so by 
sticking the pointed end of the handle 
in the hole. The illustration shows 



CUPID COMES 



240 



CURLING 






ihe cup held in position to catcli 
the ball on the point. This requires 
great skill, for to do it the ball must 
be given a twirling motion around 
the axis passing through the hole. 
In catching the ball in the cup, the 
latter must be placed under the ball 
and lowered quickly, so that the two 
are both moving in the same direc- 
tion as the ball strikes it ; otherwise 
the ball is apt to bound out of the 




Cup and Ball. 

cup. In France the cup and ball is 
called Le Bi'/dou^ue^ (BsW-houquet) . 
Henri III., King of France, and his 
courtiers were fond of playing with it, 
and it came into great favor again in 
the reign of Louis XV. In that time 
a gentleman of fashion always carried 
a cup and ball of ivory, and even 
actors and actresses appeared on the 
stage in tragedy bearing the toys. 
Says a French writer: "It must 
have been rather amusing to hear 
Orestes or Phedra breathing forth 
tragic fury with cup and ball in 
hand." Its popularity in France was 
still great at the time of the Revolu- 
tion, when it was succeeded in favor 
hy UE7nigrant. (See Bandilore.) 
CUPID COMES, an alphabetical 
game played by any number of per- 
sons, each of whom tells how Cupid 
Comes, in answer to a question. The 
answers must begin with the letters 



of the alphabet in order, and must 
all end in " ing." Thus, the first 
player says to his neighbor " Cupid 
Comes." The neighbor asks " How 
does he come ? " and the first 
player replies, for instance, " An- 
gling." The second player then says 
to the third : " Cupid Comes," and, 
in answer to the same question, re- 
plies " Boiling." So the game goes 
on till the alphabet is exhausted. 
Sometimes it is then repeated, the 
answers ending in " ly." Cupid then 
is said to come Amiably, Bravely, 
Cautiously, etc. Sometimes the 
letter A is used by all the players in 
the first round, B in the second 
round, and so on. The game thus 
lasts longer. In this case, any one 
who gives an answer already given 
must pay a forfeit. 

CURLING, a game played on the 
ice by any number of persons, divided 
into two sides, who try to slide stones 
as near as possible to two points 
called " Tees." ' A rink or course is 
laid out on a piece of strong ice 
about 7 yards wide and not less than 
50 yards in length. At the opposite 
ends of the rink, 38 yards, apart, are 
two small holes called " Tees," 
around each of which a circle 14 feet 
in diameter is drawn. The space 
inside of this circle is called the 
" brough " or " tee-head," and two 
smaller circles are drawn inside to 
make measurement more easy. 
Four yards behind each Tee a hack 
is cut in the ice, or a piece of corru- 
gated iron, called a "crampit," 3^ 
feet long by i foot in width, is placed 
for the player to stand on when de- 
livering his stone, making the whole 
distance played 42 yards. Seven 
yards in front of each Tee is a mark 
called the hog score, and if any stone 
fails to pass this it is called a " hog." 
Curling stones are made of various 
kinds of granite, and weigh from 30 to 
50 pounds each. They are flattened 
spheres in shape, not more than 36 
inches around and not higher than 
one-eighth their greatest circum- 
ference. The handles are made of 



CURLING 



241 



CURLING 




iron or brass, nickel or silver plated, 
with a grip for the hand of ebony, 
hardened rubber or ivory, screwed to 
a bolt running through the stone. 
Each player has a pair of curling 
stones, and the sides are divided by 
lots into sets of two opponents each. 
Each pair of opponents play their 
stones alternately, 
and then the next 
pair plays. Each 
player tries to slide 
his stone as near to 
the Tee as possible, 
and also to knock 
away any of his op- 
ponents' stones that 
have already been 
played. In delivering, 
the stone is slightly 
raised from the ice 
and then slid along 
toward the furthest 
Tee, with more or 
less force as the oc- 
casion requires. It is 
better play for the 
first shot to lie three 
feet in front of the 
Tee than one foot 
behind it, as the for- 
mer may be " touched 
up " (driven nearer 
the Tee) and the lat- 
ter " touched out " 
unless well guarded. 
Each player, besides 
trying to knock his 
opponent's stones out 
of the " brough," tries 
to guard his own 
side from danger of 
being knocked out. 

When a stone hits 
the inside of another 
and bounds in toward 
the Tee it is called an " inwick," and 
when it strikes the outside of another 
and knocks the latter inward it is 
called an " outwick." The skillful 
player, also by sliding his stone with 
a twist, causes it to describe a curve 
and thus sometimes reaches the Tee 
in spite of the fact that another stone 



aHii .aioai 




Curling Rink. 



appeared directly in its way. When 
a stone on the Tee is knocked out of 
the circle by another which remains 
within it the shot is called a " chap 
and lie " ; when a stone on the Tee is 
partially guarded by another outside, 
and yet an opponent succeeds in 
knocking it off, he is said to " chip the 
winner." If a stone is very near the 
Tee, those on the same side as its 
owner strive to place their stones so 
as to protect it from the enemy's 
attacks. When all have played, the 
distances of the various stones from 
the Tee are determined with the aid 
of the " broughs." Every stone that 
is nearer the Tee than any on the 




Curling Stone. 

opposite side scores one point or one 
" shot," as it is called. Each one 
then takes a turn at the opposite Tee 
in the same order as before, and the 
game thus goes on till one of the 
sides has won. 

The way in which a game shall be 
won depends on agreement made 
beforehand. It may be done by the 
side that first scores 21 or 31 shots, 
or the one that scores most shots in 
21 or 25 "ends" or innings; or by 
the one that is ahead at the end of 3 
or 4 hours play. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

I. Four yards behind each Tee a 
circle 18 inches in diameter shall be 
drawn, on the left hand side of the 
line joining the Tees, and just touch- 
ing it. In this circle each player 
must stand when playing his stone 
at the more distant Tee, if he be 
right-handed. If left-handed he 
must stand in a similar circle on the 
right of the central line. 



CURLING 



242 



CURLING 



2. No stone shall count that is 
without the farther edge of a circle, 
or " brough " drawn with a radius of 
7 feet from the Tee as a center. 

3. A straight line called a " hog 
score " is drawn across the rink at a 
distance from each Tee equal to one- 
sixth the entire length of the rink. 
Every stone not reaching this line is 
called a " hog," and is taken off the 
ice except it strike another stone 
lying on the line. 

4. No stone shall be changed after 
the beginning of a game, unless it be 
broken, in which case the largest 
piece is scored for the play in which 
it was broken. 

5. If the played stone rolls and 
stops on its side or top it shall not 
be counted, but put off the ice. 

6. If the handle parts from the 
stone in playing, the player must 
keep hold of it, otherwise he shall 
not be entitled to replay his shot 
turn. 

7. No player must cross the rink, 
or go on it except when sweeping in 
accordance with the following rule. 

8. Both parties may sweep the 
rink ; the player's party while the 
stone is moving from the middle line 
to the Tee, and the opposite party 
after it passes the Tee. All sweep- 
ing must be from side to side, and 
no sweepings must be left in front of 
a sliding stone. 

9. If a player's stone be obstructed 
by his own party it shall be put off 
the ice; if by the opposite party it 
shall be placed where the skip of 
the side to which it belongs may 
direct. 

10. If a player play out of turn his 
stone may be stopped and returned, 
but if the mistake is not discovered 
till the stone is at rest, the opposite 
party is allowed the choice of letting 
the shot stand and adding one to 
their score, or of declaring the round 
void. 

11. If a player play a wrong stone, 
ft may be stopped and returned, but 
if allowed to come to rest, it shall be 
replaced by his own. 



12. No shot shall be measured till 
the end of the round. 

13. The "skips" or captains of 
the two sides have exclusive control 
each of his own party. Each, when 
it is his turn to play, appoints some 
other player to take temporary 
charge. The skips decide on the 
order of play, direct where their men 
shall stand, and how they shall sweep, 
and decide disputed questions. If 
they cannot agree, the dispute shall 
be referred to an umpire or some out- 
sider. No one but the skip on his 
own side shall address any player in 
the act of sliding his stone. 

History. Curling originated in 
Scotland, where it has been a favorite 
for three hundred years. It is played 
there by all classes of people, a 
wealthy landowner sometimes acting 
as skip for one party, while the leader 
of the other is a common laborer. 

The game was first played on this 
continent at Montreal about the 
beginning of this century, being in- 
troduced there by Scotchmen. It 
is now played in all parts of the 
United States wherever a sheet of 
ice can be had, Americans having 
rapidly become experts at the game. 
Owing to intense cold and snow- 
storms in Canada covered rinks are 
mostly used, lighted and used in the 
evening as well as by daylight. The 
unwritten laws of curling against any 
gambling or betting on the game, or 
profanity on the ice, are very em- 
phatic and rigidly enforced. The 
Grand National Curling Club of 
America, organized in 1867, and 
having now 44 associated clubs, has 
done a great deal toward populariz- 
ing the game, and reducing it to a 
science in this country. Matches for 
several championship medals are 
played for annually under its aus- 
pices. The records in the oldest of 
these, that for the Gordon medal, are 
given in the appendix. Besides these 
"rink medals," others called "point 
medals " are contended for, the ob- 
ject being to play perfectly certain 
shots, such as " inwicking," " out- 



CURVE OF DESCENT 



243 



CYCLING 



wicking," " chap and lie," and " chip 
the winner." 

Curling" stones are greatly im- 
proved of late years both in appear- 
ance and usefulness, the best being 
made from granite quarried at Ailsa- 
craig, a barren island on the Scottish 
coast. They are known as gray, 
blue, and red hones. The word 
" Curling " applies to the curves in 
which skilled players send their 
stones to avoid obstacles. Similar 
games are known in Holland as Cal- 
luiten, in Flanders as Eisblocken 
(ice-blocks), and in Germany as Eis- 
kugehi (ice-balls). 

CURVE OF QUICKEST DE- 
SCENT. The shape of the trough 
down which a marble will roll in 
the shortest time from one point 
to another is not a straight Hne, 
as one might think, but a curve 
called a cycloid. Such a trough 
can be made as follows : To draw 
the cycloid, procure a circular piece 
of board or thick pasteboard, a ruler, 
or straight board more than half 
as long as the circumference of the 
circle, and some sheets of blank 
newspaper. The size may be as 
large as desired, but a good one is 
made by taking a circle two feet in 
diameter and a ruler about four feet 
long. Lay the paper on a smooth 
floor and the ruler upon it. Cut a 
notch in the edge of the circle to 
hold the point of a lead pencil. Lay 
the circle on the paper with the 
notch touching the ruler, place the 
pencil point in the notch, and roll the 
circle along the ruler, taking care 
that it does not slide at all. The 
curve drawn by the pencil held in the 
notch is a cycloid. When the notch 
has reached the top, that is, when the 
circle has rolled half-way around, 
stop. To make the trough, take a 
strip of pine wood an inch wide and 
thin enough to bend easily. Bend it 
to the curve, as it lies on the floor, 
and hold it in shape by sticking pins 
into the floor on each side of it. Then 
lay dovv^n a stiff piece of wood, also an 
inch wide, parallel with the ruler and 



touching the curve at the point where 
the drawing was stopped. Fasten 
the curved and straight strips to- 
gether by nailing pieces of lath from 
one to the other, so that the curved 
piece will keep its shape. Set the 
arrangement upright, the straight 
piece forming the base, and glue 
strips of paper along the side of the 
curved piece to form a trough. It 
will be found that a marble will roll 
down this curve quicker than down 
any other line connecting the same 
points. To show this, troughs can be 
made of various shapes, including 
one straight line. If marbles be held 
at the top of these and released all 
at the same time, the one on the 
cycloid will always get to the bottom 
quickest. 

Another curious thing about this 
curve is that a marble takes the same 
time to roll to the bottom of it, no 
matter where it starts. For instance, 
if one marble be held at the top 
and another half-way down, and 
both be released at once, the upper 
one will strike the lower one just as 
it gets to the bottom. This curve is 
often called the Brachistochrone, 
from the Greek brachistos, shortest, 
and chronos, time. 

CYCLING. The early forms of 
bicycle are described in the article 
Velocipede (C. C. T.). About a 
thousand varieties of bicycles and 
tricycles are now made, but they all 
belong to five or six classes or types. 
They have frames of steel, but gener- 
ally the rims of the wheels, and 
sometimes the handle-bars, are of 
wood, and the wheels have hollow 
rubber tires which are inflated with 
air. The pedals, by which the feet 
operate the wheels, have rubber bars 
or steel plates, and the axles revolve 
on what are called " ball bearings," 
that is, the axle rests near its ends, 
and revolves, on rows of little steel 
balls to lessen the friction, as shown 
in Fig. I. The bicycles now almost 
universally used are of the type 
originally for a short time called the 
" rover," from the name of the first 



CYCLING 



244 



CYCLING 



one of the kind that became popular. 
They were also known as" safeties," 
although there were other types of 
so-called safety bicycles, the name 




Fig. I. — Ball Bearings. 



being given to almost any bicycle 
which differed in shape and con- 
struction from the high or " ordi- 
nary" bicycle. The French still 
call the type " bicyclettes." The 
wheels are generally of the same size, 
28 inches in diameter, and 26 or 24 
for children. The rear one drives 
and the front one steers. The pedals 
are in the middle between the 
wheels, and are generally connected 
with the rear wheel by a chain, 
although in chainless wheels some 
other device, such as a rod with 
gears at the ends, is substituted. 
Bicycles for women have the upper 
cross tube of the frame curved down- 
ward toward the bottom bracket so 
as to remove everything in the way 
of a skirt. The small-wheeled cycle 
was originally called a " safety " be- 
cause there was less danger of a 
fall from it than from the type of 
wheel then in common use — that 
with a very large wheel in front. 
The old type still retains the name 
of " ordinary," though it is no 
longer used. It had no gear, and 
the cranks to which the pedals are 



attached were directly on the axle 
of the large wheel. The *' Star," 
which was a transition form, had 
the small wheel in front, and the 
large wheel was worked by levers, 
as seen in Fig. 3. The early safeties, 
of the Kangaroo type, which was 
practically a small " ordinary," were 
often called " dwarf " bicycles be- 
cause the front wheel was much 
smaller than in the ordinary kind. 
Another kind of safety bicycle, called 
the "Otto," after its inventor, de- 
serves notice only as a curiosity, be- 
ing unlike other bicycles in having its 
wheels side by side, thus resembling 
a tricycle without its, small wheel. 
The rider's seat was placed between 
them, above the axle, and he was 
supposed to keep his balance by the 
way he worked the pedals. There 
was a prop behind to strike the 
ground if the machine tipped back- 
ward. This kind of bicycle has 
never been used in the United States 
and but rarely in England. It re- 
quires special practice to ride it. 




Fig, 2. — "Ordinary" Bicycle. 



The Tandem bicycle is intended 
to be ridden by two persons tandem 
— that is, one in front of the other. 
Both riders work pedals, connected 



CYCLING 



245 



CYCLING 



with the axle of the rear wheel by two 
chains. The machine may be con- 
structed so that it may be steered by 
either or both riders. When the 
front seat is adapted for women's 
use, having a drop-frame, the tandem 
is called a " combination " tandem. 
Bicycles for three, four, or more 
riders are also occasionally made. 
They are called, respectively, " trip- 
lets," "quadruplets," "quintuplets," 
etc. It is possible to attain great 
speed on them, as the gear can be 
made very high. 

Tricycles. The tricycle is a three- 
wheeled machine which can be 
ridden by either girls or boys. It 
is safe, and runs very easily and 
smoothly. It is used by women and 
elderly people, especially in England. 
The kind shown in Fig. 6 is the one 
now generally in use. One of the 
first to become popular was known 
as the " Cripper " type, said to have 



had a race with these machines in 
New York in i888,but they havenever 
been used practically, except perhaps 
to give practice in rowing. Another 





Fig. 3. — Star Bicycle. 

been named from Robert Cripps, a 
famous English rider. 

Tandem tricycles are also occa- 
sionally used. The " Sociable " tri- 
cycle has its two seats side by side, 
instead of one in front of the other. 

One kind of tricycle, called the 
" Road Sculler," is worked by the 
hands by an action similar to row- 
ing. Several professional oarsmen 



Fig. 4. — Safety Bicycle. 



curious tricycle, for use on a railway 
track, is shown in Fig. 9. The 
wheels have flanges like car wheels, 
and the small wheel is directly be- 
hind one of the large ones, so as to 
run on the same rail. 

Various fittings and 
equipments are used on 
almost all cycles, espe- 
cially if the rider is taking 
a long trip. A cyclom- 
eter is an arrangement 
connected with the wheel, 
usually fastened to the 
front axle, which shows 
the distance traveled by 
the cycle, A lantern is 
generally required to be 
carried at night ; it is se- 
cured sometimes to the 
hub of the forward wheel, 
to the fork-side, but more 
generally on the head, just 
below the handle bars. 
Lanterns serve the double 
purpose of showing the 
rider the condition of the road in 
front of him, and of preventing colli- 
sions by making his coming known 
to others. They are usually oil 
lamps with powerful reflectors, but 
electric lamps with portable batteries 
have been made, and one kind uses 
acetylene gas, which is generated as 
it is wanted by chemical means. 
Bells or alarms are carried to give 



CYCLING 



246 



CYCLING 



warning of the cycle's approach. 
Some make a continuous noise, like 
an electric bell, or clock alarm, 
while others give a single stroke, and 




Fig. 5. — Ladies' Bicycle. 



still others can be operated in either 
way. They are generally operated 
by pressing a lever. Instead of a 
bell, a whistle was formerly much 
used, but most local regulations now 
require a bell. 

An arrangement of steel and 
leather straps for carrying baggage 
is usually attached to the cycle on 
a long trip. One of the devices used 
is shown in Fig. 14. 

The rider should carry with him 
also a tool bag (Fig. 15), containing 
a wrench, an oil can, a piece of cloth, 
chain lubricant, and a tire-repairing 
kit, for use in keeping his machine 




Fig. 6. — Tricycle. 



in order and repairing it in case of 
accident. 

Bicycle riding can be learned in 
cities in special riding-schools es- 
tablished for the purpose, but it is 



possible to learn on an ordinary road, 
and some think this preferable, be- 
cause after learning on a smooth 
floor it is difficult, at first, to ride in 




Fig. 7. — Tandem Tricycle. 

the street. The learner may get on 
his bicycle at first while an assistant 
holds it, mounting not being prac- 
ticed till later. The first thing to be 
learned is the balance, which is ac- 
quired only by practice. The great 
art consists in turning the forward 
wheel very slightly toward which- 
ever side the bicycle begins to fall. 
It is necessary to have aid at first 
from some experienced rider, though 
some authorities advise that the 
balance be learned by riding down a 
very gentle incline without placing 




Fig. 8.— Tandem Safety. 

the feet on the pedals at all. When 
the learner can make the descent suc- 
cessfully, he may begin to use the 
pedals, at first merely placing his 
feet on them, and gradually begin- 
ning to use a little force. The foot 



CYCLING 



247 



CYCLING 



should not be held rigidly when 
pedaling, using force only on the 
down stroke, but the crank should 
be pushed forward at the top of the 
stroke and back at the bottom. In 
order to do this the heel should be 
dropped at the top and raised at the 
bottom. This is called " ankle mo- 
tion." 

Position. The rider should sit 
erect unless he wishes to attain a 
high speed, is running against the 



wind, or is mounting a hill, when it 
lightens the work somewhat to lean 
forward over the handles. The 
handles should be held lightly, and 
the rider should practice steering 
with one hand. It is possible also 
to ride without touching the handles 
at all, guiding the bicycle simply by 
altering the balance. The bicycle 
can be slowed by using the brake or 
by " back pedaling," that is, by 
pressing down on each pedal slightly 




Fig. 9. — Railway Tricycle. 



as it rises. A skillful rider can thus 
regulate his speed when descending a 
moderate hill, exactly as he wishes. 
In learning to use the brake, it should 
be applied cautiously at first. The 
sole of the shoe may be used as a 
brake by applying if to the front tire, 
care being taken to place it side- 
ways, so that the toe will not be 
drawn into the fork. This requires 
much care and skill. 

*' Coasting " is riding downhill 



without touching the pedals, the feet 
being on the " coasters," which are 
rests fastened on the front fork, or 
on the crown of the fork itself. Skill- 
ful riders coast swiftly down steep 
hills. The learner should not try it 
till he has practiced level riding for 
seven or eight weeks, and should 
then begin on a gentle, smooth in- 
cline. A bicycle should never be 
used to coast on a rough hill or an 
unknown hill, nor on a hill where 



CYCLING 



248 






CYCLING 



there are other vehicles. The rider 
should never let the machine get 
beyond his control. 

Mounting and Disntounting . Dis- 
mounting is better learned before 
mounting, as it is easier. To dis- 




Fig. 10. — Cyclometer. 

mount by the pedal, which is the 
usual method, the rider slows his 
machine, and as the descending pedal 
reaches its lowest point he steps off 
from it, throwing the other leg over 
the frame. Mounting by the pedal 
is the reverse of this, and is the 
only method that can be used on a 
woman's wheel. 

To learn to mount from the step 
the rider should learn to steer the 
machine while standing on the step, 
without trying to gain the saddle. 
When he can do this he should slide 
gentle into the saddle while the ma- 
chine is moving slowly. 

Tricks. Many fancy tricks which 
can be learned only by imitation and 
practice are performed by skilled 
bicyclists on their machines. They 
include vaulting in and out of the 
saddle, dismounting by throwing 
one leg over the handles, riding side- 
saddle, and balancing the machine 
on one wheel. Bicycle clubs often 
perform many difficult evolutions to- 
gether, going through a sort of drill. 

Rules of the Road. After the in- 



troduction of the bicycle there was 
some doubt as to its rights and 
privileges on the road, but the courts 
of nearly every State have ruled that 
it is a vehicle, with all the rights of 
one. In most large places bicycles, 
like other vehicles, are not allowed 
on sidewalks. Cycles approaching 
each other or other vehicles are 
obliged to turn out to the right, and 
a cycle overtaking another vehicle 
passes it on its left. If there is no 
room to pass unless the other vehicle 
turn aside, the cyclist should ring 
his bell, and where the room for 
passage is very narrow, he must dis- 
mount and lead his cycle past the 
other vehicle. In the evening the 
lantern should always be lighted. 

Bicycles are most used in the 
neighborhood of cities or large 
towns, where there are hard, smooth 
roads. Tours or trips on bicycles 
should be planned with reference to 
the condition of the roads ; and, to aid 
in this, bicycle guides are now pub- 
lished by many of the State divi- 
sions of the League of American 
Wheelmen giving lists and descrip- 
tions of practicable routes. 







Fig. II.— Cycle Bell. 

Tires. The modern pneumatic 
tires are a source of trouble to many 
wheelmen, as they are apt to be 
punctured, which lets out the air and 
makes it almost impossible to ride 
on them. They are of two kinds — 



CYCLING 



249 



CYCLING 



double-tube and single-tube. In 
the former an inner tube of thin 
rubber holds the air, while a thick 
outer one takes the wear, and in the 
latter the two tubes a>t. united into 
one. Each form has its advocates. 
Many so-called " unpuncturable " 
tires are made ; but, in general, if a 
tire is elastic and easy-riding, it is 
easily punctured ; if tough and hard, 
it is non-elastic and hard to ride. 
Every rider should learn how to re- 
pair slight punctures, and should 



will go as far in one turn of the 
pedals. It is found by multiplying 
the diameter of the wheel (generally 
28 inches) by the ratio of the number 
of teeth on the front to those on the 
rear sprocket. Thus, if the front 
sprocket has 20 teeth and the rear 
one 8, the gear is 28 x ^, or 70 ; 
that is, the wheel corresponds to 
an old " ordinary " with a front 
wheel 5 feet 10 inches in diameter. 
The higher the gear the slower it is 
necessary to move the feet, but the 
greater the pressure that 
has to be put on the 
pedals. High gears make 
hill climbing more diffi- 
cult. Most gears are be- 
tween 60 and 76, and 
the lower ones are better 
for the general rider, 
though each one must de- 
cide by experience which 
will suit him best. 

Bicycle Racing. Races 
on bicycles are now in- 
cluded among the events 
of almost every outdoor 
athletic meeting. See 
Athletics. Great speed 
Fig. 12.— Lamp and Luggage Carrier. has been attained on these 

machines. A bicycle can 
carry with him one of the numerous. not only go faster than a horse 
outfits sold for that purpose. for a short distance, but it can keep 

Gear. With the old-fashioned ! up with one for a long distance. 




" ordinary " wheel the relation be- 
tween the revolution of the pedals 
and the speed of the wheel depended 
wholly on the diameter of the front 
wheel. The larger the wheel the 
further the machine would travel 
for one turn of the cranks. Hence 
the speed was limited by the size of 
the wheel. With the modern form, 
as the cranks are not fastened to the 
axle of the wheel, this relation 
depends on the relative sizes of the 
front and rear sprockets, and is not 
so limited. The larger the front 
sprocket is in proportion to the 
rear one, the higher the possible 
speed. What is called the " gear " 
of a wheel is a distance equal to the 
diameter of the old " ordinary," that 



The League of American Wheelmen, 
which is the only national associa- 
tion of bicyclists in this country, 
though there are numerous local 
clubs, has now more than 100,000 
members. It was formed in 1880 
to secure the rights of riders in the 
courts, and, having done this, is now 
turning its attention to the improve- 
ment of highways. It has a division 
in nearly every State, the chief officer 
of which is called a Consul. It pub- 
lishes a weekly paper called the " L. 
A. W. Bulletin," which is sent toeach 
member for twenty-five cents. The 
following rules are condensed from 
those of the League governing 
bicycle racing, which have been 
adopted also by the National 



CYCLING 



250 



CYCLING 



Amateur Athletic Union, are as 
follows : 

RULES FOR BICYCLE RACING. 

Records. The standard table of 
recognized records shall be 1-4, 1-3, 
1-2, 2-3, 3-4, I mile, and all even 
miles upward ; no intermediate dis- 
tances. 

Records against time may be 
made at an open meeting, or in 
private, and with or without pace- 
makers. 

The Board will consider flying- 
start only in records against time ; 
standing-start only in competition 
records. 

A competition record must be 
made in a race between men. 

Records made with the assistance 
of other than recognized cycling 
machines, propelled by man power, 
will be recorded separately. 

In unpaced events, or during un- 
paced record trials, there shall be no 
pacing devices, and only the rider 
making the trial shall be on the 
track. 

Tracks. Tracks shall be meas- 
ured on a line drawn eighteen inches 
out from a well-defined, fixed and 
continuous inner curb or pole ; no 
record shall be allowed on a track 
otherwise measured. 

Machines Excluded. The Board 
reserves the right to exclude from 
the racing path any and all machines 
which, in its judgment, do not 
come within the commonly accepted 
meaning of the term " bicycle," 
cither by peculiarity of construction 
or by undoubted mechanical advan- 
tages which they may possess. 

Road Racing. The League of 
American Wheelmen regards racing 
on the public highways as an unlaw- 
ful practice, and refuses to recognize 
and legislate for such form of the 
sport except to forbid the competing 
together therein or pacemaking one 
for the other, of amateurs and pro- 
fessionals. 

Should any part of a road race 
be run upon the track, such part 



immediately becomes subject to 
track rules. 

TRACK RULES. 

Officials; their Powers and Duties, 
The officers of all race meetings 
and cycling events shall be a referee, 
who must be an amateur wheelman, 
three judges at the finish, three time- 
keepers, one starter, one scorer, one 
clerk of the course, with assistants 
if necessary, and one umpire for each 
turn of the track, or more, at option 
of the referee. The referee, judges, 
and clerk of the course shall consti- 
tute the Executive Board. 

The referee shall have general 
supervision of the race meeting. 
He shall give judgment on protests 
received by him, shall decide all 
questions or objections respecting 
foul riding or offenses which he may 
be personally cognizant of, or which 
may be brought to his attention by 
an umpire or other officer. 

The judges shall decide the posi- 
tions of the men at the finish. In 
case of disagreement the majority 
shall decide. 

The timekeepers shall compare 
watches before the races are started, 
and shall note any variance ; they 
shall each time every event, and in 
case of disagreement the intermedi- 
ate time of the three watches shall 
be the official time. Time shall be 
taken from the flash of a pistol. In 
case two watches of the three mark 
the same time, that shall be the 
official time. 

The scorer shall record the laps 
made by each competitor, the order 
of the men at the finish as given him 
by the judges, and the time as given 
him by the timekeepers. He should 
indicate the commencement of the 
last lap by ringing a bell as the 
riders pass over the tape for the 
final lap, but the riders must keep 
count of the laps for themselves. 

It shall be the duty of the starter, 
when it has been reported to him by 
the clerk of the course that all the 
competitors are ready, to see that 



CYCLING 



2S« 



CYCLING 



the timekeepers are warned, and, 
before starting the men, to say, 
" Mount " ; in a few seconds after 
to say, " Are the timers ready ? 
Are the starters ready?" and, if no 
reply to the contrary be given, to 
effect a start by a report of a pistol. 
Should the pistol miss fire, the start 
may be made by the word " Go." 
The starter shall announce to the 
competitors the distance which they 
are to ride. The smarter may, at his 




Fig. 13.— Tool Bag. 

discretion, put back for a distance 
any competitor starting before the 
signal is given. In case of a false 
start, the competitors shall be called 
back by the starter by the ringing of 
a bell or pistol fire and restarted. 

In case of a fall or accident within 
thirty feet of the scratch line, the 
contestants shall be recalled by the 
starter by the ringing of a bell or 
pistol fire, and the race started over 
again. 

The clerk of the course shall call 
competitors in ample time for each 
event, and see that they are provided 
with numbers properly worn. He 
shall report the contestants to the 
scorers, see that they are on their 
appointed marks, and call the num- 
bers for the scorers as they cross 
the line at the end of each lap. 

It shall be the duty of the umpire 
to stand at such part of the field as 
the referee may direct, to watch 
closely the riding, and immediately 
after each race to report to the 
referee any unfair riding he may see. 

Positions. Tiie drawing for posi- 
tions in each event shall be done by 
the promoters of the meeting, and 
the positions of the men shall appear 



on the programme. When it be- 
comes necessary to draw for posi- 
tions on the grounds, the work shall 
be done by the clerk and starter in 
conjunction. In heat races the 
winner of a heat shall take the pole 
(or inside position) the succeeding 
heat, and the other riders shall take 
their positions in the order assigned 
them in judging the last preceding 
heat. When two or more riders 
make a dead heat, they shall start 
for the succeeding heat in the same 
positions with reference to the pole 
that they occupied at the finish of 
the dead heat. 

When races are run in heats and 
a final, the winner of the fastest heat 
shall take the pole in the final, the 
winner of the second fastest heat 
the next position, and so on. If 
more than one qualifies for the final 
from each heat, the second man in 
fastest heat shall be next outside 
the winner of slowest heat, and so 
on. Only the winners of positions 
in the trial heats, as stipulated by 
the terms of the race, shall compete 
in the final. 

No one shall be allowed in a final 
because of a foul or an accident in 
a trial heat. 

Should two or more riders make 
a dead heat of any qualifying place 
in a trial heat, they shall both be 
allowed to enter the final heat, ex- 
cept in the National Championship. 
Should two or more riders make a 
dead heat of any final, or a dead 
heat for second or any lower place 
for which there is a prize, they may 
decide by lot who shall take the 
prize, or may again ride the distance 
to decide the race, at the discretion 
of the referee. 

Starts. All starts shall be from 
the inside of the track, and, except 
in a flying-start event, shall be from 
a standstill, with the left hand 
toward the curb, and the machines 
shall be held in position by an 
attendant (the front wheel touching 
the starting line) until the signal is 
given by starter. Attendants, when 



CYCLING 



252 



CYCLING 



pushing off competitors, must keep 
behind the mark from which the 
competitors actually start. Should 
any part of the attendant touch the 
track in front of the mark, the com- 
petitor may be disqualified. Unless 
excused by the referee, every rider 
who enters in a handicap race must 
start in same. 

Finish. The finish of all races 
shall be judged by the first part of 
the front wheel which touches the 
tape fastened flat on the ground at 
the winning post, and no rider 
shall be allowed a finishing posi- 
tion who abandons the track and 
afterward returns and crosses the 
tape. 

Riding. Riders shall pass on the 
outside (unless the man passed be 
dismounted), and must be at least 
a clear length of the cycle in front 
before taking the inside, but on 
entering the homestretch in the last 
lap of a race, the foremost rider or 
riders must keep to that part of the 
track first selected ; and the hind- 
most rider or riders, when there is 
sufficient room to pass on the inside 
or anywhere on the homestretch 
without interfering with others, shall 
be allowed to do so. A rider shall 
not change from the inner to the 
outside of the track during any part 
of a race when another rider is so 
near that in altering his position he 
interferes with or impedes the prog- 
ress of the rider. No rider shall 
touch another. 

No rider during a race shall turn 
his head to look backward, remove 
his hands from the handle-bars, or 
otherwise ride in a careless or un- 
skillful manner, thereby imperiling 
the safety of other riders. 

Competitors may dismount dur- 
ing a race at their pleasure, and may 
run with their cycles if they wish to, 
but they must keep to the extreme 
outside of the path whenever dis- 
mounted. If a rider be dismounted 
by accident, or to change his 
machine, an attendant may hold his 
machine while he mounts it, and he 



shall so mount at the extreme out- 
side of the path. 

Ti7ne Liinits. The referee may 
place a time limit on any race except 
handicap, team, and lap races. The 
time limit shall not be announced 
to the contestants until their arrival 
at the tape, preparatory to the start 
of the race. If the competitors 
finish within the limit, they shall 
receive the prizes. If they fail to so 
finish, and the referee is convinced 
by their riding and the time that 
they endeavored to reach the limit, 
he may award the prizes. 

Pace7naking. A general pace- 
maker may be put in any race by 
the race promoter, having previously 
notified the referee of the fact. He 
shall assist no single rider, but shall 
act to increase the speed of the race 
in general. He shall, if a single 
rider only, be entitled to any place 
or prize he may win, if he starts 
from the scratch, or may be re- 
warded by a special prize, within the 
limits of the class. 

Tandems, or pacing machines 
carrying more than two riders, itiay 
be put in to pace competitions only 
by written consent of the member of 
the Racing Board in charge of the 
district. 

Track Privileges and Decorum. 
No person whosoever shall be 
allowed inside the track except the 
officials of the meet. The handi- 
cappers of the meet shall at all 
times, however, have track privi- 
leges. Authorized persons shall 
wear a badge. Competitors or 
pacemakers not engaged in a race 
actually taking place shall not be 
allowed inside or on the track. No 
one shall be allowed to " coach " 
competitors on the track. No 
shouting or remarks by trainers or 
attendants to encourage certain] 
riders or disconcert others shall be 
permitted. 

Choice of Machi7ies and Costumes. 
Choice or change of machine and 
choice of costume shall not be 
limited except that shirt shall not 



CYCLING 



253 



CYCLING 



bare shoulders, and breeches must 
reach to the knees. 

In races distinctly stated on the 
programme of events to be for a 
particular class of machine, this rule 
shall not apply so far as choice and 
change of machine are concerned. 
Safety bicycle races shall be limited 
to machines whose driving wheel 
does not exceed thirty-six inches in 
diameter. 

Competitors to Wear Numbers. 
Every competitor shall receive in 
the dressing-room a number corre- 
sponding with his number on the 
programme, which must be worn 
on his back or right shoulder dur- 
ing the race. He shall inform him- 
self of the times at which he must 
compete, and wait the call of the 
clerk in the dressing-room. 

Definition of Races. A novice 
race is open only to those who have 
never won a prize in a track race, 
and shall be the tirst race of the 
meet. A novice race is a class race. 

A class race is only open to those 
who, up to date of the closing of the 
entries, have not won the first posi- 
tion in a track race or trial heat in 
the same or better time than the 
class under consideration. In all 
class races the time limit shall be 
the time of the class. If the com- 
petitors fail to finish within the limit, 
and it is a good day, good track, and 
there are pacemakers, the referee 
shall declare it no race. If they fail 
to finish in the time limit, and there 
are no pacemakers, or it is not (in 
the judgment of the referee) a good 
day, or it is not a good track, and 
the referee is convinced by their rid- 
ing that they endeavored to reach 
the limit, and were not able to do so 
because of the absence of any one or 
all three conditions, he may award 
the prizes. 

In a lap race the position of the 
first three men shall be taken at the 
finish of every lap. The first man 
shall" score three points, the second 
man shall score two points, and the 
third man shall score one point, and 



no others shall score. The contest- 
ant who crosses the line first at the 
finish shall, for that lap, score four 
points. The competitor who scores 
the greatest number of points shall 
be declared the winner, but any con- 
testant, in order to secure a prize, 
must ride the entire distance and be 
within 150 yards of the finish when 
the first man crosses the tape at the 
end of the last lap. The 150-yard 
mark must be marked by a flag. 

In a team race the positions of all 
the riders starting shall be taken at 
the end of the race. 

The first man shall count a num- 
ber of points equal to the number of 
men starting, the second one less, 
and so on. 

The team scoring the greatest 
number of points shall be declared 
the winner. 

A team shall be limited to three 
riders, each of whom shall have been 
a member of the club entering the 
team for at least three months pre- 
vious to date of event. Each team 
member must also have resided 
within five miles of the city or town 
where the club has its headquarters 
for at least six months previous to 
the date of contest. 

In a heat race the position of 
each rider must be taken at the 
finish of each heat. The first man 
shall count a number equal to that 
of the contestants in the first heat, 
the second man shall count one less, 
the third two less, and on on. The 
competitor who scores the greatest 
number of points shall be declared 
the winner. 

Or, as an alternative, which must 
be stated on the programme as rule 
or alternative, in running a heat 
race, such event may be conducted 
under the rule outlined below : 

When the race is best two out 
of three heats, the winner is not 
reached until one rider has won two 
heats, either through virtue of finish- 
ing first or by the disqualification of 
a competitor or competitors who 
may finish in front and lose such 



CYCLING 



254 



CYCLING 



position or positions through ruhng 
or rulings of the referee. The 
second and other prizes shall be dis- 
tributed according to the standing 
of the rider in the summary, heat 
winners to be placed before all those 
who have occupied lesser positions, 
and in case two riders are tied by 



finishing an equal number of times 
in the same position, the one occupy- 
ing the best position in the conclud- 
ing heat shall be awarded the prize. 
In every heat a rider must finish 
within 1 50 yards of the winner or be 
adjudged distanced. In case a rider 
fails to win one heat in three, he will 




Fig. 14. — English Cycle Post. 



be disqualified from any subsequent 
heats that may be necessary to de- 
cide the prizes. 

Entries in a consolation race shall 
be limited to those who have not 
won a prize in any event of the 
meeting; provided, however, if only 
a single prize is given in the team 
race, members of the winning team 
shall not be considered to have won 
a prize and shall be eligible to the 
consolation race. 

In a pursuit race the conditions 
must be printed on the programme 
or announced to the spectators. 



In a handicap race the marks 
must be printed on the programme, 
and the men must start from the 
marks, assigned by the handicapper 
in trial heats and finals. 

In middle-distance races (10 to 
100 miles) the terms and conditions 
must be printed on the programme. 

Ignorance of Rules No Excuse. 
Ignorance of any of the foregoing 
rules will not be considered a valid 
excuse for violation. 

History. The early history of the 
bicycle and the tricycle is given in 
the article Velocipede, in C. C. T. 



CYCLING 



255 



DANCING IMP 



Since the introduction of the bicycle 
proper (about 1876), so many im- 
provements have been made in it that 
it is now a very impor- 
tant machine and has 
found many uses which 
were once scarcely 
thought of. One of the 
greatest differences be- 
tween the modern bicycle 
and the old velocipede 
is in the construction of 
the wheels. They were 
formerly made like those 
of a carriage, with 
stout wooden spokes, the 
weight resting on each 
spoke in turn as it came 
underneath the hub. Now 
the spokes are of steel 
wire, and the weight is 
supported by the spokes above the 
hub, which is hung, as it were, from 
the rim of thewheel. Thisplan, which 
is called the " suspension principle," 
by enabling the builders to make 
light wheels, has done much toward 
perfecting the modern bicycle. 
Many grown people use cycles now 
for health as well as recreation ; 



many travel long distances on them ; 
they are used in delivering letters 
and parcels, and in England and 




Military Cycle. 



Germany soldiers are trained to ride 
the military cycle. Cycling has be- 
come a very popular pastime, and 
has grown to be something beyond 
mere boy's sport. Bicycles were 
first made in the United States in 
1878, and hundreds of bicycle 
manufactories are now situated in 
this country. 




D 



Dancing Imp. 

the surface as 



DANCIN C 

IMP. Join tight- 
ly with sealing 
wax the halves 
of a walnut shell 
from which the 
kernel has been 
removed. Fast- 
en a little wooden 
doll, three or 
four inches long, 
by threads to the 
nut, weighting 
the doll with shot 
or otherwise, so 
that the nut will 
float in water 
with as little of 
its shell above 
possible. Make a 



hole with an awl in the lower side 
of the nut and float it in a jar of 
water, filled within an inch or two of 
the top. Tie a piece of India-rubber 
cloth tightly over the top of the jar. 
If the India-rubber be now pressed 
with the finger the doll will sink, and 
when the pressure is removed it will 
rise again. This is because the pres- 
sure forces some water into the nut 
through the hole in the bottom, and 
the additional weight is just enough 
to sink it. This toy is called also 
Ludion or Bottle Imp, and small 
ones were sold on the streets of New 
York in 1889 under the name of 
" McGinty," being supposed to il- 
lustrate the popular song " Down 
went McGinty to the Bottom of 
the Sea." 



DICE 



256 



DICE 



DEVIL ON TWO STICKS. See 

Flying Cone. 

DIBS. See Jack Stones. 

DICE (plural of die), small white 
cubes of ivory, bone, or celluloid, 
used in gaming. Each of the six 
faces or sides of a die is marked by a 
different number of black spots or 
dots, from i to 6. The dots are so 
arranged that the sum of the dots on 
opposite sides is always seven ; that 
is, the One and Six, the Two and 
Five, and the Three and Four are 
opposite each other. As in cards, 
the one, two, and three-spots are 
often called respectively, the Ace, 
Deuce, and Tray. In playing, one or 
more of the dice are shaken and 
thrown from a dice-box upon a table. 
This is called a throw, and the num- 
bers on the uppermost faces of the 
dice are said to have been thrown. 
The throw is unfair if a die rolls on 
the floor ; if any one touches it while 
it is rolling on the table ; if it is 
tilted on edge against some obstacle ; 
or if one die rests on the top of 
another. 

Dice are used to determine the 
moves in games like Backgammon 
and Parchesi, but several games may 
be played with them alone. 

Raffling or Raffles, a game of 
dice, played by any number of per- 
sons with three dice. Each in turn 
throws till he throws two numbers 
alike, called a Pair. When all have 
thrown, he who made the highest 
throw wins. Pairs rank according 
to the number of spots on the paired 
dice, and a triplet, or three of a kind 
ranks higher than any Pair. Thus, 
a pair of Fives is higher than a 
pair of Fours, but three Twos is 
still higher. 

Centennial, a game of Dice played 
by two or more persons, each for 
himself, or by partners, two or three 
on a side. The players use three 
dice at a time, and not only the 
numbers thrown, but the sum of any 
two or of all of them counts toward 
the score. The object is to score the 
numbers from i to I2 in order, and 



then the numbers in reverse order 
back to I. Each player may throw 
until he fails to score, when the 
turn passes to the left. Each player 
keeps his score by writing the num- 
bers on paper as he makes them, 
and then crossing them out in re- 
verse order. He whose numbers are 
crossed out first wins the game. 
Several numbers may be scored in 
one throw : thus i, 2, and 3 score 
all the numbers up to 6. Part- 
ners have only one score between 
them, and the numbers thrown 
by each count toward it. 

Help Your Neighbor, a game of 
dice played by any number of per- 
sons, with one die. Each player 
marks the numbers i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, on 
paper. The one who begins the 
game then throws the die and marks 
out of his figures the number he 
throws ; and he continues throwing 
as long as he can mark off the number 
thrown. When he throws a number 
that he has already marked off, the 
player on his left crosses it off his own 
score, and then takes his turn. Each 
player does likewise, and he whose 
score is all crossed off first wins. 
If, in the course of the game, neither 
a player nor his left-hand neighbor 
have the number that is thrown, 
the nearest player on the left who 
has it marks it off. 

Draw Poker. The players use five 
dice, which are first thrown at one 
cast, and then any or all of them 
may be thrown again ; just as in the 
card game each player may draw 
new cards. The " hands " are the 
same as in ordinary Draw Poker, 
save that there is no Flush and 
that there can be five of a kind, 
which ranks above four of a kind, 
and is the highest possible hand^ 
The highest hand wins the pool 
As every one sees the hands of al 
the other players, there is no " beU 
ting." 

Multiplication. Three dice ar 
thrown by each player, who, leavin| 
the highest on the table, throws th| 
other two again, and then the \o\ 



DICE 



257 



DICTIONARY 



est of these is thrown a third time. 
The sum of the first two is multipHed 
by the third, and the player whose 
result is the highest wins the game, 

Vingt-et-Un. Two dice are used, 
and each player throws as many 
times as he wishes. He, the sum of 
whose throws is nearest 21, is the 
winner. But if any one throw more 
than 21 he loses. Vingt-et-Un is 
French for Twenty-one. 

Dice with Eight Sides. Dice 
formed of four-sided pyramids, fas- 
tened base to base, have recently 
been invented in France. Each die 
has thus eight sides, on which are 
marked numbers from two to nine. 
The value of a throw is the product 
of the numbers thrown ; thus, with 
two dice it may be anywhere from 
four to eighty-one. These dice 
are intended to be used by children, 
to make them familiar with the multi- 
plication table. They are called also 
octahedral dice, from the Greek 
okto, eight, and hedro7i, side. 

History. Dice have been known 
since the earliest times. The Greeks 
said that they were invented by 
Palamedes at the siege of Troy. 
Plutarch says they were devised by 
the Egyptians ; and bone or ivory 
dice have been found in Thebes, 
Egypt, similar to those now in use. 
They are mentioned by Homer in the 
Odyssey, in the Rig Veda (one of the 
sacred books of the Hindoos), and in 
other ancient writings. The Greeks 
and Romans gave to the various 
throws the names of heroes and 
gods, the best being called Venus, 
after the goddess of love. The 
game was very popular in Rome, 
where rich men, in the later days of 
the empire, sometimes staked their 
fortunes on a single throw. The 
Romans used two kinds of dice ; 
tali, made of the huckle bones from 
the legs of sheep and goats, or to 
imitate them, and tesserce, cubical 
like our dice. The ends of the tali 
were left blank because they were 
so narrow, and the four other sides 
were numbered i, 3, 4 and 6, With- 



out the numbers the tali were played 
like our JACK STONES. Dice con- 
tinued to be played so widely in 
Europe that in the Middle Ages there 
were in France academies where 
dice games were taught, and the 
makers of dice formed a separate 
company. They were many times 
forbidden, because used for gamb- 
ling, and it is said that CARDS were 
originally devised to turn people's 
attention from them. A curious dice 
box once in use in England is shown 




in the illustration. The dice used in 
it had no spots at all, and the value 
of the throw depended on where they 
fell when put into the funnel-shaped 
tube at the top. 

Dice made of huckle bones, or to 
imitate them, are still used in Eastern 
countries, where the different throws 
are given names, as among the 
ancients. Thus the Arabs call the 
Ace " Thief," the Three " Lamb," 
and the Six '' King "; and the Turks 
call the Three " Peasant '* and the 
Four " Knight." 

The origin of the word die is not 
certainly known, though in some 
form it appears in every language in 
Europe. The late Latin form was 
dadus, which some think is from 
datus (a thing given or thrown forth) 
and some from the Arabic dadd, a 
die. 

DICTIONARY or VERBARIUM, a 
game played with pencil and paper, 
by any number of persons, who try 
to see which can make the largest 
number of words from the letters 
composing a larger word, called the 
Head-word, The word to be used, 



DICTIONARY 



258 



DISTILLATION 



which should contain as many vowels 
and as few double letters as possi- 
ble, is first agreed upon, and each 
player writes it plainly at the head of 
his sheet of paper. Each then writes 
all the words he can think of, that 
can be made from letters in the 
Head-word. Those beginning with 
its initial letter are taken first, and a 
given time (usually from two to five 
minutes) is allowed in which to write 
them. At the end of that time the 
players count their words, and he 
who has made the longest list reads 
it. Any word that is on all the lists 
counts nothing, but other words 
count each as many points as the 
number of players who have omitted 
it. Afterwards each of the other 
players reads any words on his list 
that have not been marked. All 
words are crossed out as they are 
read. After this, words beginning 
with the second letter of the Head- 
word are written, and so on till the 
last letter has been reached. The 
player who scores the greatest 
number of points wins. 

The game may often be made 
more interesting by choosing sides, 
but the sides should contain the 
same number of players, otherwise 
an omission would add more to the 
score of one side than to that of the 
other. The game is excellent train- 
ing for rapidity of thought. The 
player's ability to write long lists of 
words quickly, increases greatly with 
practice, so that a beginner is almost 
always defeated. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

I. At the beginning the players 
must agree as to what classes of 
words are allowable. One of the 
standard dictionaries maybe selected, 
and any word allowed that can be 
found in it ; or, no word may be 
allowed that the writer cannot de- 
fine correctly. This prevents put- 
ting down groups of letters that 
sound like words, in hope that they 
may be in the dictionary. It must 
also be settled whether plurals in s 
and different moods and tenses of the 



same verb are to count as separate 
words or not. 

2. No letter may be repeated in 
any of the words, unless it is also re- 
peated in the Head-word. 

3. A time-keeper shall be selected 
who shall keep his watch open before 
him. No one shall write before the 
time-keeper says " begin," nor after 
he says " stop." 

The word Verbarium is Latin and 
means a place where w^ords abound. 
The game is sometimes called in 
New England " Androscoggin." 

DIFFRACTION GRATING, Ex- 
periment with a. Paint one side of 
a square of glass with India ink or 
liquid blacking, so that light cannot 
shine through it, and then, with the 
point of a needle, rule parallel lines on 
it about one-tenth of an inch apart, 
scratching quite through the layer of 
black. Look through this glass at a 
candle flame, or the edge of any 
bright object, standing about twenty 
feet from it. Move the glass toward 
the eye and from it till it is at the 
proper distance, when one or more 
rainbow colored spots will be seen 
on each side of the flame. These 
spots can often be seen by half clos- 
ing the eyes, and looking at the flame 
through the eyelashes, which thus 
take the place of the grating. The 
colors are produced by the interfer- 
ence of the light passing through the 
various scratches in a way which can- 
not be explained here, for want of 
room. 

DISTILLATION. The process of 
distillation is described in C. C. T. 
under ALCOHOL. To make a sim- 
ple still to distill water (See Chemi- 
cal Experiments) fit a flask or 
test-tube with a stopper and de- 
livery tube connecting with a flask or 
bottle (Fig. I). The first flask or 
tube is partially filled with water and 
supported or held over an alcohol 
lamp, and the second stands in a 
basin of cold water. The water 
should come up much farther around 
the bottle than shown in the illustra- 
tion. When the water in the first flask 



DISTILLATION 



259 



DISTILLATION 



begins to boil, the steam passes over 
to the second flastc, where it con- 
denses. The cold water in the basin 
must be replaced as fast as it begins 
to get warm. 

A better way is to keep the cold 
water continually changing so that 



it will never grow warm. This can 
be arranged as follows. Fasten to- 
gether two or three argand lamp- 
chimneys with putty or plaster of 
Paris, so as to form a long tube as 
shown in Fig. 2, Close each end with 
two-holed rubber stopper or cork. 




Simple Still. 



Through one of the holes in each 
pass a glass tube so that it runs 
through the lamp chimneys with- 
out touching the sides. Support 
this arrangement about six inches 
from the table by placing it on two 



blocks of wood. Connect one end 
of the glass tube with a kettle in 
which the water is to be boiled, and 
under the other place a cup to 
receive the distilled water. The 
tube should incline a little toward 




Fig. 2. — Home-made Still. 



this cup. In the other hole of 
each stopper put a short glass tube, 
connecting the lower one with a cold 
water faucet and the other with a sink. 
The lamp chimneys will thus be kept 
full of cold water, constantly chang- 



ing. A bath tub is a good place in 
which to set up the still, for then the 
escaping cold water cannot possibly 
harm anything. 

For method of distilling alcohol, 
See Alcohol, experiments with. 



DOLLS 



260 



DOMINOES 



DOLLS. The manufacture of 
dolls is described in C. C. T. Many 
games can be played with dolls, some 
of which will be described. 

Doll Show. Several children 
meet in one place, each bringing her 
dolls. Prizes should be offered for 
the prettiest doll, the most neatly 
dressed doll, the doll who has trav- 
eled farthest, and so on, at the 
pleasure of the exhibitors. All 
present should vote on the award, 
and the doll receiving the greatest 
number of votes is given the prize. 

Paper Dolls. The paper dolls 
sold at toy shops are merely colored 
pictures printed on thick paper, 
which are to be cut out with scis- 
sors. Any picture can be cut out 
and used as a paper doll, but if it is 
not on stiff paper it must have 
another thickness fastened to it to 
stiffen it. Paper soldiers, bought at 
the stores in sheets, may be cut out 
and stiffened in the same way. 
Paper dolls and soldiers may be 
made to stand up by fastening them 
with glue or brads to the side of a 
small block of wood. Wooden 
button-molds make the best stands : 
stick a thin sliver of wood into the 
hole and then glue the paper doll to 
it. Paper furniture also may be 
bought at toy shops. After it is 
cut out it must be bent into shape 
and fastened by pasting down flaps 
which are cut out with it. Simple 
articles of furniture can be made by 
drawing them on thick paper, Bristol 
board, or card-board, and then cut- 
ting them out. The places for bend- 
ing are cut half through with a sharp 
knife. The cut must be made in 
each case on what is to be the out- 
side of the corner. 

Vegetable Dolls. Dolls can be 
made of corn husks by putting a 
number of them together and tying 
thread around the neck and waist. 
The arms are formed of a separate 
piece of twisted husk drawn through 
the body crosswise, and both arms 
and legs are wound with thread to 
make them stiff. Another kind of 



doll may be made with an ear of 
corn for a body, a small green apple 
for a head, hair of corn silk, and 
bonnet and dress of husks. 

Still other kinds are formed with 
mverted flowers for dresses and seed 
vessels for heads, fastened together 
with thread. In all these cases, the 
eyes, nose, and mouth must be 
marked with ink. 

DOMINOES, flat pieces of ivory or 
bone, generally backed with ebony, 
used in playing various games. 
They are usually about two inches 
long, one inch wide, and a quarter of 
an inch thick. The face, which is 
commonly white, is divided by a line 
into two squares, each of which either 
is blank or has on it from one to six 
round spots or pips, grouped like 
those on dice. A domino having 
the same number of spots in each of 
its squares is called a doublet. 
Others are named from the number 
of spots in both squares : thus, the 
Four-six has four spots in one square 
and six in the other. A single spot 
is often called Ace, and two and 
three spots are called Deuce and 
Tray, as in cards. 

Twenty-eight Dominoes are used 
in playing games, the spots being 
arranged as follows : Double-blank, 
Blank-ace, Blank-two, Blank-three, 
Blank-four, Blank-five, Blank-six ; 
Double-Ace, Ace-two, Ace-three, 
Ace-four, Ace-five, Ace-six ; Double- 
Two, Two-three, Two-four, Two 
five, Two-six ; Double Three, Three- 
four, Three-five, Three-six ; Double- 
Four, Four-five, Four-six ; Double- 
Five, Five-six ; Double-six. The 
picture shows them all but the 
blanks. 

In the ordinary game of Dominoes, 
which can be played by from two to 
four persons, the Dominoes are first 
mixed as they lie on the table backs 
upward, and then each player draws 
seven. If any are left, they form 
what is called the "pool," Each 
usually stands his Dominoes on their 
sides in front of him on the table, 
placing them in a curved line, spots 



DOMINOES 



261 



DOMINOES 



inward, so that the other players can- 
not see them. The player having 
the highest doublet leads by placing 
any Domino he pleases on the table, 
face upward. The player on his left 
must then play a Domino one of 
whose squares matches one of its 
squares. The two are placed in 
line, with the matched ends touch- 
ing, and then each player in order to 



the left must match in like manner 
one of the ends of the line thus formed, 
as in the illustration. If a doublet is 
played, it is often placed crosswise 
instead of endwise in the line. If 
any one cannot play, and any Domi- 
noes remain in the pool, he must draw 
them, one by one, before his neigh- 
bor's turn, till he can play or till the 
pool is gone. The player who first 



IHIIIIIIII 
llllllllll 



Dominoes. 



gets rid of all his pieces cries " Domi- 
no -" and scores the sum of the spots 
on his opponents' remaining Domi- 
noes. If it happens that no one can 
play, while each has Dominoes left, 
the game is said to be blocked, and 
he who has the smallest number of 
spots on his remaining Dominoes 
scores as before. When " Domino " 
is announced, or the game is blocked, 



the Dominoes are mixed again, each 
draws seven, as before, and the game 
goes on. He whose score firs^ 
reaches 100 usually wins the game, 
but the necessary number may be 
made greater or less by agreement. 
Sometimes the game is varied by 
allowing no drawing after each has 
taken his seven Dominoes. 

Muggins, a game of Dominoes 



p 








naasBM 






• 

• 




:: 




• 


•1.- 




e 


•••I*e*)»«|»»| 


?_?; 


• 




|o:| 






UiJ 



Domino Game. 



in which each player draws five at 
the beginning. If any one plays so 
that the sum of the spots on the end 
squares of the line is 5, 10, 15, or 20, 
he scores that number of points. If 
the leader play a Domino, the sum of 
whose spots is five or ten, he scores 
in like manner. Thus if a Four is at 
one end and a Two at the other he 
who can match the Two with a Two- 



six scores 10, since the sum of the 
end spots will equal that number 
after his play. So also if a Double- 
four is at one end and any one plays 
a Double-six on the other he scores 
20. In other respects 
like the ordinary game. 

Bergen Game, a game of Domi- 
noes in which each player draws six 
at the beginning. When a player 



DOMINOES 



262 



DOMINOES 



makes both ends of the line ahke, he 
is said to make a Double Header, 
and scores two. When he plays so 
that there is a doublet on one end, 
and the other end is of the same 
value he is said to make a Triple 
Header, and scores three. He who 
announces " Domino," scores one. 
If the game is blocked, the player with 
the smallest number of spots on his 
remaining Dominoes scores one, but 
the holder of a doublet cannot score, 
even if he have less spots than the 
others, unless all have doublets, when 
he who has the smallest number of 
doublets scores. If all have the 
same number of doublets, he scores 
that has the lowest. The number of 
points in this game is small, usually 
10 or 15. 

Matadore, a game of Dominoes in 
which the pieces, instead of being 
matched, are placed so that the sum 
of the spots on touching ends of two 
Dominoes is always seven. Thus a 
Five must join a Two, a Six an Ace, 
and so on. The Double-blank, and 
the three Dominoes with seven spots 
(the Six-ace, Five-two, and Four- 
three) are called Matadores, and can 
be played at any time. It will be 
noted that only a Matadore can be 
played to a blank. Each player 
draws three Dominoes at the begin- 
ning of the game, and he who has the 
highest doublet, or the highest piece, 
if there are no doublets, leads. If any 
one cannot play, he must draw Domi- 
noes one by one in succession from 
the pool till he can play, or till the 
pool is gone. He must play if he can. 
But when only two persons play the 
game, three Dominoes must be left 
in the pool, so that neither player 
may know exactly what the other has. 
The scoring is the same as in the 
ordinary game. In Matadore the 
player with the smallest number of 
Dominoes usually tries to block the 
game by playing blanks. His oppo- 
nents can prevent him by playing 
only Dominoes that match blanks 
already on the table. 
TidleyWink, a game cf Domi- 



noes, played by four, six, or eight per- 
sons. Each draws three Dominoes 
to begin with, and the one with the 
highest double leads it. The other 
players follow, in order, each match- 
ing the Domino played just before 
him, as in the ordinary game. Any 
one who cannot play must wait till 
his turn comes again. Any one who 
plays a Double is allowed to play 
another Domino to it, if he can, be- 
fore the next player takes his turn. 
He who first gets rid of his three 
Dominoes calls out " Tidley-Wink," 
and wins the game. 

Poker. Each player is given five 
Dominoes and the game proceeds as 
in Draw Poker with cards, save 
that there is no drawing. The 
hands, in the order of their value, be- 
ginning with the highest, are 

1. An Invincible. — Five Doubles, 
or Four Doubles and a Six. 

2. A Straight Six.— A sequence of 
sixes, as Six-Two, Six-Three, Six- 
Four, Six-Five. 

3. Four Doubles. 

4. A Straight Five. 

5. A Full.— Three Doubles and 
two of a suit. 

6. A Straight Four. 

7. Three Doubles. 

8. A Flush. — Five of a suit not in 
sequence. 

9. A Pair. — Two Doubles. 

10. The highest Domino in a hand 
that is none of the above. A Double 
always ranks above any other. 

Card-games with Dominoes. Sev- 
eral games commonly played with 
cards may also be played with Domi- 
noes. In this case the larger num- 
ber on each Domino shows the suit, 
and the other number the rank in 
the suit. Thus, a doublet stands at 
the head of each suit, and the suits 
do not contain the same number of 
Dominoes. The Five-suit consists 
of Double-five, Five-four, Five-three, 
Five-two, Five-ace, Five-blank, and 
the Two-suit contains only Double- 
two, Two-ace, Two-blank. But the 
trump-suit contains all the Dominoes 
that bear the number of that suit, 



DOMINOES 



263 



DOMINOES 



whether the other number be smaller 
or larger ; thus, if the Three-suit 
is trumps the cards in it rank as 
follows : Double-three, Three-six, 
Three-five, Three-four, Three-two, 
Three-ace, Three-blank. Of course 
those trump-cards that would ordi- 
narily be counted in other suits must 
be omitted from these suits ; thus, in 
the case just given, the card next be- 
low the Six-four is the Six-two, be- 
cause the Six-three (or Three-six) is 
a trump. 

Domino Euchre. The doublet of 
the trump suit is Right Bower ; the 
next lower doublet is Left Bower; 
but when Blank is trump the 
Double-Six is Left Bower. The 
player who draws the lowest Domino 
is termed the dealer. After the 
drawing for deal the Dominoes are 
mixed agam and each player in turn, 
beginning at the dealer's left, draws 
five. The dealer then turns face up- 
ward one of the Dominoes that re- 
main, and its larger number shows 
the trump-suit. He that orders up, 
takes up, assists, or makes the trump, 
always leads, but in other respects 
the game is played as it is with cards. 

Domino Rounce. This can be 
played by not more than four per- 
sons. When two or three play, the 
Dominoes in the pool are often 
divided in more than one Dummy or 
Dumby (that is— extra hand), so that 
each has the privilege of taking one, 
even if the player before him has 
already done so. When four play, 
there is only one Dummy, but it con- 
sists of seven pieces. The dealer is 
chosen, the trump turned, and the 
Dominoes drawn as in Domino 
Euchre ; in other respects the game 
is played as it is with cards. 

Bingo, the game of SiXTY-Six 
played with Dominoes by two per- 
sons. Each player draws seven 
Dominoes at first, and one more 
after each trick, as in the card-game. 
The blanks count as seven spots ; 
and the Double-blank, which is 
called Bingo, is the highest Domino, 
taking even the Double of trumps. 



The game consists of seven points. 
He who first makes 70, scores one 
toward game. If he make 70 before 
his opponent make 30, he scores 2, 
and if he make 70 before his oppo- 
nent has won a trick, he scores 3. 
If a player capture the Double of 
trumps with Bingo he scores one. 

In reckoning the 70 points, the 
Double of trumps counts 28, and all 
other doubles and trumps according 
to the total number of the spots, but 
the remaining Dominoes have no 
value. The winner of a trick may 
announce or declare certain combi- 
nations as in the card game. These, 
with the points they count toward 70, 
are as follows : 

Two Doubles, 20 

Three " 40 

Four " 50 

Five " 60 

Six " 70 

If Bingo be among the doubles, 
the group counts 10 more. In other 
respects the game is played like 
Sixty-Six. 

History. Dominoes are said by- 
different writers to have been in- 
vented by the Hebrews, Greeks, or 
Chinese. They were introduced into 
France from Italy about 1750, and 
into England some years later. A 
domino was a black cloak or hood 
worn by monks, and some think the 
name of the game is derived from 
the fact that one side of the Domino 
is usually black. Other writers sug- 
gest that the ^'^me: was allowed in 
convents, because it was so simple, 
and that the monks, on playing their 
last piece, said in Latin " Benedzca- 
imis Domino " (bless the Lord), 
which was afterward shortened into 
Domino. A story is told also of a 
monk who played the game against 
the commands of his superior, and 
for punishment was obliged to re- 
peat a Latin psalm, and from the 
word Do7nino in it, he afterwards 
named the game ; but all these deri- 
vations seem rather fanciful. 

Domino Whist. See Sevens AND 
Eights. 



DONKfiV 



264 



DOUBLE PENDULUM 



DONKEY, a game played by any 
number of people, who try, blind- 
fold, to fasten a tail on the picture of 
a tailless donkey. The picture, 
which is about four feet square, is 
pinned on the wall at one end of a 
room, and each player in turn, stand- 
ing at the other end, is blindfolded 
and given a cloth tail and a pin with 
which to fasten it to the picture. He 
who first fastens the tail in the right 
place wins. This is a difficult feat, 
and the sight of the donkey 
covered with tails, some pinned 
to his head and others to his 
legs, creates a great deal of 
amusement. Donkey Parties 
are sometimes given, at which 
this game is the principal enter- 
tainment. The player is some- 
times informed by the laughter 
of the company as to whether 
he is at the right place or not 
and hence may be guided to 
the proper spot, so sometimes 
the game is made more difficult 
by requiring him to pin the tail j 
to the part of the donkey he 
touches first. 

DOUBLE JUMP, a soli- 
taire game of CARDS, played 
with one full pack. The cards 
are laid down in one long row. 
Whenever the player sees two 
cards of the same suit, or of the 
same value, separated by two 
other cards, he may take up 
the one toward the left, and 
place it on the other. This is 
called a double jump, since the 
two cards between are passed 
over. A jump brings new cards 
next one another and may give 
at once an opportunity for another 
jump. When the top card of a pile 
thus corresponds with another, two 
cards distant, the whole pile goes 
with the top card in its jump. The 
object is thus to bring all the cards 
into one pile. When but three piles 
are left, only one need be jumped, 
and when but two, one can be placed 
on the other if the top cards corre- 
spond in suit or value. 



DOUBLE PENDULUM, Experi- 
ments with the. Suspend a small 
glass funnel by setting it in a hole in 
a board or flat cork about three 
inches in diameter, hung by strings 
as in the picture. These strings are 
united above the funnel at r. The 
whole arrangement is suspended 
from the ceiling or from a frame, by 
two strings, tied to hooks about four 
feet apart, and united below at the 
funnel. The funnel should hang as 




Double Pendulum. 

closely to the table as possible at its 
center. Tie the two supporting 
strings together firmly at one fourth 
their length from the funnel. Fill 
the funnel with sand, and then hold 
it at one corner of the table, stopping 
up the tube with one finger. Let it 
go and it will swing off in a curve, 
which will be marked on the table 
by the sand. Tie the strings in a 
different place and the curve will be 
different. By careful trial, many 



DOUBLETS 



265 



DOUBLETS 



curious curves can thus be traced. 
These curves are called Lissajous's 
curves, after the Frenchman who dis- 
covered them. They are the same 
that are produced in the experiment 
of Vibrating Rods. 

DOUBLETS, a writing game 
played by any number of persons. 
Two words of the same number of 
letters are first agreed upon, and each 
of the players endeavors to connect 
them by a column of other words 
called "links," each of which shall 
differ from the one before it by only 
a single letter. Thus " Cat " and 
"Dog "may be connected in many 
ways, of which two examples fol- 
low : 

Cat Cat 

Cot Pat 

Cog Put 

Dog Pug 

Dug 

Dog 

The object of the game is to make 

as few links as possible. There are 

several methods of scoring. Thus, 

the player who makes the greatest 

number of links may score nothing 

and each of the others one point for 

each link less than this ; or, the one 

who has the least number of links 

may score a number previously 

agreed on, and each of the others as 

many points less as he has less links. 

The best plan in joining the 

doublets is to write them side by 

side and then work downward from 

each. Thus, suppose the words 

agreed on are Hand and Legs. 

When these are written side by side, 

it is seen that the H in Hand must 

be turned into an L, which is done by 

writing " Land." The G in Legs 

must become an N, so " Lens " is 

written underneath. »The word 

" Lend " now completes the chain, 

which reads 

Hand 

Land 

Lend 

Lens 

Legs 
In this case, as in the first example 



given, each link forms a step to- 
ward the desired end, every change 
being from one of the letters of the 
first doublet to the corresponding 
one of the second ; but sometimes 
this is impossible. Thus if Chin and 
Head are the Doublets only one of 
the letters of either can be substi- 
tuted at once for the corresponding 
one of the other. This is the N in 
Chin, which can be changed to D, so 
that the words stand : 

Chin Head 

Chid 
Looking now at the word Head, it 
is seen that the letter E must be 
turned into H. The first letter of 
a word whose second is H, is likely 
to be S or T. Take the word Shed 
and it can be connected with Head 
as follows : 

Head 

Heed 

Seed 

Shed 
After trying in vain to connect 
chid and shed the former link is 
rejected, and a new road tried. The 
first letter of chin is turned to S mak- 
ing Shin, and the connection is soon 
made as follows : 

Chin 

Shin 

Ship 

Shop 

Shod 

Shed 

Seed 

Heed 

Head 
The game of Doublets makes also 
an interesting SOLITAIRE game. The 
easiest doublets to connect are those 
in which the vowels in one corre- 
spond in position to vowels in the 
other, and consonants to consonants. 
The difficulty increases also with the 
length of the words. 

Doublets was invented and named 
by the author of " Alice in Wonder- 
land," whose assumed name was 
" Lewis Carroll." He wrote a book 
on the subject, giving many interest- 
ing examples of doublets connected 



DRAUGHTS OF AIR 



266 



DRAUGHTS OF AIR 



by links. It is said, however, that a 
similar game was played in this 
country before the appearance of 
this book. 

DRAMATICS. See Private 
Theatricals. 

DRAUGHTS. See Checkers. 

DRAUGHTS OF AIR, Experi- 
ments on. I. Open on a crack the 
door between a cold room and a 
warm one, and hold a lighted candle 
at various heights, close to the 
crack. No windows must be open 
in either room. At the top of the 
door the flame will be blown toward 
the cold room, and at the bottom 
toward the warm room. About 
half-way up there will be a place 
where the flame is blown very little, 
or not at all. The reason is that 
cold air, being heavier than warm 
air, flows into the warm room along 
the floor, and forces the warm air 
out at the ceiling. Instead of a 
candle flame, smoke from what is 
called " touch paper " may be used 
to show the direction of the currents. 
Touch paper is made by dipping un- 
glazed paper in a solution of salt- 
petre. When dry, it burns with 
smoke but not with flame. 

2. Cut in the top of a tight shal- 
low pasteboard box two holes, each 
about an inch in diameter, and place 
over each an argand lamp chimney. 




Experiment 2. 

In one hole stand a candle cut to 
such a length that it will project 
about half an inch above the top. 
Light the candle, and then hold 



burning touch paper over the other 
lamp-chimney. The smoke, instead 
of rising, will go down one chimney, 
and after it has filled the box will 
rise through the other. The reason 
is that the burning candle makes a 
draught up its chimney and if the 
box is tight so that no air can get in 
through cracks, to supply the place 
of what is going out, air must come 
down the other chimney. 

3. Hold the hand tightly over the 
chimney where the draught is down- 
ward. The candle in the other 
chimney will begin to burn feebly 




Experiment 3. 

and smoke, and will go out if there 
are no cracks for air to get in. The 
reason air does not get to it down its 
own chimney is that the upward 
draught there is too strong. 

4. Another way of trying Experi- 
ments 2 and 3, is to hang in an ordi- 
nary lamp chimney a partition cut 
out of tin, shaped as in the picture. 
The candle is set a little to one side 
of the chimney, and there is then an 
upward draught on one side of the 
partition, and a downward draught 
on the other. The candle may be 
put out as in Experiment 3. 

5. Bore several holes through a 
board, and enlarge some of them at 
one end so that they will be conical 
in form. Suspend a square of paper, 
by a string, two or three inches from 
the board, and from the other side 



DRAUGHTS OF AIR 



267 



DRAW POKER 



blow through the holes at it. On 
blowing through a straight hole, the 
paper will be carried back, but on 




the board when blown at through a 
conical hole. The reason is, that 
the breath is kept together in a 
stream by the straight hole, whereas 
it disperses to all sides in the conical 
hole, and carries with it some of the 
air on the other side of the board so 
that a slight return current is caused. 
This principle is used in ventilating 
rooms where it is desirable to avoid 
a direct draught. 

6. Cut out a spiral Hke the one de- 
scribed in the article Fourth op 
July, and suspend it over a lamp 



blowing throUj^h a conicil hole from 
tic sm Ul en 1 the pipei wdl harg 





Experiment 6, 

perfectly still. If a lighted candle 
be used instead of the paper, the 
flame will even be directed toward 



Expeument 7 

is shown m the illustration The 
up rush of hot air will cause it to 
twirl. 

7. A wheel cut out of paper in the 
shape shown above will also twirl in 
a draught of hot air, or when fanned 
as shown in the illustration. 

DRAW POKER, a game of cards, 
played by from two to six persons, 
with a full pack. Five cards are 
dealt to each, one at a time, and then 
each in turn, beginning at the deal- 
er's left, may discard any or all of 
these, and call for as many new ones 
as he discards, which the dealer 
must give him from the top of the 



DRAW POKER 



268 



DRAW POKER 



stock. This is called drawing. The 
player who holds in his hand the 
highest group of cards, after draw- 
ing, is the winner. 

The groups are as follows, begin- 
ning with the lowest : 




*^>.4 






I. A Pair. Two cards of the 
same rank (accompanied, of course, 
by three other cards, as each player 
holds five). 




2. Two Pairs (accompanied by 
one other card). 



O O 

o 



A 4i 

4» 
4. 4. 

4. 4. 



9? 9 







O 



3. Three of a Kind, or a Triplet. 
Three cards of the same rank (with 
two other cards). 










*** 

4.^4. 






0^0 










4. A Straight. Five cards in regu- 
lar order, not all of the same suit. 
In counting straights, the ace ranks 
either below the Two or above the 
King, but must stand at the end. 
Queen, King, Ace, Two, Three is, 
therefore, not a straight. 




O 



0^0 

OoO 

o o 



5. A Flush. Five cards of the 
same suit, not in regular order. 



9 9 



O O 

0% 



4. A 

4. 4. 

4.^4. 




6. A Full House, Full Hand, or 
Full. Triplets and a Pair together. 



9? ^ 



4. 4. 

4. '^4. 
4. 4. 





0^0 

o o 






7. 7^^«r ^ <3; Kind. 



4. 4. 



4. '^4. 
4.*4. 




8. ^ Straight Flush. A Straight, 
with cards all of the same suit. 

When Straights are not counted, 
as is very rarely the case, a Straight 
Flush ranks as a common Flush, and 
is beaten by a Full and by Fours. 
Of two groups of the same kind, 



4. 4. 
4.*4. 







9 
^ 
9 




^ ♦ 

♦ ♦ 






BEATS 








4* 




1 



4. * 
4. 4. 
4. ^ 






that containing the highest card is 
the higher, If the two highest cards 
are the same, then the next to the 
highest decide the rank, and so on. 
If the groups be exactly the same, 
the other cards of the hand deter- 
mine which shall win. When there 
is no group, the hand having the 




1 








^ 



BEATS 








1 




4 ♦ 




4. 4" 



highest card wins, if the two highest 
are the same ; then two next highest, 
etc. 

The score in Poker is kept with 
counters, or "chips," usually round, 
fiat pieces of ivory or bone. There 



DRAW POKER 



269 



DRAW POKER 



are several methods, but the follow- 
ing is the simplest : 

At the beginning of the game, the 
counters are divided equally among 
the players. Each, before looking at 
his hand, must put in the middle of 
the table a number of counters, agreed 








OoO 






























BEATS 


> 








4- 




*** 




*** 

4. 4. 




4. 4. 

4. 4- 




♦ 4- 

4* 
4- 4. 



on beforehand, and which is the 
same for each hand during the game. 
This is called the " ante " (Latin 
anfe, before), and the antes together 
form the pool. When the drawing 
is finished, the eldest hand may 
either say, " I stay out," in which 
case he takes no further part in the 
hand, or he may place any number 
of counters, up to a limit agreed on 
before the game commences, in the 
pool ; more or less according to the 
strength of his hand. This is called 
his " bet." The player at his left 
may stay out, or he may place in the 
pool the same number of chips as 
his neighbor (which is called " see- 



BEATS 




♦a^ 

^*f 

^4^ 

^*^ 


<^^^ 

^ '^ 

^^^ 

^^^ 



A pair of Kings. 



A pair of Tens. 



ing"), or he may put in more (which 
is called " raising " or " going bet- 
ter "). The third player may stay 
out, see, or raise the second player, 
and zo on, with each in turn, one 
or more times around, either till all 
but one of the players stay out, when 
that one takes the pool without show- 
ing his hand, or till all the players 
in the game have "seen" the one 
that raised last. In the latter case, 
they are said to " call " the player 
that made the last raise (or the eldest 



hand, if no raise was made), who 
must then show his hand. If none 
of the others has a better hand, they 
let him take the pool without show- 
ing their hands ; otherwise the higher 
hands are shown and the winner 
takes the pool. The game may be 
played a certain length of time, and 
when it is over he wins that has 
most counters. 

Sometimes they who wish cards 
in the beginning of the game are re- 
quired to add to their antes. Some- 
times the players also make bets 
before they have drawn. Sometimes 
the ante is large or small, as the 
eldest hand chooses. A common 
method is to require each to ante 
twice as much as the eldest hand, 
who makes good the rest of the ante 
at his next turn, unless he stays out. 

A player often bets high on a 
weak hand, in hope that the others, 
thinking he has a strong one, will 
prefer to stay out. This is called 
"bluffing." It is often possible to 
detect a bluff by watching a player's 
expression, unless he be very skillful 
at concealing his thoughts. The 
only part of Poker in which skill can 
be shown is in discarding. If a pair 
is dealt to a player, he should gener- 
ally discard the other three cards, 
hoping to draw another of the same 
kind. If he hold four of a suit, he 
should often discard the fifth, hoping 
for a Flush. By noticing how many 
cards a player calls for, some idea 
may often be gained of the strength 
of his hand. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. If any player be given more or 
less than five cards there must be a 
new deal, provided the mistake is 
noticed before that player looks at 
his hand ; otherwise, the deal is good, 
and the player whose hand is wrong 
must stay out. 

2. All the players must discard 
before cards are given to any one. 

3. Discarded cards must be piled 
face downward in front of the next 
dealer, and must not be touched. 

4. If any player be given more 



DRIVING 



270 



DRIVING 



cards than he asked for, the dealer 
must draw one of them and return 
it to the stock ; but if the player look 
at his hand before noticing the mis- 
take, he must stay out. 

History. Poker is derived from 
Primero or Prime, one of the oldest 
card games, which was a favorite as 
early as 1 500. It was played in vari- 
ous ways, but generally four cards 
were dealt to each player, and the 
principal groups were Flush, Prime, 
and Point. Flush was the same as 
in Poker, Prime was one card of 
each suit, and Point was reckoned 
as in Piquet, but with different 
values for the cards. When a player 
"raised the ante" he was said to 
"vye." Shakespeare represents King 
Henry VIII. as playing Primero with 
the Duke of Suffolk. Primero was 
elaborated in France, in the 17th cen- 
tury, into Ambigu, in which the 
Straight, the Straight Flush, Four of 
a kind, and Three of a kind, were in- 
troduced. About this time a game 
called Post and Pair, derived from 
Primero, was played in the west of 
England, and from this came Brag, 
on which Hoyle wrote a treatise in 
175 1. In the game of Brag each 
player said " I brag," as he raised 
another player. Our Poker is simply 
the English Brag with variations. 

DRIVING. The beginner should 
practice with a single horse. The 
driver in America sits on the right 
side of the vehicle, and if entering 
from the left should get in before his 
companion to avoid passing over or 
under the reins, which should always 
be in some one's hands unless an at- 
tendant be at the horse's head. 

The horse should always be re- 
strained from moving off until the 
driver gives him an indication to 
start. Many horses acquire the 
habit of starting when they hear any 
one get into the vehicle, from being 
struck with the whip by the driver 
as soon as he starts. The horse, 
expecting the lash, starts up to 
avoid it. To drive in the English 
style the driver should hold the 



reins in his left hand, leaving the 
right free to hold the whip or to 
assist in turning or guiding the horse, 
or when a strong pull is necessary. 
The right rein, D, should be held be- 
tween the first and second, or second 
and third fingers, and the left, N, be- 
tween the forefinger and thumb, the 
ends passing through the palm of the 
hand under the fingers. (See Fig. i.) 
The knuckles of the hand should 
be turned to the left. The horse is 
guided by pulling the rein on the side 
toward which he is to turn, v^hich 
may be done by twisting the hand 
up or down, or by pulling the re- 
quired rein with the right hand. 

The reins should be held short 
enough to enable the driver to check 
the horse quickly without leaning 




Fig. I. 

far back or taking a fresh hold, but 
not so short that he is obliged to 
lean too far forward or extend his 
arm awkwardly. The left elbow 
should be held well back and low 
down and the arm allowed to play 
lightly from the shoulder. The right 
hand is used to hold the whip and to 
steady and guide the horse. It is 
best for the driver to sit high, for 
this enables him to give a steady pull 
on the reins when necessary. To 
make the horse go faster, he should 
be encouraged with the voice, the 
whip being used only when neces- . 
sary. The use of the whip dependsm 
a great deal on the horse ; some ani- i 
mals will not bear it at all, while 
others can scarcely be made to go 
without it. Some horses will go bestj 
with a tight rein, and some with 
loose one : but the driver should] 



DRIVING 



271 



DRIVING' 



always "feel" the horse's mouth. 
To stop a horse the word " whoa ! " 
is generally used, the driver at the 
same time pulling steadily on the 
reins. All sudden starts and stops 
should be avoided, as the result is to 
give those in the vehicle an un- 
pleasant jerk. 

Driving a Pair. The horse on the 
right is called the off horse and the 
one to the left the near horse. These 
terms arose from the custom of the 
driver's walking on the left hand 
side of his team, whence the left 
horse was near him and the right 
one farther off. Most of what has 
been said above applies also to driv- 
ing a pair, but in addition the driver 
must see that each horse does his 
share of the work, as some horses 
have a habit of shirking. The driver 
should watch the traces, and, if he 
sees that one of the team keeps his 
side loose, while the other's are tight, 
the offender should be touched with 
the whip. 

Driving Tandem. Two or more 
horses are sometimes driven one in 
front of the other. The forward 
horse in this case is called the leader, 
and the one next the carriage the 
wheeler. A horse, to make a good 
leader, must be specially trained, 
otherwise he is apt to step over the 
traces or to turn around and face 
the wheel-horse. Tandem driving 
is the most difficult kind and should 
not be attempted by a beginner. 

Four-in-Hand. Fig. 2 shows the 
method of holding the reins in driv- 
ing four-in-hand. N L is the near 
leader's rein, O L is the off leader's, 
N W the near wheeler's, and O W 
the off wheeler's. Directions for 
driving four-in-hand cannot easily be 
given in print, but showing the 
method of holding the reins may be 
worth while. The guiding and 
steadying is done with the right 
hand as in pair horse driving. 

Rule of the Road. When two 
vehicles meet, each turns to the 
right. In England the rule is to 
turn to the left, thus giving the driver 



who sits on the right a full view of 
the vehicle he passes, so as to avoid 
collision. It may be that the opposite 
rule was adopted in America because 
when the country was newly settled, 
the roads were narrow and poor, so 
that it was more necessary for the 
driver to see to his outer wheels than 
his inner. It is always better for 
a beginner to turn too soon rather 
than to wait, for sometimes the 
vehicles are approaching each other 
faster than he thinks. If one of the 
drivers sees that the spot where the 
vehicles are likely to meet is bad for 
passing, he should stop at the right 
side of the road, and the other should 
then drive quickly past him, so that 
he will have to wait as short a time 
as possible. Care must be taken in 
turning corners, or in passing a cross- 
road, lest there be a collision. When 
a vehicle is overtaken, it should be 
passed to the left, unless it is a 
heavily laden wagon on the left of 
the road, and no other vehicle is ap- 
proaching, when it may be passed on 
the right. If a vehicle overtake 
another in a narrow road, the for- 
ward one should either keep ahead, 
or, if the driver does not wish to do 
so, he should turn to the right and 




Fig. 2. 

let the other pass. If he does neither, 
the one in the rear should call to him 
and ask him politely to do one or the 
other. 

Accidents. Collisions will usually 
be avoided if the above directions are 
followed. The other common acci- 
dents are runaways, and the giving 
way of some part of the harness. 



I 



DRIVING 



272 DROP THE HANDKERCHIEF 



The reader is referred to what is said 
of runaways in the article on riding. 
When a horse runs it is usually safer 
to remain in the vehicle than to jump 



out; many more people have been 
injured by the latter than by the 
former course. If a horse acts un- 
easy or stops without apparent rea- 




Fig. 3- 



son, it is very likely that something is 
the matter with the harness. In such 
a case the driver should alight at once 
and see what the matter is. If the 




Fig. 4. 



harness breaks, it may usually be 
fastened with twine, so that it will 
hold till he can drive home, or if 



not to be had the check rein may be 
taken off and utilized, or the throat 
lash even may be useful. 

Figs. 3 and 4 show two curiosi- 
ties of driving, the first a proposed 
vehicle where the horse is beneath 
the cart ; the second a proposed 
chaise to be run by a spring or other 
motor attached to the rear wheels. 

DROP THE HANDKERCHIEF, a 
game played by any number of chil- 
dren, who stand in a ring, facing 
inward. One of the boys, chosen for 
the purpose, walks or runs around 
the outside of the ring, holding a 
handkerchief in his hand, which he 
drops behind some girl. As soon as 
she sees it, she must pick it up and 
run after him. If she catches him, 
they kiss, and she returns the hand- 
kerchief for him to drop again ; but 



DUCHESS OF LUYNES 



273 



DUCK AND DRAKE 



if he can make the circuit of the ring 
and stand in the space she left, she 
must take his place. She then drops 
the handkerchief behind some boy, 
who runs after her, and the game 
goes on as before, a girl always drop- 
ping the handkerchief behind a boy, 
and a boy behmd a girl. The player 
who drops the handkerchief may run 
around the circle in either way, and 
the one behind whom it is dropped 
must always follow in the same 
direction. Sometimes a player does 
not see that the handkerchief is lying 
behind him, in which case the drop- 
per simply runs around the circle, 
picks up the handkerchief, and hand- 
ing it to him, takes his place. No 
player may tell another, by word or 
sign, that the handkerchief is lying 
behind him. The player who drops 
the handkerchief sometimes says, as 
he runs around the circle, 
" I dropped my handkerchief yester- 
day, 

I found it to-day, 

I list it, I lost it, 

I threw it away." 
DUCHESS OF LUYNES, a soli- 
taire game of CARDS, played with 
two packs. The first four cards 
dealt from the pack are placed in a 
row, face upward, and the fifth and 
sixth are laid aside to form Stock. 
Four more are laid on the first four, 
and two more in the Stock, and so on 
till the pack is used. The player's 
object is to form eight piles of fami- 
lies, downward from four Kings, and 
upward from four Aces, following 
suit. For this purpose the top card 
of any pile may be used in course of 
play, or the top card of the Stock. 
But when the top card of a pile is 
used, its place is not supplied from 
the pack, the next card being placed 
where it would have been if the pre- 
ceding had not been used. When 
the pack is exhausted, the Stock can 
twice be shuffled and relaid, and then 
Stock and piles can be shuffled and 
relaid in four piles, omitting the Stock. 
DUCK, or DUCK ON THE ROCK, 
a game played by any number of 



persons, each with a stone, about the 
size of a man's two fists, called a 
Duck. One of the players, chosen 
by lot, places his Duck on a stone 
with a smooth top, and stands near 
it, while the others take their position 
behind a line eight or ten yards dis- 
tant, and try to knock it off with 
their Ducks, each in turn. As soon 
as each has thrown his Duck, he 
runs up to it and watches his chance 
to carry it back to the line. If the 
one whose Duck is on the rock can 
touch any of the others while carry- 
ing back his Duck, before he reaches 
the Hne, the one so caught must take 
the catcher's place, putting his own 
Duck on the rock. But if the Duck 
is knocked from the rock, its owner 
must replace it before he can touch 
any one. 

In playing this game, if the owner 
of the Duck on the rock is skillful, he 
can often keep three or four of the 
other players out of the game by 
preventing them from picking up 
their Ducks. In this case the only 
means of relief is for some one to 
strike the Duck from the rock, for 
then its owner is helpless till he has 
put it back. 

Emperor, a kind of Duck, in which 
a wooden figure called the Emperor 
is placed on the top of a post about 
18 inches high. A player called the 
Prime Minister stands near it. The 
other players have each a wooden 
ball like a croquet ball. The game 
is played exactly like Duck, the play- 
ers trying to knock the Emperor off 
his post by throwing or pitching balls 
at him. The game can be continued 
for a specified time, at the end of 
which he who has been Prime Min- 
ister the least number of times, or 
has hit the Emperor the greatest 
number of times, is victor. 

DUCK AND DRAKE, or Skipping 
Stones, a game played by any num- 
ber of persons, each of whom throws 
a flat stone into the water so that it 
I will rebound. He whose stone skips 
I the greatest number of times is the 
! winner. The stone should be held 



DWARF 



274 



EARL OF' COVENTRY 



between thumb and forefinger and 
given a slight whirHng motion so 
that it will strike the water with its 
flat side and not edgewise. The 
Greek boys played this game with 
flat shells or pieces of tile, and called 
it epostrakismos (Tile Skipping). In 
English, "to play at ducks and 
drakes," has come to mean spend- 
ing one's money extravagantly. 

DUMBBELLS. See Gymnastics. 

DUMB CRAMBO. See Crambo. 

DWARF, THE, an amusement 
in which two persons take part. 
One of them stands behind a table 
and places his hands on it, while the 
other stands behind the first and 
passes his arms around him as in 
Fig. I. The head and body of the 
second person and the legs of the 
first are hidden by curtains, which 
is easily managed if the table be 
placed in a doorway. Shoes are 




Fig. I. 

then placed on the hands of the 
first player, and a child's trousers, 
or kilt skirt over his arms. A 
jacket is put on over his shoulders 



and the arms of the hidden player, 
and an excellent imitation of a dwarf 
is thus formed. (Fig 2,) The face 
should be disguised as much as pos- 




Fig-. 2. 

sible, and the dwarf may be dressed 
fantastically to represent a Turk or 
Moor. A third person should act 
the part of exhibitor, giving a comic 
account of the dwarf's history. The 
dwarf may deliver a speech, appro- 
priate gestures being made by the 
player who furnishes the arms. The 
gestures are apt to be ludicrous, as 
the second player usually has trouble 
in fitting his action to the words of 
the first. The dwarf can dance and 
perform many remarkable feats, 
such as rubbing his head with his toe, 
or putting both feet in his mouth at 
once. 



E 



EARL OF COVENTRY, THE, a 

game of cards, played with a full 
pack. All the cards are dealt. The 
eldest hand leads any card he 



chooses, saying "There's a good 
King," or " There's a good five" (or 
whatever card it may be). The 
next player to the left who has a 



EARS 



275 



EASTER EGGS 



card of the same rank plays it saying 
" There's another good as he." The 
third and fourth are then played in 
like manner, with the words : 
•'There's the best of all the three," 
and " There's the Earl of Coventry." 
The player of the fourth card leads, 
and so the game goes on, the player 
who first gets rid of all his cards 
being the winner. 

EARS, Experiments with the. i. 
Let one person be bhndfolded and 
sit in a chair, folding his arms. Let 
another hold two coins between the 
thumb and forefinger of the right 
hand, and put the left forefinger be- 
tween them so that they will click 
together when the finger is suddenly 
pulled out. Let him thus make a 
click in various places near the 
blindfolded person, while the latter 
guesses the direction from which 
the sound comes. It will be found 
that he can tell easily so long as the 
sound is nearer one ear than the 
other, but whenever it is made in 
any spot equally distant from both, 
he cannot tell where it is. 

2. Tie about three feet of twine at 
the middle to the knob of a poker. 
Twirl the ends of the twine around 
the forefingers, and stop up the ears 
with these fingers. If the swinging 
poker be knocked against the wall, 
or struck with anything, the person 
holding it will hear deep tones like 
those of a bell. If a silver table spoon 
be used instead of a poker, the sound 
of a higher-toned bell will be imitated. 

3. Have a tinman solder two 
pieces of iron wire 
to two disks of 
tin, a, b, each large 
enough to cover the 
ear, in the shape 
shown in the pic- 
ture. When the 
disks are pressed to 
the ears and the 
point c, where the 
wires join, is ap- 
plied to any sound- 
ing body, the sound will be much 
magnified. 




Experiment 3, 



4. Let one person hold to his ears 
the ends of a piece of waxed thread 
six or eight feet long. Let a second 
person hold the thread stretched by 
its middle point and taking the two 
parts of the thread together between 
his thumb and forefinger, near the 
others' face, rub them along, keep- 
ing the thread taut. The result will 
be a sound like thunder in the ears 
of the first-named person. If the 
rubbing be with jerks, and some- 
times done with the finger-nail, the 
sound of short, cracking thunder 
will be imitated. 

EASTER ECQS, colored and or- 
namented eggs, used as presents or 
playthings at Easter. The eggs, 
called also pasque, pace, or paas 
eggs, are usually colored by being 
boiled in dye, of which various colors 
may be bought at any druggist's. 

An &gg may be colored also in a 
pretty pattern by sewing it up 
tightly and smoothly in a piece of 
common calico, and then boiUng it. 
If the calico be not of fast colors, the 
pattern will be reproduced on the 
Qgg shell. Eggs too may be gilded 
by painting them over with gum or 
varnish and then laying on gold leaf. 
The " gold paint " sold by druggists 
will produce a similar effect though 
not so brilliant. Colored eggs may 
be ornamented by drawing designs 
on them with tallow, or any greasy 
substance, before boiling. The dye 
will not color the parts touched by 
the grease, and the design will there- 
fore appear in white. More delicate 
designs may be drawn by scratching 
with the point of a needle, or the 
blade of a penknife, after the e^gg 
has been dyed. If the eggs are 
boiled hard, they may be kept any 
length of time. If preferred, the 
eggs may be " blown " before they 
are dyed. This is done by making 
a small hole in each end, applying 
the mouth to one of them, and blow- 
ing the contents of the tgg out of the 
other. The tallow design should be 
drawn before blowing, that the shell 
may not be broken, and care must 



EASTER EGGS 



276 



EASTER EGGS 



be taken not to crush it in dyeing. 
Egg shells may be engraved by 
drawing designs on them with melted 
wax, or varnish, and then dipping 
them in strong vinegar. The vinegar 
will eat away the shell except where 
it is protected by the wax, and when 
the wax or varnish is removed, the 
design will be in relief. Wax can 
be removed by scraping ; varnish by 
washing with alcohol. If the egg be 
dyed before removing the wax, the 
design will be in raised white lines on 
a low colored ground. In this case 



the vinegar must be washed off be- 
fore dyeing. 

The eggs may also be decorated 
by pasting little pictures, such as 
may be bought at toy stores, over 
the shells, and the eggs, when fin- 
ished, may be placed in little nests 
of moss and twigs. They are some- 
times served in a tin pan filled with 
sand, in which the eggs are buried. 
This is often called an " ostrich 
nest." Blown eggs may be strung 
on ribbons and hung up for orna- 
ments. One way of playing with the 




Quaint Easter Eggs. 



eggs is for some one to hide them in 
different parts of the house on the 
evening before Easter, and for the 
rest of the family to look for them. 
They become the property of those 
who find them. 

In some parts of England and 
Holland, and in many places in this 
country, especially the parts settled 
by the Dutch, the cracking of pasque 
eggs is a common sport on Easter 
Monday. One person holds his egg, 
the small end upward, in his hand, 
and lets another try to break it by 
striking his downward upon it. Af- 



ter several taps, one generally breaks ; 
the cracked one belongs to the victor, 
who keeps on trying other eggs until 
his own is broken. A small, sharp- 
pointed egg is generally best for this 
sport, and sometimes one egg will ; 
break a dozen others before giving^ 
way itself. In Washington, in the] 
White House grounds, children playl 
games with their Easter eggs by I 
rolling them down hill. Two rollj 
their eggs together, and he whose! 
egg is unbroken takes the other, if it] 
is cracked. Sometimes several thou- 
sand children play thus at one time. 



EASTER EGGS 



277 



ECARTE 



Egg-rolling on Easter is also com- 
mon in Germany, where tracks of 
sticks, laid side by side, are made for 
the eggs. The sport begins at mid- 
night on Easter-even, and lasts till 
about three o'clock in the morn- 
ing. Not only eggs, but apples also, 
and little cakes, are used. In Bohe- 
mia, children roll many eggs in a 
row, letting them start all at once, to 
see which will reach the bottom of 
the hill soonest. In the north of 
England, Easter eggs are also played 
with like balls, by tossing them up in 
the air. 

In Germany a number of eggs are 
placed in a basket and one person 
tosses them, one by one, into another 
basket filled with soft shavings, while 
another runs to a spot agreed on, 
and back again. He who does his 
task the sooner wins the eggs. 

In Ireland, the game we call " Go 
Bang " is played by sticking eggs in 
the sand. It is there called " Bunch- 
ing Eggs." 

Easter eggs are sometimes dressed 
as dolls, faces being marked or 
painted on them. They may be 
made also into other quaint shapes, 
(see illustration). Artificial Easter 
eggs, some of them large and filled 
with candies, may be bought at con- 
fectioners. 

History. The custom of Easter 
eggs is very old, and is thought by 
some writers to be derived from the 
ancient Egyptians, who regarded 
eggs as a sacred emblem of the re- 
newal of mankind after the Del- 
uge. The early Christians seem to 
have regarded eggs as symbols of 
the resurrection of the dead, since 
the chicken escapes from the shell as 
from a tomb. In old times as many 
as twenty dozen richly decorated 
eggs were piled on one dish and 
kept on the table during Easter 
week. Every one who came to the 
house was invited to eat an Easter 
^%Z with the host, and it was con- 
sidered impolite to refuse. In Spain 
and Italy .public sports with eggs 
formed part of the Easter festivities. 



In Russia, people call on their friends 
on Easter, as we do on New Year's 
Day, and exchange eggs with them. 
In Persia, a festival of eggs is cele- 
brated on New Year's Day. 

ECARTE (a-car-tay), a game of 
CARDS played by two persons, with 
a EUCHRE pack. The cards rank as 
usual, except that the Ace comes be- 
tween the Knave and the Ten, in- 
stead of above the King. Five 
cards are dealt to each player, three 
and two, or two and three at a time, 
and the top card of the stock is 
turned up as trump. Should it be a 
King the dealer scores one. If the 
non-dealer is satisfied with his hand, 
he leads at once ; if not, he says, " I 
propose," or sometimes, '' Cards," 
meaning that he wishes to exchange 
part or all of his hand. The dealer 
may say " I refuse," in which case 
play begins, or he may say " I ac- 
cept," and then each lays aside as 
many cards, face downward, as he 
wishes to exchange. Putting aside 
the trump, the dealer first gives his 
opponent as many cards from the 
stock as he has discarded, and then 
does the same to himself. If the 
non-dealer is still dissatisfied, he 
may propose again and again, until 
he gets a hand that suits him or 
until the dealer refuses. 

Before play begins, if either 
player holds the king of trumps, he 
says " King " and scores one point. 
The non-dealer now leads, and the 
cards are played, suit being followed 
if possible. The second player in a 
trick must always win it if he can, 
and, if he can do so in no other way, 
he must trump. 

The player who wins either three 
or four tricks is said to gain the 
pomt, and scores one. If he win all 
five, he gains the vole and scores 
two. If the elder hand play without 
proposing and fail to gain his point 
his opponent scores two, whether he 
make point or vole. In like manner, 
if the dealer refuse, and fail to gain 
his point, his opponent scores two. 
This applies only to the first pro- 



^CARTE 



278 



£CART]&, 



posal and refusal of a hand. After 
one discard there is no penalty for 
playing without further proposal or 
for refusing a second proposal. He 
who first makes five points wins the 
game. 

The hands which should be 
played without proposal are called 
Jeux de Regie (regulation plays), and 
are learned by heart by skillful 
players. 

They are as follows : 

1. All hands with three trumps. 

2. Hands with two trumps, that 
contain also three cards of a suit, or 
any three cards whose average value 
is high. 

3. Hands with one trump which 
contain also King, Queen, and Knave 
of a suit ; four of a suit, one being 
King; three of a suit, one being 
King or Queen, and the fifth card 
being a Queen. 

4. Hands with no trump, which 
contain four face cards or three 
Queens. 

^ Good players rarely lead trumps in 
Ecarte unless they have three or 
more, and the Jeux de Regie are 
therefore based on the number of 
trumps and not on their value, since 
a low trump is as good as a high one 
for trumping in. It will be seen that 
aside from the number of trumps, 
the Jeux de Regie depend first on 
the value of the other cards in the 
hand, and, secondly, on whether they 
are all of one suit or not. Similar 
reasons should decide the dealer to 
refuse a proposal. But a player with 
the King of trumps in his hand, with 
other cards that make him certain of 
winning his point, should propose 
for one card ; for there is a chance of 
the opponent refusing, and then he 
would gain two points instead of one. 
Usually, good players discard at 
least three cards at first, when they 
propose, and throw out all except 
trumps and Kings. 

Since the trick must be won, if 
possible, it is usually good play to 
lead the highest of the strongest 
suit, that the opponent may be 



forced to trump. A skillful player 
changes his method of play accord- 
ing as he wishes to make only a 
point or the vole, or sees that he can- 
not make the point and wishes tO' 
prevent his adversary from making 
the vole. In the last case he tries to 
make one trick, rather than risk 
anything for the chance of taking 
more. 

More may be risked when the 
dealer is within one of going out, 
since it then makes no difference 
whether he make one point or two. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. If there be a misdeal or any Of 
the non-dealer's cards be exposed, 
he may call for a new deal. 

2. If a player omit to announce 
the King of trumps before playing his 
first card, he loses the right to an- 
nounce it. 

3. A proposal or refusal cannot be 
taken back, nor can more cards be 
taken than the number first an- 
nounced. 

4. Discards must be placed face- 
downward on the table and cannot 
be looked at afterwards. 

5. If either player take more or 
less cards than he discards, or if the 
dealer give more or less than were 
asked for, his opponent may demand 
a new deal. If he choose, he may 
correct the number by drawing a 
card from the hand if it is too large, 
or by adding to it from the stock, if 
it is too small. 

6. If the dealer accept when there 
are not enough cards in the stock to 
give each as many as he wishes, 
the non-dealer is entitled to all he 
has asked for ; or, if there are not 
enough, to as many as there are left. 

7. The dealer may accept on con- 
dition that there are enough cards 
for both. 

8. If a card be led in turn, or be 
played to, it cannot be taken back. 

9. If a player revoke, or fail to win 
the trick when he is able, his oppo- 
nent may require the hands to be 
played again. 

10. An omission in the score must 



ECHO 



279 



EGGS 



be corrected before the next trump 
is turned. 

History. Ecarte is a French game, 
and gets its name from the verb 
^carter, to discard, from the privilege 
given to the players of discarding 
•cards from their hands. It is said to 
be a modification of Triomphe, which 
gave rise also to Whist. Some say- 
that the game, taken to Louisiana by 
the French, was the origin of the 
American game of Euchre. 

ECHO, a game played by any 
number of persons, one of whom is 
chosen to tell a story, and the others 
take the names of various characters 
or objects that are to be mentioned 
in it. When the story teller men- 
tions the assumed name of a player 
once, that player must repeat it twice, 
and if it is mentioned twice in succes- 
sion, it must be repeated once. Any 
player who does not echo his name, 
or who repeats it the wrong number 
of times, must pay a forfeit. The 
object of the story teller is to make 
his story so entertaining that the 
players will forget to echo. If the 
story is to be about a fight with a 
wolf, for instance, the names as- 
sumed by the players might be hun- 
ter, gun, powder, bullet, knife, cave, 
rock, tree, etc.; or if a shipwreck is 
the subject, the names might be ship, 
captain, mate, riiast, sail, tiller, keel, 
passenger, wave, wind, etc. This 
:game differs little from that of Stage 
Coach, where the players rise and 
turn around when their names are 
mentioned, instead of echoing them. 

ECHOES, Experiments on. Ech- 
oes are caused by the reflection of 
sound from some object, as the side 
of a house, a rock, or a hill. 

I. To measure the distance of the 
object which produces the echo. 
With his watch in hand, let a person 
shout a single short syllable, as "Ha ! " 
or " Oh ! " and count the number of 
seconds before it returns. As sound 
travels about 1125 feet a second, the 
number of seconds multiplied by 
1125 gives the distance traveled by 
the voice in going to the object and 



back, and half of this is the distance 
of the object causing the echo. If 
the echo is returned by an object 
only a few hundred feet away, so 
that the time is only a fraction of a 
second, the following method should 
be employed. Call out " Ha ! " and 
repeat the word just as you hear the 
echo, being careful to pronounce the 
syllable just with the echo and not 
after it. This will be possible with 
a httle practice. Do this ten or 
twelve times, observing the number 
of seconds between the first call and 
the last echo. Suppose that this was 
seven seconds and that the syllable 
were called ten times. Then each 
echo took seven-tenths of a second, 
and the distance, found as before, 
is about 394 feet. 

EGCS, Experiments with. i. 
Take two eggs of the same size, one 
raw and the other hard-boiled. Sus- 
pend them to nails or gas-fixtures by 
fixing an elastic band around each, 
lengthwise, and fastening a string to 
the band at one end of the ^%%. 
The bands should be broad enough 
to clasp the ^g% firmly. Twist the 
strings to the same degree, and then 
allow them to untwist at the same 
time, so as to cause both eggs to 
spin around. The hard-boiled one 
will continue to do so for some time, 
but the raw ^gg will soon stop. The 
reason is that the contents of the 
latter are liquid and not connected 
with the shell. Only the shell is set 
twirling by the untwisting string, and 
the friction of the mass inside soon 
stops it. 

2. Spin on a plate the same eggs 
used in Experiment i. The hard- 
boiled t.gg will spin easily and is 
easily stopped. The raw one is hard 
to set spinning, but after it has once 
begun, if the ^gg be stopped by plac- 
ing the palm of the hand on it, it 
will start spinning again as soon as 
the hand is removed. The reason is 
that, though the shell is stopped, the 
liquid interior of the ^gg keeps up 
its motion and starts the shell again 
as soon as it is released. The ^gg 



EGGS 



2§o 



ELECTRIC BATTERIES 



will sometimes begin thus to spin 
again after it has been held several 
seconds. 

3. Make a strong brine of salt and 
water and it will be found that an 
egg will float on it. Try to float the 
egg in pure water, and it will sink 
to the bottom. Now, pour brine 
through a glass funnel to the bottom 
of the vessel, and the water and egg 
will both rise, floating on the brine. 
When the vessel is full, the egg will 
be suspended just between the brine 
and the water, half of it in each. 

4. Shake an egg till the mem- 
brane inclosing the yelk is broken. 
The yelk will sink below the white, 
making the lower end heavier, and 
the egg will then stand on end with- 
out aid. Columbus is said to have 
puzzled some wise men for a long 
time by telling them an egg could be 
stood on end. After they had tried 
to do it in vain, he showed them 
how, by breaking the shell a little 
by tapping the end on the floor. 
But if he had known this experi- 




Experiment 5, 

ment, he could have done it without 
even breaking the shell. 

5. Remove the shell from a hard- 
boiled egg, and select a wide- 



mouthed water-bottle, with a neck 
a little smaller than the egg. Thrust 
into the bottle a burning piece of 
paper, and a moment later place the 







Experiment 6. 

egg, end down, in the mouth of the 
bottle. It will be forced into the bot- 
tle by the pressure of the outside air, 
that within having been rarified by 
the heat of the burning paper. 

6. Take two egg-cups of the size 
intended for holding the egg to be 
eaten from the shell. Stand one on 
a table in front of you, and the other 
just beyond it. Blow suddenly and 
smartly where the egg and cup 
touch, directly in front of you. With 
luck, your breath, added to the air 
under the egg, will lift the egg and 
tumble it over into the second cup. 

ELECTRIC BATTERIES, Experi- 
ments with. Some electric batteries 
are described in the article Elec- 
tricity, in C. C. T. The most com- 
mon kinds can be bought, ready 
made, of dealers in telegraph sup- 
plies. The following experiments 
will aid in understanding their work- 
ing : 

I. Fill a glass three-quarters full 



ELECTRIC BATTERIES 



2^1 



ELECTRIC BATTERIES 



of water, and mix with water the 
about two tablespoonfuls of sulphu- 
ric acid. Put into the glass a strip 
of copper and a strip of zinc, each 
about three or four inches long and 
an inch wide. Bubbles of hydro- 
gen begin to rise from the zinc, as 
in the experiment in making that 
gas. No such bubbles rise from the 
copper, because the acid does not 
act on it. Now touch together the 
tops of the two strips. Immediately 
most of the bubbles rise from the 
copper instead of the zinc, because 
an electric circuit has been com- 
pleted ; a current flows through the 
acid from the zinc to the copper, and 
the bubbles are attracted to the lat- 
ter in a way that cannot be explained 
here. They are still caused by the 
acid acting on the zinc, not on the 
copper ; for if the strips are left in 
the liquid long enough the zinc, 
not the copper, will be eaten 
away. 

2. Take the zinc from the liquid, 
or dip a fresh piece into the liquid for 
a few seconds, to clean the surface, 
and then rub a little mercury over it, 
making it look bright and silvery. 
Repeat Experiment i, and no bub- 
bles at all will rise from the zinc, 
whether it touches the copper or not. 
If it does not touch the copper, 
neither will be eaten away by the 
acid ; but if the two touch, the zinc 
will be eaten away as before. Zinc 
thus prepared is said to be amal- 
gamated. 

3. Instead of touching the zinc and 
copper together, touch one end of a 
wire to one of them, and the other 
end to the other, No matter how 
long the wire is, as soon as they are 
connected by it, bubbles will begin 
to rise from the copper. In this case 
the wire forms part of the electric 
circuit. Take two wires, each twenty 
feet long or so, and touch one end to 
each metal. Let another person go 
into an adjoining room, and there 
touch together the other ends of the 
wires. When he does so, bubbles 
will rise from the copper. It is pos- 



sible, by arranging signals, to make 
thus a sort of telegraph. 

4. If the two ends of the wires be 
attached to a galvanometer 
(arranged for use with a strong cur- 
rent), the turning of the needle 
will show that electricity is passing 
through it. If a nail be wrapped in 
a piece of paper, and the wire wound 
about it a dozen times, the nail will 
be found to be a MAGNET while the 
current is passing. 

5. Keep the wire connected with 
the galvanometer and it will be seen 
that the needle is turned less and 
less, until finally it almost comes 
back to its north and south position, 
showing that the current is growing 
weaker. If this does not happen 
before one piece of zinc is eaten 
away, replace the first with another 
piece. There are two reasons why 
the current grows weaker. First, 
the acid is used up ; and secondly, 
the copper gets covered with bubbles 
of hydrogen, which stick to it. 

6. In like manner try strips of 
various metals first in one liquid and 
then in another. It will be found, 
by using the galvanometer, that 
almost any two metals, immersed in 
any acid or salt liquid, give an elec- 
tric current, which is generally more 
powerful if one of the metals is 
strongly acted on by the liquid and 
the other not. 

Gravity Battery. This is the 
easiest effective battery to make. 




Gravity Battery. 
Take a glass preserve-jar, and bend 



ELECTRIC BATTERIES 



282 



ELECTRIC BATTERIES 



a strip of zinc into a cylinder half 
as high as the jar, and just small 
enough to slip into the mouth. The 
zinc must be amalgamated either 
before or after the cylinder is made. 
With a pair of pliers bend the zinc 
outward in various places around the 
top of the cylinder so that it will 
catch on the edge of the jar and 
hang in it. Then take a sheet of 
copper small enough to lie flat in the 
bottom of the jar, and a piece of cop- 
per wire about a foot long, covered 
with India rubber, or some substance 
resembling it. This can be bought 
of a dealer in telegraph supplies, but 
if none is at hand coat the wire by 
dipping it in melted wax three or 
four times. Wire insulated with 
silk will not do. Scrape away about 
two inches of the coating, make a 
hole in the edge of the copper, and 
insert the wire, bending it over and 
hammering it down to make a good 
connection. Put into the jar crystals 
of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), 
broken into pieces as large as hazel 
nuts, making a layer about half an 
inch thick. Lay the copper plate 
flat on this layer and then put in 
about two inches more of the sul- 
phate. Put the zinc cylinder in place 
and bring the coated wire from the 
copper through its inside. Fasten 
another wire to the upper part of the 
zinc. This wire need not be insu- 
lated. The wire attached to the 
copper is called the positive wire of 
the battery, and the other the negative 
wire. When the battery is to be 
used, the jar is filled with water, and 
a little sulphuric acid or common 
salt is put in to start the action. 
This battery will work steadily for 
months, only requiring to be filled up 
with water as fast as it evaporates, 
but it must be kept still and not 
shaken. It can be bought ready- 
made in various forms, one of which, 
used by the Western Union tele- 
graph company, is shown in the 
illustration. 

Another form of this battery is 
made by laying the copper plate on 



top of the sulphate of copper and 
covering it with a layer of clean sand 
or sawdust about an inch and a half 
thick. 

The gravity battery does not be- 
come weaker and weaker, because 
as fast as the sulphate of copper in 
the water is used up more of it is 
dissolved from the layer in the 
bottom. Instead of bubbles of hy- 
drogen, a thin layer of copper is 
deposited on the copper plate, which 
of course does not hinder the work- 
ing of the battery. Sulphate of zinc 
is produced by the eating away of 
the zinc, but it dissolves in the water, 
floats on the heavier solution of 
sulphate of copper and does not 
interfere with it. For this reason 
the name " Gravity " is given to the 
battery, because in it the two liquids 
are separated by their weight. In 
the second form described, the sand 
aids in keeping them apart. 

Grenet Battery. This is made of 
plates of zinc and gas carbon in a 
mixture of sulphuric acid and bichro- 




Grenet Battery. 

mate of potash. The cells are usu- 
ally made like bottles with wide 
necks, and hence it is often called 



ELECTRIC BATTERIES 



283 



ELECTRIC BATTERIES 



the " bottle battery." The zinc is so 
made that it can be pulled up out of 
the liquid with a rod, when not in 
use. The liquid, which is used in 
some other batteries also and is often 
called " battery fluid," is made as fol- 
lows : Dissolve two pounds and a 
quarter of bichromate of potash in 
one gallon of warm water and when 
it has cooled add a pint of sulphuric 
acid. It requires renewing from 
time to time. The Grenet battery is 
very strong when the fluid is fresh. 
It weakens somewhat soon after- 
wards, and then keeps steady for 
many weeks, provided it is not used 
continuously. 

Leclanche Battery. These cells 
are generally sold as square glass 
bottles G having in the middle a rod 
C of carbon packed in a mixture M 
of various substances, and in one 
corner a rod of zinc Z. The carbon 
rod has fastened to its top a copper 




Leclanche Battery. 

cap L to make the connections more 
easily. The bottle is filled with a 
strong solution of sal-ammoniac in 
water. This battery lasts many 



months without attention, but can 
be used only for a few seconds at 
a time. It weakens rapidly, but 
recovers just as rapidly when not in 
use. 

Bunsen Battery. A rod of carbon 
is contained in a porous earthenware 
cup filled with nitric acid, and this, 
in turn, is placed in a glass jar of 




Bunsen Battery. 

sulphuric acid diluted with about four 
times its volume of water. A zinc 
cylinder surrounds the porous cup. 
The nitric acid gives off disagree- 
able fumes, so this battery is not 
pleasant to use, though one of the 
strongest known. The fumes may 
be lessened by putting nitrate of 
ammonium into the acid, or, for the 
acid the " battery fluid " used in the 
Grenet cell may be substituted. The 
Grove battery differs from the Bun- 
sen only in having a platinum plate 
instead of the carbon rod. 

Uses of Different Batteries. The 
Gravity battery can be used for al- 
most any purpose. The Grenet gives 
a good current for a short time, the 
Leclanche is used where the current 
passes for only a few seconds at a 
time» as in electric bells, and the 
Bunsen where a very powerful con- 
tinous current is wanted, as in elec- 
tro-plating. 

It is not necessary to use insulated 
wire in making connections about the 
batteries, but it is better to do so, 
because otherwise, when two wires 
happen to touch, they will make a 
connection which is not wanted. 
Ordinary copper wire can be cut 
with a strong pair of scissors. Wire 
is sold in numbered sizes, whose di- 



ELECTRIC BATTERIES 



284 



ELECTRIC BATTERIES 



ameter is shown by the accompany- 
ing picture of a wire gauge. There 
are various ways of fastening wires 
to the battery-plates and to each 
other. The simplest is to make a 
hole in the plate with an awl, insert 




Wire Gauge. 

the wire, bend it over, and hammer 
it down tight. To fasten one wire 
to another simply twist each around 
the other and hammer or pinch them 
together with pliers. Wires and 



plates should be scraped bright with 
a knife wherever connections are 
made. Brass " binding screws " for 
making connections are sold by deal- 
ers in telegraphic supplies and are 
very convenient. They should be 
screwed up tightly. Much de- 
pends on making good, tight, 
clean connections, and too 
much care cannot be taken 
with them. 

Whenever zinc plates are 
used they should be amalga- 
mated frequently. To see 
whether the task has been 
properly done, immerse the 
plate for a minute in the acid, 
and if any bubble arise from 
it, the amalgamation, in the 
spot where it appears, is not 
perfect. 

When a battery is quite 
strong it may be tested, to see 
if it is in working order, by 
holding one wire against a 
common file, and drawing the 
other quickly over the rough 
surface. A stream of sparks 
will fly from the file if the current 
be good. 

Connections. One jar with its 
plates of metal and liquid is generally 
called a cell or element. The power 





Binding Posts and Screw. 



of a battery is different according to 
the way in which its cells are con- 
nected. They may be connected 
"abreast," or "tandem," or in a 
combination of the two. What this 



at the diagrams. In Fig. i, where 
the cells are connected " tandem," 
every copper plate of one cell is joined 
to the zinc of the next, leaving one 
zinc unconnected at one end and one 



means will be understood by looking copper at the other, between which 



f 



ELECTRIC CLOCK ALARM 



285 



ELECTRIC CLOCK ALARM 



is the telegraph wire or whatever the 
current is to pass through. In Fig. 
2, where the cells are " abreast," all 
the zincs are connected together, and 



all the coppers. In Fig. 3 the cells 
are in two sets, the three cells in each 
set being abreast and the two sets 
tandem. In Fig. 4 the cells in each 




Fig. I. 



set are tandem and the two sets 
abreast. In each of the figures the 
zinc is marked Z and the copper 
C, and the direction of the current 
is shown by arrows. Which of 




Fig. 2. 

these arrangements gives the strong- 
est current depends on the resistance 
it has to overcome. Where this is 
very great, as in electroplating, or in 
the electric light, the tandem arrange- 
ment is best ; but when it 
is small, the other is best. 
The exact arrangement 
can always be calculated by 
expert electricians, but for 
a beginner the best plan is 
to find it out by trying various 
ways. 

ELECTRIC CLOCK 
ALARM. Any clock may be 
simply fitted with an alarm 
which will ring by electricity. 
The alarm is an ordinary elec- 
tric bell, which may be bought 
of a dealer in electric supplies. 
The battery to operate it may 
also be bought or may be 
made (see Electric Batteries). 
In a block of wood fix an upright 
piece of thick iron wire, so that it 
will stand as high as the top of the 



clock face. Around this wind one of 
the wires from the battery so that 
the end will project three or four 
inches horizontally. Bend about an 
inch at the end, at right angles. By 
setting the block of 
wood in front of the 
clock face, and sliding 
the wire spiral up or 
down the iron wire, the 
end may be brought 
opposite any desired 
figure, and the bent part 
may be so arranged that 
the minute hand will 
pass over it while the 
hour hand will strike it. The 
other battery wire is connected 
with one of the wires of the 
bell, and the other bell wire 
with any of the metal parts of 




the clock. When the hour hand 
reaches the desired hour it touches 
the bent wire, and the current, pass- 
ing, rings the electric bell. The 



ELECTRIC INDUCTION 



286 



ELECTRICITY 



bent wire must then be removed, so 




Electric Clock Alarm. 

that it will not obstruct the hour 
hand. 

ELECTRIC INDUCTION, Experi- 
ments on. I. Wind insulated wire 
in five or six layers around a large 
spool, or around a roll of pasteboard 
half an inch in diameter, and wind a 
similar coil on a roll large enough to 
slip over the first. Connect the ends 
of the first to the wires of a GALVAN- 
OMETER, and those of the second to 
an electric battery. Suddenly slip 
the larger wire over the smaller and 
the galvanometer needle will move to 
one side but will quickly come to rest 
again. Pull the coil away suddenly 
and the needle will move to the other 
side. The reason is that when a 
wire through which a current is pas- 
sing is moved nearer another wire or 
is pulled away from it, a current, 
called an induction current, passes in 
the second wire while the first is mov- 
ing; the induction current varies in 
direction according as the wires ap- 
proach or recede ; and this is why 
the needle moves in opposite direc- 
tions in the two cases. 

2. Place the larger coil around the 
smaller one while the circuit in the 



former is broken, and then close the 
circuit. The needle will move in 
the same direction as when the coil 
was approached. Open the circuit 
again. The needle will move as if 
the coil were taken away. To open 
and close the circuit quickly a " key " 
may be used made as described under 
Telegraph. 

3. Connect the large coil with the 
galvanometer and the small one with 
the battery and repeat all the fore- 
going experiments. The results will 
be the same, 

4. Instead of the coil attached to 
the battery, use a strong bar magnet. 
When it is thrust into the coil the 
needle will move one way, and when 
it is removed it will swing the other 
way. If the opposite pole be used, 
the direction of these swings will be 
reversed. Some think the reason the 
magnet behaves exactly like a coil of 
wire with a current passing through 
it, in this and other cases, is that 
oach particle of iron in the magnet 
has a little electric current running 
around it. 

In this last experiment a little 
dynamo-electric machine was made, 
on exactl) the same principle as those 
which furnish the currents for the 
electric lights in our streets. In the 
large dynamos electro-magnets are 
used, and the coil moves instead of 
the magnet. 

ELECTRICITY, FRICTIONAL, 
Ei.peD'imentc with. Frictional elec- 
tricity, or electricity produced by 
rubbing, is described in C. C. T. 
under Electricity. The experi- 
ments which follow should be tried 
in a perfectly dry I'oom. Moisture 
in the air always lessens the effects 
and often entirely prevents them. 

Experiments. — i. Warm a rubber 
comb and then rub it briskly for a 
few seconds with a silk handkerchief 
or woolen cloth. It will then attract 
small, light objects, such as bits of 
paper, feathers, or wool. The best 
plan is to tear paper into bits about 
a quarter the size of the little fin- 
ger nail, and hold the comb over a 



ELECTRICITY 



287 



ELECTRICITY 



pile of them, bringing- it gradually 
nearer until the paper flies up to it. 
After each bit has clung to the comb 
for some time it will drop away. 
Try the same experiment with a glass 
rod and a stick of sealing wax. Cut 
little figures out of tissue paper and 
place them beneath a sheet of glass 
held by books as shown in the illus- 
tration. By rubbing the top of the 




Experiment i. — Electric Dancers. 

glass with flannel they may be made 
to jump up and down. 

2. Make two balls, the size of a 
pea, of pith or paper, and hang them 
with sewing silk to pins on the edge 
of a shelf. Present the comb or glass 
rod to one of these. It will first be 
attracted, and after clinging to the 
rod for a while will fly away. Soon 
after it will be attracted again, and 
so on. The reason for this is that 
the comb has on it only positive 
electricity. It therefore attracts the 
negative electricity in the pith ball, 
but when the ball has clung to the 
comb a short time its negative elec- 
tricity unites with some of the posi- 
tive electricity on the comb, leaving 
only positive, which is repelled by 
that on the comb. 



3. Try the same experiment with 
the glass rod. 

4. Rub the glass rod with silk, and 
when it has driven the ball away, 
present to the ball the comb rubbed 
with flannel. It will attract the ball. 
The reason is that glass rubbed with 
silk has on it positive electricity, 
while the comb rubbed with flannel 
has negative electricity. 

5. When the pith ball is repelled, 
present to it the flannel with which 
the comb was rubbed and it will be 
attracted. This is because the rub- 
bing cloth always has on it the kind 
of electricity opposite to the sub- 
stance rubbed. 

6. Rub the glass rod with flannel 
and then with silk, and it can be 
seen by using the pith bail, as above, 
that its electricity is different in these 
two cases. 

7. Hang the glass rod in a sling 
or stirrup of v^^ire, suspended by 
strong sewing silk. Rub it with silk 
and then present the silk to one end. 
It will be attracted by the silk, for 
the reason given in Experiment 5. 
Present to it another glass rod 
rubbed with silk. It will be re- 
pelled. 

8. Take a large, strong sheet of 
drawing paper, heat it thoroughly, 
and lay it on a wooden table. Rub 
it with a piece of woolen cloth till it 
sticks to the table, and then place a 
bunch of keys in the middle of the 
paper. Raise the paper by two 
corners and let some one present his 
finger to the keys, when a bright 
spark will pass from one to the other. 
In dry weather, with careful heating 
and handling of the paper, the spark 
may be nearly an inch long. 

9. Electrify a toy rubber balloon 
by striking it with a piece of flannel, 
or a catskin. When so electrified, 
it can be made to stick to the wall or 
ceiling. Two electrified balloons sus- 
pended from the same point will re- 
pel each other and hang at an angle. 

10. Seal a platinum wire in one 
end of a glass tube by holding the 
wire in the tube and turning it about 



ELECTRIC LIGHT 



288 



ELECTRIC MACHINE 



in the flame of a spirit lamp. Touch 
tne end of the wire to an electro- 
scope, and pour warm mercury into 
the tube drop by drop. The bits of 
gold leaf in the electroscope will fly 
apart, showing that the friction of 
the mercury on the glass has devel- 
oped electricity. 

The article Electric Machine 
tells how to produce larger amounts 
of frictional electricity, and the article 
Leyden Jar tells how to collect it 
in quantity. 

ELECTRIC LIGHT. The sim- 
plest arrangement for producing the 
arc light is as follows : Procure two 
rods of gas carbon, such as are used 
for street electric lights (see figure). 
These may be bought of a 
dealer in electric supplies. 
Around the middle of each 
wind five or six times a piece 
of copper wire several inches 
long, so as to leave free about 
three inches at each end of 
the wire. File one end of the 
wire to a point and fix it 
firmly in the board which is 
to form the base of the light. 
Insert the other end in a bind- 
ing post screwed in the same 
board. The rod is thus sup- 
ported horizontally about two 
inches above the board. Fix 
the other rod in the same 
way, with its end just touch- 
ing that of the first rod. On 
the other end of each rod slip 
a piece of rubber tubing two 
inches long so that the rods 
can be handled when the cur- 
rent is passing. The spiral 
of wire around each rod should 
I be tight enough to hold them 
I lightly together, but loose 
W enough so that the rod can 
be moved backward and for- 
ward with a twisting or screw- 
ing motion. The end wires 
of an electric battery are now 
connected to the binding posts. 
The more powerful the battery the 
stronger will be the light, but at 
least from 20 to 40 Bunsen cells 



Car- 
bon 
Rod. 



must be used. As soon as the 
current passes through the rods 
of carbon they will fly apart a 
little way and the electric light will 
appear between them. After a little 
time they burn away, so that it is 
necessary to push them nearer, by 
taking hold of the part protected by 
the rubber tubing. 

To produce the incandescent light, 
pass the current of an electric bat- 
tery through a fine platinum wire an 
inch long. It will be heated and 
give off light. This shows the prin- 
ciple of the incandescent light. The 
lights commonly in use have a slen- 
der charred thread instead of wire, 
and are surrounded by a globe from 
which the air has been removed, so 
that the thread cannot burn away. 

ELECTRIC MACHINE, a machine 
for the production of frictional 
ELECTRICITY. A simple one may 
be made as follows. Bore a hole in 
the bottom of a smooth glass jar, 
by using a broken rat-tail file kept 
wet with turpentine. Fit a cork or 
wooden stopper in the mouth of the 
jar, bore a hole in the middle, and 
through this and the hole in the bot- 
tom of the jar fit tightly a wooden 
axle. Both holes must be exactly 
in the middle, so that the jar will re- 
volve evenly when the axle is turned. 
Nail an upright piece to each end of 
a board a little longer than the jar, 
and in each bore a hole large enough 
for the axle to turn easily. Support 
the jar between these uprights, and 
fix a crank-handle to one end of the 
axle, so that the jar may be revolved. 
If a piece of flannel be now pressed 
against the jar while it is turned, 
electricity will be developed. To 
collect the electricity, saw off a piece 
of broom handle a little shorter than 
the jar, round off the ends, and stick 
in it a straight row of pins, about a 
quarter of an inch apart. Cut off 
the heads with a stout pair of scis- 
sors and file the ends to a point. 
Then cover the whole piece of wood 
smoothly with tin-foil. Support this 
arrangement so that the points of all \ 



ELECTRIC MACHINE 



289 



ELECTRIC MACHINE 



the pins nearly touch the jar. The 
wood must be supported on glass, 
so that none of the electricity may 
escape to the ground. This may be 
done by boring a hole in the middle, 
and fitting into it the neck of a bottle, 
previously filled with sand or shot to 
make it stand steady. If, now, the 
flannel be pressed on the glass jar, 
on the side opposite the points, and 
the handle turned, the electricity will 
be gathered by the points and col- 
lected on the piece of wood covered 
with tin-foil, which is often called the 
"prime conductor." When the hand 



is presented to the prime conductor, 
a spark will fly between them. To 
save the trouble of pressing the flan- 
nel against the glass by hand, a 
" rubber," made of leather stuffed 
with curled hair, may be fastened to 
an upright, so as to press continually 
against the jar. The rubber should 
be as long as the jar, and about an 
inch wide. To hold it against the 
glass, drive a nail under the jar and 
pass an elastic rubber band around 
this and the upright piece on which 
the cushion is supported. A piece 
of silk, oiled on the outside, is often 




Simple Electric Machine. 



fastened to the cushion and drawn 
over the top of the jar nearly as far 
as the collecting points. This pre- 
vents the electricity on the glass from 
escaping into the air before it reaches 
the collecting points. In case the 
cushion rubber is used, it should be 
smeared with an amalgam made by 
melting together equal parts of zinc 
and tin and then adding two parts 
of mercury. The mixture is pow- 
dered in a mortar before it is quite 
cold, and then made into a paste 
with lard. 

The picture shows a simple ma- 
chine made with a little more care, 



but easily put together with any one 
who can use tools. A is the base, 
B the supporter of the rubber, D the 
glass cylinder, E the axle, F the 
crank, G the prime conductor, and 
H its support. 

The electricity collected by the 
points will be positive electricity. 
Negative electricity collects on the 
rubber, and may be gathered if the 
rubber has a wooden back coated 
with tin-foil. In this case the col- 
lecting points must be joined to the 
earth by a chain or wire. The 
whole machine must be kept very 
warm and dry or it will not work at 



ELECTRIC MACHINE 



290 



ELECTRIC MACHINE 



all. This is because moist air is a 
good conductor of electricity, which 
therefore escapes on all sides as soon 
as produced, instead of collecting on 
the prime conductor. 

Experiments with the Electric Ma- 
chine. I. Make an insulating stool 
by placing a board on four inverted 
tumblers of thick glass. Let a person 
stand on this stool, and touch the 
prime conductor, while the machine is 
working. He thus becomes charged 
with electricity. If he is lightly 
charged, his hair will begin to stand 
on end. If another person, standing 
on the ground, now presents his 
hand to the charged person, a spark 
will pass between them. This ex- 
periment may be varied in many 
amusing ways ; for instance, one 
may try to shake hands with the 
person on the stool, when a spark 
will pass between their fingers, or 
he may touch the tip of the other's 
nose or his ear. 

Electric Breeze. 2. Fasten a pin, 
or other point, on one end of the 
prime conductor with a bit of wax, 
taking care that no wax gets between 
the pin and the conductor. When 
the machine is working, a little 
breeze will blow from the point of 
the pin. This may be felt by hold- 
ing the face or hand in front of the 
point, or seen by holding a candle 
flame there (Fig. i). The breeze is 




Electric Breeze— Fig. i. 

caused by the repulsion of electrified 
particles of air from the point. It 
will be found impossible to draw a 
spark from the point, because its 



electricity is thus carried away by 
the air so fast that enough does not 
collect to make a spark. This is the 
reason that it is necessary to have 
all parts of the prime conductor 
smooth and round except the collect- 
ing points. If there are any rough- 
nesses on it, the electricity will pass 
off quietly from them and no spark 
can be obtained. 

3. Stand a lighted candle on the 
prime conductor and point a pin at 
it ; it will show that there is also a 




Fig. 2. 

breeze from the pin when held in the 
hand (Fig. 2). 

4. Let a small jet of water flow 
through a tube of brass or other 
metal. Connect the tube with the 
electric machine, and the water will 
spirt out in all directions, the elec- 
trified drops repelling one another. 

5. Paste parallel strips of tin foil 
on a pane of glass, and connect them 
alternately on the two sides so as to 
make one continuous conductor, pass- 
ing backward and forward, from side 
to side. With a sharp pointed knife 
or a knitting-needle draw a figure or 
design on the glass by scraping 
through the tinfoil. Connect the 
strip of tinfoil with the prime con- 
ductor at the top and the ground at 
the bottom, and work the machine. 
The electricity will pass along the 
strip, making a spark every time it 
has to jump one of the places where 
the foil was scraped away, and thus 
the design will appear in lines of 
light. An arrangement of this kind. 



ELEC. DECOMPOSITION 



291 



ELEC. DECOMPOSITION 



mounted on a stand, is shown in 
Fig. 3. 




Fig. 3. 

ELECTRICAL DECOMPO- 
SITION, Experiments on. i. De- 
composition of Water. Connect the 
end wires of an electric battery, by 
means of platinum wire, to bits of 
platinum foil about an inch long by 
quarter of an inch wide. A hole 
should be punched in one end of the 
foil, the wire inserted, bent over, and 
hammered down so as to hold the 
foil tight. The wire is then bent 
so that it holds the foil up 
straight, and placed in a glass 
finger bowl or broad dish of 
some kind. The dish is filled 
with water mixed with a little 
sulphuric acid to help it conduct 
the electric current. The water 
must cover the foils and no kind 
of wire other than platinum must 
touch the water, lest the acid ^ 
should act on it. Fill two test- ^ 
tubes with the acidulated water, 
and invert them over the foils, 
the mouths beneath the water, 
taking care that no air enters. When 
one tube has been inverted, one per- 
son should hold it while the other is 
being prepared. The tubes may be 
held in place, if desired, by pinning 
strips of paper tightly around them 



and hanging them by string to the 
edge of a shelf, or by a clamp stand, 
which can be bought of a chemical 
dealer. Such dealers generally have 
for sale the complete apparatus de- 
scribed above (see illustration), but 
it is quite easy to make it. When 
the electric current fiows, bubbles of 
gas begin to rise from the platinum 
foil, which are caught in the test 
tubes. The amount of gas collected 
over the foil connected with the neg- 
ative pole of the battery is about 
twice as great as that collected over 
the other. When sufficient has been 
obtained, place the thumb under 
each tube, lift it out and turn it 
mouth upward. The gas which col- 
lected fastest will burn with a blue 
flame when a lighted match is ap- 
plied to it. It is HYDROGEN. The 
other will cause a spark on the end 
of a wood splinter to burst into 
flame. It is OXYGEN. The electric 
current broke up or decomposed the 
water into these two gases. If the 
bubbles do not rise at first it is prob- 
able that all the connections are not 
good, or else the battery is not strong 
enough. It is best to use several 
cells, connected tandem (see ELEC- 
TRIC BATTERIES). 

Hydrochloric Acid. The appara- 




Decomposition of Water. 

tus described above cannot be usev. 
for this because CHLORINE is one of 
the gases produced, and it would eat 
away the platmum ; so pieces of gas 
carbon are used instead. This can 
be obtained of dealers in electrical 



ELECTRICAL TOUCHSTONE 292 



ELECTROPHORUS 



supplies. A glass tube, bent into U 
shape, is filled with the acid, to which 
some common salt is added to pre- 
vent the chlorine from being dis- 
solved as soon as it appears. A 




Decomposition of Hydrochloric Acid. 

piece of carbon is hung in each 
branch of the tube and each is con- 
nected with one pole of the battery. 
When the current passes, chlorine 
appears at the pole A and hydrogen 
at B. 

Salts. Almost all salts (see C. C. 
T.) can be decomposed by electricity 
into an acid and a base. The salt 
used is dissolved in water and decom- 
posed in a U tube, as described 
above. The production of an acid 
in one tube and an alkali or base in 
the other can be shown by means of 
TEST PAPERS. Salts which have a 
metal for one of their components 
deposit that metal on one of the 
poles. Experiments in the decom- 
position of such salts are described 
under Electro-plating. 

ELECTRICAL TOUCHSTONE, 
an electrical toy. Powder finely part 
of a stick of red sealing wax and 
some stick sulphur, and mix the two 
until the mixture has a yellowish 
pink color. Then tie up the powder 
in a muslin bag, so that when the 
bag is shaken a cloud of the sulphur 
and wax dust may be produced. 
Next, mark on a sheet of vulcanized 
rubber with bits of various metals. 
The marks will of course be invisi- 
ble, but by dusting the sulphur and 



wax over the rubber they at once 
become visible, the wax gathering 
along the lines made by the some of 
the metals, and the sulphur along 
those made by the others, so that 
some appear traced in red and the rest 
in yellow. The metals whose lines 
appear in red are zinc, iron, mag- 
nesium, and cadmium ; those whose 
marks attract the yellow powder are 
tin, nickel, silver, antimony, bismuth, 
platinum, copper, and gold. The 
reason of all this is that when the 
powders are mixed the particles are 
electrified, the sulphur negatively and 
the wax positively. The part of the 
rubber over which the metal passes 
is also electrified, positively by some 
metals and negatively by others, and, 
as the rubber is a non-conductor, 
the electricity remains along the 
lines. When the powder is dusted 
on the plate, then the wax is at- 
tracted to the negative lines and the 
sulphur to the positive. 

Other powders than those given 
above may be used ; a mixture of 
red lead and sulphur being often em- 
ployed. The experiment succeeds 
still better if the vulcanized rubber 
rests on a sheet of tin foil of the same 
size. Instead of using metals the 
lines may be traced with the knob 
of a charged leyden jar. 

The name Electrical Touchstone 
was given the device by its inventor, 
Prof. Guthrie, from the stone called 
the touchstone, used by jewelers to 
test the purity of the precious metals. 

ELECTROPHORUS, an arrange- 
ment for obtaining larger quantities 
of FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY than 
can be got simply by rubbing. It 
consists of a plate of metal resting 
on some non-conductor. The sim- 
plest way to make one is to cut out 
a circular piece of tin and fit a non- 
conducting handle to it by melting 
the end of a roll of sealing wax and 
sticking it in the middle of the tin. 
Warm a pane of ordinary window 
glass and rub it briskly with silk, so 
as to electrify it. Then press the tin 
down on it, touch the finger to the 



ELECTROPHORUS 



293 



ELECTROPHORUS 



upper surface of the tin, remove the 
finger and Hft the tin, as shown in 
the figures. On presenting the finger 
to the tin an electric spark can now 
be drawn from it. It is better to lay 
the glass on some metal surface, for 
instance, the top of a stove, or a 



piece of looking-glass may be used, 
since that has metal on the under 
side. 

A better electrophorus can be 
made as follows. Have a smooth 
piece of board, about a quarter of an 
inch thick, sawed into the shape of a 




Simple Electrophorus. 



circle, a foot in diameter, and then 
round off the sharp edges with a 
knife, finishing with sand-paper so 
that there shall be no rough places 
or angles about it. Bore a hole in 
the center, in which fit a glass rod or 
piece of tubing for a handle. Glue 
tin foil to this wooden disk, com- 
pletely covering it, being careful to 
smooth it down so that there is not 
the least roughness. The lower part 
may be of glass, as before, of vulcan- 
ized sheet rubber, or of resin melted 
and molded in a flat cake. The 
mode of working is the same. The 
electrophorus can be used for charg- 
ing a Leyden jar as well as an ELEC- 
TRIC MACHINE. The working of 
the apparatus is as follows. The 
electricity in the glass plate pulls 
apart the two kinds of electricity in 
the tin, attracting one to the under 
surface, and repelling the other to 
the upper surface. If the tin were 
now simply lifted off the plate the 
two kinds would unite again, but by 
touching the upper surface with the 
finger, before lifting, the kind on that 
surface is drawn off, leaving the tin 
charged with only one kind of elec- 
tricity. If the finger remains on the 
tin after it is lifted, the electricity 
drawn off goes back again, and the 
tin shows no electrification. A sim- 



ple electrophorus can also be made 
thus. Take a lacquered tea-tray 
about a foot long, and cut out a sheet 
of thick wrapping paper, large enough 
to cover the level part of the tray. 
Gum strips for handles at each end 
of the paper. Place the tea-tray on 




Tea Tray Electrophorus. 

two tumblers, and after heating the 
paper as hot as possible without 
charring it, lay it on a table and vio- 
lently rub it with a dry clothes brush. 
Then place the paper on the tray, 
touch the tray, lift the paper, and on 
presenting the finger again to the 



ELECTRO-PLATING 



294 



ELECTROSCOPE 



tray a spark may be drawn from it. 
This may be repeated several times 
without rubbing- the paper again, 

ELECTRO-PLATING. To plate 
with silver, dissolve equal quantities 
of nitrate of silver and cyanide of 
potassium m water, separately, and 
mix the two solutions. (Great care 
must be taken with the cyanide of 
potassium, as it is very poisonous.) 
The liquid will become turbid owing 
to the formation of a precipitate. 
Add more of the cyanide solution till 
this precipitate almost, but not quite, 
disappears. The solution now con- 
tains cyanide of silver. Place in the 
solution a piece of silver (such as a 
coin), and the article to be plated, 
connecting the coin with the positive 
pole of an ELECTRIC battery, and 
the article with the negative pole. 
The article to be plated must first be 
thoroughly cleaned with ammonia, 
to remove grease. The electric cur- 
rent will decompose the cyanide of 




Electro-plating. 

silver, depositing the silver on the 
article to be plated. The silver thus 
deposited has its place taken by part 
of the coin, which is slowly dissolved. 
The plating will be done faster the 
more powerful the battery. If sev- 
eral cells are used, they should be 
connected tandem (see ELECTRIC 
Batteries). When the coat of sil- 
ver is as thick as desired, the article 
is removed and polished with whit- 
ing. The best metals to plate are 
brass or copper, or the alloys called 
German silver and Britannia metal, 
of which plated forks and spoons are 
commonly made. Most other metals 
have to be coated with copper before 
they can be silver plated. Iron can 



be covered with copper by simply 
putting it in a solution of BLUE 
vitriol. 

Gold-Plating. The process is the 
same as that just described, except 
that chloride of gold is used instead 
of nitrate of silver, and a gold coin 
is attached to the positive pole of the 
battery. 

Nickel-plating. The same proc- 
ess is used, except that the solution 
is formed of salts of nickel, dissolved 
in water. A piece of nickel may be 
suspended from the positive pole, 
but it is sufficient to add salts of 
nickel to the solution as fast as it 
becomes weakened. 

The figure shows the arrangement 
of apparatus for any kind of plating, 
a, a, a, are bits of the metal used, 
B, B, B, the articles to be plated, d 
and e two nnetal rods, and D the bat- 
tery. 

ELECTROSCOPE, an instrument 
for showing whether or not a body is 
charged with electricity, and, if so, 
whether it is positive or negative. 
A simple one can be made as fol- 
lows. Take a flask or bottle, clean 
and dry it, and insert in the cork a 
piece of glass tubing about an inch, 
long. Cut a disk of tin or zinc, 
about an inch and a half in diameter, 
and drill two holes in it, one at the 
center and the other near the edge. 
Have one end of a brass or copper 
wire soldered in the central hole. 
Fill the glass tube with shellac, 
softened by warming, and before it 
is hard run the wire through it so 
that the disk is an inch or so above 
the tube. The lower end of the wire 
is cut off and bent at right angles so 
that it will be about in the middle of 
the bottle when the cork is in place. 
Now gum to the sides of the hook 
made by thus bending the wire, two 
leaves of " Dutch Metal " (which 
can be bought of a sign-painter), 
each half an inch broad and long 
enough to reach within an inch of 
the bottom of the bottle. The cork, 
with its wire, is now inserted in the 
bottle. 



ELECTROSCOPE 



295 



ELEPHANT 



To ascertain whether a body be 
electrified, bring it near the disk 
without touching. If it be elec- 
trified, the leaves of Dutch metal 
will fly apart, for the charged body 
draws near itself one kind of elec- 
tricity and repels the other to the 
leaves. The leaves, being both thus 
charged with the same kind of elec- 
tricity, repel each other. But this 
does not tell us what kind of elec- 
tricity the body possesses. To find 
out this, the electroscope must be 
charged by touching the disk with a 
body whose kind of electricity is 
known. For instance, we know that 
wax rubbed with flannel is electrified 



negatively. By touching the disk 
with a piece of wax so rubbed, we 
cause the leaves to diverge, and on 
removing the wax they should re- 
main apart for some time, if the in- 
strument has been well made. By 
now bringing the body to be tested 
near the disk, without touching it, the 
leaves will either collapse or fly 
farther apart. If the former, the 
body is positive ; if the latter, nega- 
tive. 

Instead of this the electroscope 
may be charged by touching it with 
the body to be tested, and then a 
body whose electricity is known may 
be brought near it. If the body is 




Electroscope. 



large it may be connected with the 
electroscope by a wire, one end of 
which is fastened to the disk by 
hooking it in the hole in the edge. 

The electrical pendulum, or sus- 
pended pith ball, may also be used 
as an electroscope, as described in 
the article on Frictional Elec- 
tricity. 

ELEPHANT, THE, a diversion in 
which two persons imitate an ele- 
phant. One stands behind the other, 
as in Fig. i, both bending their 
bodies so that their backs are hori- 
zontal, and the rear one rests his 



head and his hands on the one in 
front of him, as shown in the illus- 
tration. The first one holds a black 
cane with a curved handle to rep- 
resent the elephant's trunk, and the 
second has in each hand a roll of 
white paper for tusks. The tusks 
must be long enough to project in 
front of the trunk. A gray shawl is 
now thrown over both boys, two 
pieces of gray cloth are pinned in 
the proper places for ears, and 
round bits of white paper, with 
black spots in the middle, are fas- 
tened on for eyes (see Fig. 2). As 



ELEPHANT 



296 



ELEPHANT 




Fig. I. 




Fig. 2. 



the animal walks, the trunk should be 
swayed slowly to and fro. A show- 
man, gaudily dressed in colored 
shawls, with a white turban, should 
accompany the elephant, and ex- 
hibit him to the company. It adds 
to the amusement if the showman 
pretends to speak in the Hindoo lan- 
guage, and what he says is explained 
to the audience by an interpreter. He 
can also lie down and let the elephant 
walk over him and perform other 
tricks usually shown in menageries. 



Sports Hke this were common in 
England in old times, as is shown 




Man Dressed as a Deer. 



ELLS OF CLOTH 



297 



EUCHRE 



by the illustration, taken from 
an old manuscript. One man is 
seen dressed as a deer, while 
another beats a drum for him to 
dance. 

ELLS OF CLOTH, a children's 
game played by any number of boys 
or girls, two of whom represent a 
weaver and a merchant, while the 
others are called ells of cloth. The 
ells stand in a row, holding hands, 
and stretching apart as widely as 
possible. The cloth is then said to 
be unfolded. After making a bar- 
gain with the weaver, the merchant 
" measures " the cloth by taking hold 
of each ell by his hands. He then 
goes away, as if to get his money, 
whereupon each of the other players 
turns to one side, and clasps the one 
in front of him tightly around the 
waist, the weaver taking his place at 
the head of the line. On the mer- 
chant's return he is told that his 
cloth is folded and that he must un- 
fold it. He then tries to make one of 
the players loosen his hold, by seizing 
the weaver's hands and pulling him 
about. As soon as any one lets go, 
he must stand on one side, and the 
game begins again. It may be con- 
tinued till only one ell of cloth is left, 
or for any time the players choose. 
Sometimes those who let go are re- 
quired to pay a forfeit. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICANS. 
See Tug of War. 

ETCHING. The preparation, by 
etching, of plates from which pictures 
are printed, is described in C.C.T., 
under engraving. Directions for 
etching an autograph or design 
deeply on brass or copper are given in 
this book in the article NITRIC ACID. 
To etch on glass, cover it with a 
thin layer of wax, as directed in 
that article, and scratch the design 
to be etched, as in the case of the 
metal. In an old saucer mix a tea- 
spoonful of powdered fluor-spar with 
enough sulphuric acid to make a 
paste. Place the glass, waxed side 
down, over the saucer and then heat 
the mixture gently for two or three 



hours. The heat must not be great 
enough to melt the wax, and the 
saucer must be placed so that the 
fumes arising from the paste will not 
be breathed by any one, as they are 
poisonous. A good place is on the 
hearth of an open fireplace, or at the 
back of a range provided with a 
hood for the escape of the odors of 
cooking. When the glass is re- 
moved, the wax must be cleaned off 
with turpentine, and the design will 
be seen etched in the glass. The 
etching is done by the fumes of 
hydro-fluoric acid, which rise from 
the saucer and eat into the glass 
where it has been exposed by scrap- 
ing away the wax. 

EUCHRE (yoo'-ker), a game of 
CARDS, played by two, three, or four 
persons, with a pack from which all 
cards lower than the Seven are ex- 
cluded. In the lay suits, the cards 
rank as in WHIST, but in the trump 
suit the Knave, which is called the 
Right Bower, is the highest card. 
The other Knave of the same color 
is called the Left Bower, and ranks 
next, both the Bowers being higher 
than the Ace. Thus, if Clubs are 
turned as trumps, the Knave of 
Clubs is the highest card, the Knave 
of Spades next, the Ace of Clubs 
next, and then the other clubs follow 
in the usual order. The Left Bower 
is also regarded as a trump in fol- 
lowing suit. In the two-handed 
game, which will be described first, 
the dealer gives each player five 
cards, two and three at a time. He 
may give the two cards or the three 
cards first, but he must not give, for 
instance, two to his opponent and 
then three to himself. After dealing, 
he turns the top card of the stock 
face upward as trump. The non- 
dealer looks at his hand, and, if he 
thinks he can take three tricks, says 
"I order it up." The dealer then 
takes the trump into his own hand, 
and discards his weakest card, 
placing it under the stock. If he is 
not strong enough to order it up, he 
says " I pass." The dealer may then 



EUCHRE 



EUCHRE 



either take up the trump as if it had 
been ordered up, saying, " I take 
it up," or he may pass, turning 
the trump card face downward, 
and saying, " I turn it down." 
If the dealer pass, his opponent 
can now name any suit he chooses 
as trumps except the one turned 
down, saying, for instance, " I make 
it Spades," or, " I make it Hearts." 
If he does not choose to make 
the trump, he may pass again 
and the dealer is given a chance to 
do so. If the dealer does not make 
the trump there must be a new deal. 
As soon as the trump is ordered up 
or taken up, or a new trump is 
made, play begins. Suit must be fol- 
lowed, but when this cannot be done 
anything may be played. If the player 
that orders up, takes up, or makes a 
trump, win three tricks, he scores a 
point. If he fail to win three tricks 
he is euchred and his opponent 
scores two points. If either player 
take all five tricks, he is said to make 
a " march," and scores two points. 
Four tricks count no more than three 
tricks. Each player usually keeps 
score by means of two of the small 
cards that were thrown out of the 
pack, either a two and a three, or a 
three and a four, placing one on the 
other so as to show as many pips as 
he wishes. 

Three-Handed Euchre. Each 
player in turn has the option of 
passing or ordering up, beginning at 
the dealer's left, and if each passes 
and the dealer turns it down, each 
has a chance to make the trump, 
as in two-handed euchre. If a 
player order up, take up, or make 
the trump, his two adversaries gen- 
erally play together against him, and 
if they euchre him, each scores two 
points. Because two often play thus 
against one, the three-handed game 
is often called "cutthroat euchre." 
In the three-handed game a march 
usually counts three. The play varies 
according to the score. Thus, when 
A, B, and C are playing, if A takes 
up the trump, and C has already 



three points, so that two more would 
put him out, it is for B's advantage 
to let A make a point rather than 
join with C to euchre him. 

Four-Handed Euchre. This is al- 
ways played in partnership, two 
against two. Each player has a 
chance to adopt or make the trump, 
as before, but the dealer's partner 
must say " I assist," instead of " I 
order it up," if he wishes his partner 
to take the trump card into his hand. 
If a player thinks, before playing 
has begun, that he has a strong 
enough hand to do without his part- 
ner's aid he says, " I play it alone," 
and his partner takes no further part 
in the hand. If he makes all five 
tricks alone, he scores four points; 
if he makes less than three tricks, he 
is euchred, and the adversary scores 
two points. 

In playing the game the beginner 
should remember that to order up 
the trump requires a stronger hand 
than to take it up, since in the latter 
case the trump card is taken into his 
own hand ; in the former, into that of 
an opponent. 

In making a trump, other things 
being equal, make it the other suit of 
the same color as the one turned 
down (called " making it next in 
suit "), if opposed to the dealer, 
otherwise make it one of the other 
suits (called "crossing the suit"). 
The reason for this is that as the 
dealer and his partner both passed, 
it is likely that neither of them had 
one of the bowers, and the same 
cards will be bowers if the trump is 
made "next in suit." 

The lead depends largely on what 
the actions of the other players show 
their hands to be. Thus, if the 
dealer has taken up the trump, the 
eldest hand should not lead trumps, 
but when (in playing the four 
handed game) the eldest hand's part- 
ner has ordered up or made the 
trump, the eldest hand should lead 
his best trump. 

A skillful player will vary his play 
according to the state of the score. 



EUCHRE 



299 



EUCHRE 



Thus, if the dealer and his partner 
are four to their opponent's one 
(called a " bridge ") the eldest hand 
often orders up upon a weak hand, 
thus preventing one of the other side 
from playing alone, gaining four 
points, and thus winning the game. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. Players must cut for deal, and 
the lowest deals, the Ace ranking 
below the two. 

2. If the dealer give any one too 
many or too few cards, there must 
be a fresh deal, unless the misdeal 
was caused by an interruption from 
his opponent. 

3. If a card is exposed during the 
deal, there must be a new deal un- 
less one of the players has looked at 
his hand, but the deal is not forfeited. 

4. If a player deal out of turn, his 
deal is good if the mistake is not dis- 
covered before the first lead. 

5. The dealer has not discarded 
till he has placed his rejected card 
under the stock. Before he has done 
so he may change his discard, but 
afterwards he may not touch it. 

6. If a card be led by mistake 
before the discard, it cannot be 
taken back. 

7. A player making the trump 
cannot change it after naming it. 

8. A player may play alone only 
when he orders up, takes up, or 
makes a trump, or when his partner 
assists, orders up, or makes a trump. 

9. He may not play alone after 
passing a trump or the making of a 
trump, nor when his opponents 
adopt or make the trump. 

10. A player cannot announce, 
after the lead has been made, that 
he will play alone. 

11. The partner of one who plays 
alone must place his cards face 
downward on the table and let them 
so remain during the hand. 

12. After the trump card has been 
taken up, the dealer must tell its 
suit to any one who asks, but he need 
not tell what card it is. 

13. Any card that is exposed, or 
played out of turn and taken back, 



must be played whenever its holder is 
called upon to do so by his opponent, 
unless such a play would be a revoke. 
But if a trick has been completed 
from such a lead it must stand. 

14. If a player revoke or refuse to 
play an exposed card on call, his op- 
ponents may score two points and 
the offender may score nothing that 
he has made in that hand ; but if a 
revoke is discovered before the of- 
fender plays again, the only penalty 
shall be to treat the wrongly played 
card as exposed. 

Railroad Euchre. A Joker is ad- 
ded to the pack, ranking always as 
the highest trump. If a player de- 
cides to play alone, he may call for 
his partner's best card, and discard 
one from his own hand. Either of 
the opponents is then allowed to 
play alone on the same conditions, 
and if a euchre is made under these 
circumstances, the score is four 
points. If the Joker is turned as 
trump, the next card also must be 
turned to decide the trump suit, but 
the Joker may be taken in hand, in- 
stead of the trump card, if the trump 
is taken up or ordered up. 

Set-back Euchre. This may be 
played by two or more persons, each 
for himself. At the opening of the 
game each player's score is credited 
with five points. When he makes a 
point it is subtracted from the score, 
and when he is euchred he is set 
back two points, which are added to 
his score. He whose score is first 
reduced to nothing, wins. 

Six-Handed Euchre. Three per- 
sons play in partnership against 
three others. The players sit so 
that no two partners shall be 
together. No trump is turned, but 
each of the players in order, begin- 
ning at the dealer's left, has the 
option of passing or bidding for the 
privilege of naming the trump, 
stating as his bid the number of 
tricks he thinks he and his partners 
can take, and the suit he wishes for 
trumps. Thus, he may say " I bid 
three on Spades," meaning that with 



EUCHRE 



300 



EVERLASTING 



spades for trumps he undertakes to 
win three tricks. If a player cannot 
raise a previous bid he must pass. 
The suit of the highest bidder be- 
comes the trump, and he also leads. 
If the players on his side win the 
number of tricks that he bid, they 
score that number of points ; if they 
fail, the opposite side score the same 
number. No more than the bid can 
be scored, though more tricks be 
taken. The game is usually 25 
points. Sometimes these are credit- 
ed to each side at the outset and the 
score kept as in Set-back Euchre. 
Sometimes two sevens are thrown 
out of the pack before the game, so 
that all the cards are dealt, but often 
they are retained, and, after dealing, 
the two cards that are left (or three, 
if a Joker is used) are placed, face 
downward, on the table. These 
cards, called the Widow, are the pro- 
perty of the highest bidder, and he 
may exchange any or all of them for 
an equal number of his own cards. 
The method of scoring, and the use 
of the Widow and Joker must be 
settled by agreement at the begin- 
ning of the game. 

Some players admit the playing of 
lone hands, in which case the score is 
counted as in Napoleon, ten points 
being won or lost. He who plays a 
lone hand must announce it before 
looking at the Widow. 

Napoleon, a kind of Euchre played 
by from two to seven persons. The 
players bid for the privilege of making 
the trump, as in Six-handed Euchre, 
but no one tells what suit he bids on 
but the highest bidder, who an- 
nounces the trump just before lead- 
ing. Each one plays for himself. 
The score is usually kept with 
counters, which are divided equally 
among the players before the game 
begins. If the highest bidder win 
the number of tricks he bid to make, 
each of the others gives him that 
number of counters ; if he fail, he 
gives that number to each of them. 
If he bid to take all five tricks, he 
must say " Napoleon," in which case 



the number of counters won or lost 
is ten, or double the bid. If the 
highest bidder lead again after win- 
ning the number of tricks he bid to 
make, he must play all five tricks out, 
and if he do not take them all, he 
loses. The number won or lost in 
this case is but five, since he did 
not bid Napoleon. Instead of using 
counters, the score may be kept as 
in Six-handed Euchre. 

When seven play this game, the 
four six spots must be added to the 
pack; when four or less play, the 
sevens, or the sevens and eights, may 
be rejected. When the game is 
played by four people in partnerships 
of two, it is called French Euchre. 
In this case the game is fifteen 
points, which are scored as in Six- 
handed Euchre. 

Back-Handed Euchre. The play- 
ers hold their cards with the faces 
toward the table, so that each sees 
all the hands but his own. Each 
one plays at random, and of course 
following suit is impossible. The 
game can be made very amusing, a 
player sometimes making a trump, 
when all but himself can see plainly 
that he has not a single card of that 
suit. But there is also more chance 
for skill than might be supposed, for 
by looking carefully at the other 
hands, a player may gain some idea 
of his own. 

History. Some writers say that 
Euchre was first played by French 
settlers in Louisiana, and that both 
the game and its name are corrup- 
tions of the French Ecarte. 
Others think it was first played in 
Pennsylvania, and still others that 
it had its origin in Germany. It 
seems certain that the Bowers were 
so called from the word Bauer 
(peasant), a name sometimes applied 
in Germany to the Knaves. Where- 
ever it originated it is now played 
more in the United States than in 
any other land. 

EVERLASTING, a game of cards 
played by any number of persons 
with one or more full packs. All 



EVERLASTING 



301 



EXCELSIOR 



the cards are dealt one by one, and 
each player, without looking at those 
given him, places them, face down- 
ward, in a pile in front of him. The 
one at the left of the dealer then 
plays his cards, in the middle of the 
table, one by one, as they come, till 
he throws out a face card or an Ace. 
If it is an Ace, it is said to " call for " 
four cards from the next player ; if a 
King, three ; if a Queen, two ; and if 
a Knave, one ; that is, that player 
must begin to throw out the proper 
number of cards one by one, but if 
he throws out an Ace or face card 
before completing the number he 
must stop and let his left hand neigh- 
bor play to that card. If any one 
plays all the cards called for, without 
putting down a face card or Ace, all 
the cards on the table become the 
property of the player next before 
him. Thus, suppose A plays an 
Ace, which calls for four cards as 
explained above ; if B plays those 
four cards without putting down an 
Ace or face card A takes the trick, 
but if B's second card, for instance, 
is a Queen, he must stop and let C 
play to that Queen. The lower face 
cards take most tricks, since they 
call for fewer cards, and the chance 
of the next player's turning up a face 
card is therefore less. But as no 
one may look at his cards, but is 
obliged to play them as they come, 
skill does not enter into the game at 
all. When any player takes a trick, 
he places it face downwards, under 
his pile, and the game thus goes on 
till some one has taken all the cards, 
thus becoming the winner. This 
j rarely happens in a short time, and 
I it is best to agree beforehand on an 
hour when the game is to cease. 
The one that has the largest pile -is 
then the winner. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. No one may change the order 
of cards in his pile or in the middle 
l>f the table. 

2. When all a player's cards are 
gone, he is out of the game. 



EXCELSIOR, a solitaire game 
of CARDS, played with a full pack. 
The cards are dealt one by one, to 
form a figure like that below. They 
are placed on the numbered spaces, 
in order, except when an Ace or 
King appears. The Aces must be 
laid on one of the spaces marked A, 
beginning at the top, and Kings in 
like manner are put in the spaces 
marked K. When the last numbered 
space is filled, the player puts his 
next card on the first space again, 
and so goes on piling cards over and 
over again on the numbered spaces, 
till all the cards are dealt. The 
Aces and Kings, placed separately as 



Q 







0000 
0000 
0000 
0000 







Excelsior. 



explained above, are called Foun- 
dation cards, and the player's object 
is to build piles on them, by suits, in 
regular order, upward from the Aces, 
and downward from the Kings. In 
dealing, if any card fall on one of the 
four corner piles that can be used at 
once in building, it may be so used. 
But if such a card fall on one of the 
side piles, it can only be used when 
that side pile adjoins the Foundation 
card on which it belongs. In either 
case, when a card is so taken, 
another is at once dealt in its place. 



EYES 



302 



EYES 



After all the cards have been dealt, 
any top card can be used in building. 
The top card on any corner or side 
pile may be placed on any other of 
those piles whose top card is just 
above or just below it in rank, and 
of the same suit. The cards may 
be examined at any time. The 
cards in the side and corner piles 
may be twice redealt. If, after they 
have been played the third time, the 
piles on the Foundation cards can 
be completed, the player has won ; 
otherwise, he has been defeated. 

EYES, Experiments with the. 
The eyes are described in C.C.T, 

1. Hold up the forefinger about a 
foot from the face, and look at an 
object beyond it, a tree for instance. 
The forefinger will appear double. 
Then look at the forefinger, and 
the tree will appear double. The 
reason is that when the two eyes 
are looking at the forefinger the 
right eye sees the tree on the right 
side of the finger, and the left eye 
sees it on the left side. When 
they are both looking straight at the 
tree, each sees the forefinger in a 
different place. If one eye be cov- 
ered it is impossible to see either 
forefinger or tree double. 

2. Place two bits of white paper on 
a table, about two feet apart. Cover 
the left eye, and with the right look 
steadily at the left piece of paper, at 
the same time walking slowly back- 
ward. A snot will be found where 
the rignt nand bit ot paper will dis- 
appear. By looking with the left 
eye at the right hand bit, the left 
hand bit can be made to vanish in 
like manner. By moving the head 
ever so little forward or backward 
the bit of paper will be made to 
appear again. The nearer the pieces 
are together the nearer the eye has 
to be placed to them to make one 
disappear. If, instead of bits of 
paper on a table, pencil dots two 
inches apart on a sheet of paper be 
tried in the same way, one will van- 
ish when the paper is held about six 
inches from the eye. In each case 



the reason is that the retina of every 
person's eye has a blind spot in it, 
and when the image of the paper or 
pencil dot falls directly on that spot, 
it cannot be seen. 

3. Hold the eye two or three 
inches from the perpendicular edge 
of some object seen against a bright 
background, part of a window sash, 
for instance, or, if it be night, a ruler 
leaning against the shade of alighted 
lamp. Shut one eye, and holding the 
edge of a sheet of paper close to the 
other move the paper to and fro. 
The edge of the object will seem to 
move out to meet it. Repeat the 
same thing, standing about twenty 
feet away from the window sash or 
ruler, and the edge will appear to 
shrink away from the paper. 

4. Let one person hold a candle, 
lamp, or some other bright object in 
front of another's eye. He will see 
in the eye three reflections. One is 
from the outside of the eyeball, 
another from one surface of the lens 
inside the eye, and the third from the 
other surface of the lens. 

5. Cut out of black paper two ex- 
actly similar figures, crosses for in- 
stance, and place them side by side, 
almost touching, on a sheet of white 
paper. Hold them about three 
inches in front of the eyes, and three 
figures will be seen instead of two. 
The middle one consists of two, the 
image of the right hand figure, as 
seen by the right eye, being added to 
that of the left hand figure as seen 
by the left eye. 

6. To see stereoscope pictures 
without a stereoscope. The stereo- 
scope is described in C. C. T. Hold 
a stereoscope picture before the eyes 
and by fixing them as if to look at a 
distant object make the picture ap- 
pear double, as in Experiment i. 
With practice, the eyes can be so 
controlled that the two pictures 
nearest each other can be made to 
overlap and melt into one, in which 
objects will stand out just as when 
seen through the stereoscope. 

7. Place a scrap of colored paper 



1 



EYES 



303 



EYES 



or cloth on a gray ground, and look 
steadily at it for about a minute. 
Snatch the scrap away and in its 
place will be seen a spot of exactly 
the same shape but a different color. 
If the scrap is green, the spot will be 
red, which is the complementary or 
opposite color to green ; if yellow 
the spot will be violet. If, instead of 




Fig-. 



-Experiment 7. 



pulling the paper away, the eye be 
directed to the ceiling, the spot will 
be seen there. These spots, which 
are often called "ghosts," are caused 
by the action of light on the retina. 
The accompanying figure (Fig. i) is 
a good one to experiment on. Look 
at it steadily for some time and then 
look at the ceiling, where it will short- 
ly appear in black on a white ground. 

8. Light a splinter of wood, and 
whirl it about in a dark room. It 
will seem like a circle of fire. This 
is because the image of the lighted end 
remains in the eye while it is being 
twirled around. For other experi- 
ments, showing that images remain 
in the eye for a fraction of a second, 
SeeTHAUMATROPE, ZOETROPE, and 

Chameleon TOP. 

9. In a room in which there is no 
other light, hold a candle before one 
eye, closing the other. The candle 
must be moved up and down a little 
on one side of the eye and two or 
three inches from it. Presently there 



will appear black shadows on a red- 
dish ground, looking somewhat like 
leafless trees. These are the shadows 
of the blood-vessels on the retina. 

10. Hold a pin so near the eye 
that it appears quite blurred. Look 
at it in the same position through a 
pinhole in a piece of paper, and it 
will be seen distinctly. In this way 
a pinhole in paper may be used 
to look at other small objects. It 
does not magnify them, but enables 
us to hold them much closer to the 
eye than we otherwise could. 

11. Roll up a sheet of paper and 
look through it with one eye, keep- 
ing the other open. Hold up the 
left hand in front of the other eye, 
close to the farther end of the roll, 
and you will seem to be looking 
through a hole in your hand. 

12. Divide a white pasteboard 
disk into an even _ 
number of sec- 
tions and black- 
en every other 
one, as shown 
in Fig. 2. Spin 
the disk rapidly 
by means of a 
TWIRLER and 
by looking at it Fig. 2.- 
steadily it will Experiment 12. 
appear tinted, 

the color changi^ig with the speed of 
rotation. The disk generally ap- 
pears greenish first, and then pinkish. 
Another way of performing the ex- 
periment is to cut away sectors from 
a black disk and then rotate it be- 
tween the eye and a cloudy sky. 
The sky will gradually assume 
different tints which vary -with the 
speed of the disk. None of these 
colors are real, but caused by the ex- 
citement of the optic nerve by a rapid 
succession of darkness and light. 

13. Cut in a piece of cardboard 
two square holes, each about half an 
inch square and a quarter of an inch 
apart. Procure a number of bits of 
glass of various colors, about an inch 
square, and fasten two behind the 
holes in the cardboard by means of 




EYES 



304 



EYES 



elastic bands. Buy of an optician 
what is called a double-refracting 
prism, a piece of Iceland-spar or 
calc-spar which makes objects seen 
through it appear double. Hold the 
card up to a wmdow or lamp and 
look through a prism at it. Each 
colored hole will appear double, and 
by holding the prism at the proper 
distance, one color can be made to 
overlap the other, so that the eye 
sees a mixture of the two. Note 
what this is. Now unfasten the bits 
of glass and look through both to- 
gether at the light. The mixed 
color is entirely different from that 
obtained before. The reason is that 
in the first case one color really 
added its effect to the other, whereas 
in the second case the color seen is 
merely that remaining after each 
glass has strained certain colors out of 
the sunlight. Thus-, suppose blue and 
yellow glass be tried. A mixture of 
pure blue and yellow light makes 
white, so the color seen through the 
prism will be whitish gray. But, 
when looked through together the 
glasses will appear green, because the 
rays of light are the only ones which 
will pass through both yellow and 
blue glass. In the same way red and 
green appear orange by the first meth- 
od and dark green by the second ; red 
and blue seem first violet and then 
deep red ; and yellow and red appear 
first orange-yellow, then orange-red. 
14. Darken the room and admit a 
little daylight (not direct sunlight) 
through an opening. With this throw 
the shadow of a rod or other object 
on a white wall or screen, and light 
a candle, so as to throw a second 
shadow. Alter the size of the open- 
ing through which daylight is ad- 
mitted, so as to make the two 
shadows as nearly as possible of the 
same intensity. The shadow thrown 
by the candle is really white, since it 
is the only part of the wall on which 
pure daylight shines alone, yet by 
contrast it appears blue. If it be 
looked at through a roll of black 
cardboard or paper the part of the 



wall about it will continue to appear 
blue, even when the candle is put 
out, but on removing the roll from 
the eye, it seems white again, and 
cannot be made to look blue except 
by lighting the candle a second time. 
15. With a pair of compasses 
draw six or eight concentric circles, 
as near one another as possible. 
Make four dots, dividing the outer- 
most circle into equal parts, and then 
join these dots by straight lines, 
drawn with the aid of a ruler. (Fig. 
3.) These lines will appear to be 
curved inward. This is because they 
cross the circles at different angles. 




Fig. 3. — Experiment 15. 

and the judgment of the observer 
cannot help attributing this, in part, 
to the curvature of the line. 

16. Hold horizontally, a little be- 
low the eyes, a rod about a foot long, 
with its near end six or eight inches 
from the face and its opposite end 
pointing directly away. Look at the 
near end, and the two images of the 
rod will appear like a V, with the 
point toward the face. Fix the eyes 
on the farther end, and the V will 
have its point away from the face. 

17. Press the closed eye with the 
finger tip close to the nose. A dark 
spot with a light border will be seen 
on the other side of the eye. If the 
eyeball be pressed on the outside the 
spot will be seen on the inside. 



EYES 



305 



EYES 



1 8. Rub or press the closed eyes for 
some time, and designs and spots of 
various shapes and colors will be seen 
changing of themselves or accord- 
ing to the varying pressure. These 
spots are all caused by the excitement 
of the optic nerve by pressure. 

19. Draw a number of lines con- 
verging to a pomt toward either the 
right or the left, and then draw sev- 
eral upright lines of the same length 
across these as in Fig. 4. If any one 




Fig. 4. — Experiment 19. 

who does not know, be asked which 
is the largest of the upright lines, 
he will be apt to point out the one 
crossed by the greatest number of 
the converging lines. 

20. After reading for some time 
with one side toward a window, close 
the eyes alternately, and it will be 
seen that the paper of the book has 
a greenish tinge when seen by that 
eye alone which was next to the 
window. This effect is stronger if 
the light be very bright. 

The reason is that the light, shin- 
ing through the blood-vessels in the 
eyehd, tries that part of the eye that 
appreciates red, and so a white page 
appears to it slightly tinted with the 
complementary or opposite color, 
green. 

21. Observe the letter S in a book, 
for instance the one just given. The 
bottom and top seem to be of about 
the same size. Turn the book up- 



side down and look at the same 
letter. What is now the bottom 
appears much the smaller part. 
The reason is that the eye tends to 
magnify the upper part of a figure. 
For this reason the lower half of the 
S's are usually made a little larger 
than the upper, to balance this ten- 
dency, but when the letter is inverted 
the larger half is now at the top and 
so looks larger still. 

22. Cut out two pieces of paper of 
exactly the same size, shaped as in 




Fig. 5. — Experiment 22. 

Fig. 5, and place them as there 
shown. The eye will usually judge, 
at first sight, that the lower is the 
longer. If the pieces be made of 
different colors, to distinguish them, 
and their places be changed, one will 
seem to have decreased and the other 
to have increased. 

23. Make a pinhole in a card and 
hold it three or four inches before 
the eye. Hold a pin-head as close to 
the eye as possible and it will be 
seen, upside down, in the pinhole. 
This is because, though the pin is 
much too near the eye to form an 
image on the retina, the ray of light 
through the pinhole causes it to cast 
a shadow there. This shadow is 
upright, whereas the images of ob- 
jects are inverted, so, as they appear 
right side up, the shadow appears up- 
side down. If several pinholes be 
made instead of one, the pin-head 
will be seen in each one of them, be- 
cause each ray of light throws a 
separate shadow of the pin-head on 



EYES 



306 



EYES 



a different part of the retina. Any 
object of similar size may be used in- 
stead of the pin, and if it be moved 
in any direction the shadow will be 
seen to move in the contrary direc- 
tion. If the eyelashes be allowed to 
fall over the eye, their shadows will be 
seen to move upward in the pinholes. 
24. Look at Fig. 6. The horizon- 
tal lines appear to be nearer to- 
gether at the middle than at the 
ends, but this is not so. They 
are quite straight and parallel. 



The appearance is due entirely to 
the diagonal lines above and below 
them. 

25. Look at anything having a 
regular pattern, such as a piece of 
figured cloth or calico, or better still 
a piece of wire netting or the seat of 
a cane-bottomed chair. By relaxing 
the eyes so that they will be fixed on 
a point beyond the object, the two 
images of the figured surface may 
be made to appear to slide one over 
the other, and by practice may be 







Fig. 6. — Experiment 24. 



made to stop where the observer 
pleases. If he thus causes the im- 
age of each figure to coincide with 
the one next to it, the surface will 
seem farther from his eye and the 
figures larger. If he causes the 
images to overlap still more, so that 
each falls on the second one from it, 
the effect will be increased, and so 
on. If he fixes his eye on a point 
nearer him than the surface, the 
latter will appear nearer, and the 



figures smaller. If the observer 
cannot direct his eyes to one point 
while noticing another he should hold 
his finger either in front of the sur- 
face or behind it, and look directly at 
it, trying at the same time to watch 
the figures on the surface. 

This experiment requires consid- 
erable practice, and some people 
find it more difficult than others. 
When properly done the effect is 
striking. 



FAMOUS NUMBERS 



307 



FANORONA 



26. Darken the room and cover 
one window with cloth or paper 
having- the figure of a cross cut 
through it. Look steadfastly at this 
for a few seconds and then look at 
the wall of the room. The " after 
image " of the cross will be seen. 
If the eye be now directed, with- 
out movmg the head, to one of the 
corners of the room the arms of 
the cross will appear twisted so 
that the cross will look thus *f^ or 
thus Jc. 

This is because the eyeball is 
twisted a little in turning it toward 
the corner of the room, so that 



the image on the retina is dis- 
torted. 

27. View a straight line, a, through 




Fig. 7. — Expefiment 27. 

a pinhole, 0, in a card, as shown in 
Fig. 7. It will appear to broaden 
as it nears the eye. 



F 



FABA-BAGA. See Bean Bags. 
FAGGOTS. See Fox and 

Geese, II. 

FAMOUS NUMBERS, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
each of whom writes a number on a 
slip of paper. The slips are mixed in 
a hat, and each player draws one. 
Each in order must then explain for 
what the number he drew is famous, 
or pay a forfeit. For instance, the 
number three may be said to be 
celebrated on account of the Three 
Graces. Two for Shakespere's 
"Two Gentlemen of Verona." Ten 
for the Council of Ten, and so on. 

FANORONA, a game played by 
two persons, with 22 white and 22 
black pieces or men, arranged on a 



<> • • • ■ • D m % 



Fanorona Board, 



board like that shown in the diagram. 
The players sit opposite each other, 
and take turns in moving. A piece 



may be moved to any adjacent un- 
occupied angle, forward, backward, 
diagonally, or to either side. If, 
when any move is made, a piece is 
face to face with one of the enemy's, 
no vacant space being between, all 
of the enemy's pieces extending in 
unbroken line in the direction of 
attack are captured and removed from 
the board. If the line is interrupted 
by a vacant space, or hostile piece, 
the men are captured only as far as 
such space or piece. He who suc- 
ceeds first in capturing all his oppo- 
nents' pieces wins the game. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. The first player is allowed only 
one move. 

2. After the opening of the game, 
each player is allowed to move, using 
any piece he pleases, so long as he 
continues to capture. When he 
ceases to capture, his opponent be- 
gins his turn. 

3. A player must not return at 
once to a point he has just left. 

4. A player must not capture in 
any direction immediately after mak- 
ing a capture in the opposite direc- 
tion. 

Fanorona is the national game of 
the natives of Madagascar, who have 
reduced it to a science. In Mada- 
gascar a defeated player is not al- 



FARM YARD 



308 



FEELING 



lowed to play his second game on 
the same footing as the first, but 
must play a new form of it, called 
Vela. In this form the defeated 
player plays first, and the other ex- 
poses to capture such pieces as he 
chooses, till seventeen have been 
taken, but these can be taken only 
one at a time. Until the entire num- 
ber are captured, the owner of them 
can make no captures. The game 
then goes on as in the ordinary way. 
A defeated player is allowed to play 
only the Vela game, till he has won 
a victory. 

FARM YARD, THE, a trick in the 
form of a game. One of the com- 
pany, chosen as leader, tells the 
others that they must sit in a circle, 
and each personates some animal. 
He says that he will first whisper in 
the ear of each what noise he is to 
make, and that all must rise and 
make their noises at a given signal. 
He then whispers to each, directing 
them all to remain quiet, except one, 
whom he tells to bray like a donkey. 
When the signal is given, the victim 
of the trick rises and brays, while 
the others sit still. 

FARRAGO. See Synthesis. 

FAST RUNNERS, a running game 
played by any odd number of per- 
sons. All but one are arranged in a 
column by pairs, all facing toward 
the same end of the column. The 
remaining player stands alone at the 
head of the column, and at a signal 
from him the two at the foot divide 
and run on the outside of the lines 
past the head, after which they take 
different directions. If the one at the 
head can catch either before they 
meet again and join hands, that one 
must take his place, and he becomes 
the partner of the other, standing 
close to the head of the Hne. If the 
couple join hands before either is 
caught, they stand close to the head, 
and the unsuccessful runner is at the 
head again. At the signal the couple 
now left at the foot begin to run in 
like manner, and so on till the play- 
ers are tired. Neither of the runners 



can be touched until he has passed 
the head of the column. 

In Germany this game is called 
Fang Schoti (Begin now), and in 
Russia "It Burns," from the cries of 
the runners. In Belgium it is called 
" Bride and Bridegroom," and in 
Suabia Brautlauf (The Bride Chase). 
These last names seem to show that 
it is derived from the old custom of 
requiring the bridegroom to carry off 
the bride by force, or pretend to do so. 

FEELING, Experiments on. i. 
Cross the forefinger and middle fin- 
ger of one hand, and with the tips 
feel a marble or small pebble held in 
the palm of the other. It will feel as 
if there were two marbles. The 
reason is that the marble is felt at 
the same time by the two sides of the 
fingers which are usually farthest 
from each other, and the mind can- 
not help concluding that there are 
two marbles. The best way of per- 
forming the experiment is to let some 
one else cross his fingers, shut his 
eyes, and guess how many marbles 
he feels. If more than one held in 
the hand, guessing becomes still 
more difficult. 

2. Prick a person's hand with two 
pins held very close together. It 
will be found that he cannot tell 
when you use two points and when 
only one, provided the points touch 
him exactly at the same time. On 
some parts of the body the pins may 
be held about half an inch apart be- 
fore the two separate pricks can be 
feels. The reason is that the nerves 
of the skin form a network which is 
much closer in some places than in 
others. Where the meshes are very 
large the nerves cannot distinguish 
two sensations which are very near 
together. If blunter points be used 
than those of pins, the effect is more 
striking. 

3. Take a long hair, and with the 
thumb and forefinger of one hand 
pull it through those of the other, 
first in one direction and then in the 
other. It will be found that it slips 
easily one way and will scarcely slip 



FEMME SOLE 



309 



FEMME SOLE 



at all in the other. The reason is 
that each hair is covered with a kind 
of scales which grow in one direc- 
tion, and it is therefore easier to rub 
the hand over it one way than the 
other, though the scales cannot be 
seen with the naked eye. The direc- 
tion in which it is easiest to stroke 
hair is always down, or from the root, 
hence it is always possible to tell by 
feeling which end of a hair grew 
nearest the root. 

4. Fill one glass with water almost 
as warm as the hand can bear, 
another with cold water, and a third 
with lukewarm water. Hold one 
hand in the warm water and the 
other in the cold water for about 15 
or 20 seconds, and then put them 
into the lukewarm water. It will 
feel warm to the hand which has 
been in the cold water, and cold to 
the other. The reason is that we 
cannot really tell the temperature 
of objects by the touch, but only 
whether they are warmer or colder 
than ourselves. 

5. Put a piece of iron and a piece 
of wood into the ice box of a re- 
frigerator, and let them remain sev- 
eral hours, long enough for both 
to get ice cold. Then take them in 
the hand, and the iron will feel colder 
than the wood. Put them in a 
moderately warm oven for half an 
hour, ancl feel them again. This 
time the iron will be the warmer. 
The iron may be even too hot to 
hold, while the wood can be taken 
up easily. The reason is that iron is 
a better conductor of heat than wood. 
Heat therefore goes from the iron to 
the hand, when it is hot, faster than 
it does from the wood, and iron takes 
heat away from the hand faster when 
it is cold. 

FEMME SOLE, a game of CARDS, 
played by three persons with a full 
pack. The deal is determined by 
cutting, the lowest card indicating 
the dealer. He separates a euchre 
pack from the full pack, and deals 
eleven cards, one by one, to each of 
the other players and ten to himself. 



He then takes the remaining cards 
of the full pack, called the Stock, 
shuffles them, and gives them to the 
player on his right to cut. The card 
cut determines the trump suit, and 
the dealer then takes the Deuce of 
that suit from the stock, to complete 
his own hand. There is thus in play, 
besides the regular Euchre pack, one 
Deuce, which, as the trump changes, 
is sometimes of the .trump suit and 
sometimes not. It always ranks as 
the highest card in the pack, except 
when played in its own suit, where 
it is lowest, as in Whist. The high- 
est trump is the Queen, called Femme 
Sole (a French term used in law to 
mean an unmarried woman). The 
eldest hand now leads any card ex- 
cept the Deuce. Suit must be fol- 
lowed, if possible (except that the 
Deuce may be played out of suit), 
and the trick must be taken, if possi- 
ble. The winner scores one for the 
trick, which he takes into his own 
hand, making the hands equal again 
by giving to each of the other players 
one of his cards, according to the 
following plan : 

1. If one of the others holds 
Femme Sole, and the other the 
Deuce, he gives to the holder of each 
card a card in its suit. 

2. If the two should be in the 
same hand he gives a card in the 
Deuce suit to that hand, and placing 
the Deuce in the stock, substitutes 
for it any other Deuce he pleases, 
telling what it is, as he does so. 
This is called " clearing the Deuce." 
To the third player he gives any card 
he chooses. 

3. If the Deuce and Femme, or 
either of them, are in his own hand, 
he gives a trump to the player with 
the highest trump, and any card to 
the other player. 

4. Should he not be able to do as 
he should, he may give out any card 
he pleases, but then is not allowed 
to score for the trick. 

The winner shuffles and cuts the 
stock for a new trump after each 
trick, but there is no fresh deal till 



FENCING 



310 



FENCING 



the close of the game, which is won 
by the first player who makes eleven 
points. 

The general rules for playing are 
as in WHIST. It is best to lead from 
a long suit, and in giving out after 
each trick, low cards should be cho- 
sen. Deuce is least valuable when 
it is unsupported by other 
cards of the same suit, for 
then, by leading that suit, 
an opponent may force the 
holder to play it, when it 
will be taken, being low in 
its own suit. When a player 
gets the privilege of " clearing the 
Deuce," therefore, he should select, 
as the new Deuce, one of whose suit 
the holder of the Deuce has very few. 

FENCINC, exercising with foils. 
Fencing foils are tipped with metal 
or gutta percha buttons, so that no 
injury can result from a touch, but 
both contestants usually wear leather 
jackets to protect them in case a 
button should break off, and each 



resting under the wrist. The foil 
should be held lightly, but so that the 
fingers will take an instantaneous 
grip, (see Fig. 2.) The various move- 
ments in fencing, which are chiefly 
called by French names, will now be 
described. By carefully learning 
their names, and practicing them, 





Fig. I. — Fencing Mask. 



has over his face a mask of wire 
gauze (see Fig. i) and a padded 
glove on his right hand. 

The foil should be held with the 
hilt (or handle) flat in the hand, the 
thumb being stretched along the 
upper side, and the pommel, or end, 



Fig. 2. — Holding Foil. 



beginners will soon be ready to apply 
them and vary them in actual con- 
tests, when parrying or thrusting. 
The principal kinds are the Engage, 
the Guard, the Thrust, and the 
Parade. The Engage is a position 
where the adversaries' foils touch 
each other ; the Guard is a position 
of the foil intended to protect its 
holder; the Thrust is a forward mo- 
tion of the foil toward the opponent 
in an endeavor to touch him ; and 
the Parade is a movement of the 
foil to parry, or turn aside, a thrust. 
Any of these positions or movements 
may be in Prime, Seconde, Tierce, 
Carte (or Quart). Quinte, Sixte, Half 
Circle or Octave (words derived from 
the French numerals from i to 8), 
according to the way in which the 
foil is pointed and held, as will now 
be explained. What are called the 
fines of defense are illustrated by 
Fig. 3, which is supposed to show 
the body of the fencer's opponent 
divided into quarters by two lines, a 
horizontal and a vertical. The space 
on the right is called the outside, and 
that on the left the inside, and the 
quarters, called the " lines of de- 
fense," are thus the Inside high. 
Outside high. Inside low, and Out- 
side low. Each of these quarters 
may be defended by two different 
positions of the foil. In each the 
sword-hand is supposed to be oppo- 
site the center and the foil extending 
into the quarter to be defended. 
Before engaging in a regular con- 



FENCING 



311 



FENCING 



test, the fencers must practice some 
of the most common positions and 
movements. Each fencer first as- 
sumes what is called the first posi- 
tion, by placing the right heel in the 
hollow of the left foot, and holding 
the foil just below the hilt, between 
the thumb and fingers of the left 
hand, so that it hangs at the left side 
(Fig. 4). The right arm hangs down 
easily and the right side is turned 
toward the opponent. The fencer 
then takes " second position " (Fig. 




Fig. 3. — Lines of Defense. 

5), by bending his right arm across 
his body, and taking the foil by the 
hilt, and "third position" (Fig. 6), 
by raising both hands above the 
head, sliding the foil through the left 
thumb and fingers till they hold it 
near the button. Both knees are 
now slightly bent till they are directly 
above the toes, and the fencer steps 
out about two feet with his right 
foot, the knees being kept bent. The 



foil is now released with the left 
hand and brought down so that the 
point appears to cover the oppo- 
nent's left eye. The right arm, 
which holds the foil, is bent, the el- 
bow drawn in, and the hand on a 
level with the chest. To balance the 
right arm and foil, the left arm is 
still held up in a curve, the palm to- 
ward the right, and about as high as 
the top of the head. The body is 
upright and supported 'on both legs. 
The fencer is now " on guard in 
carte" (see Fig. 7). 

The guard " in tierce " differs from 
this only in reversing the hand, so 
that the nails are half-turned down- 
ward, and in stretching the arm a 
little outward, to cover the outside 
of the body. When two fencers en- 
gage in carte (see Fig. 8), each has 
his foil on the right of his adver- 
sary's, that is on his adversary's 
inside, so the guard of carte is 
called an " inside guard." In the 
engage of tierce the foils touch on 
the other side, it being an " outside 
guard." When a fencer shifts his 
foil from carte to tierce, ox vice versa, 
he is said to " disengage." This is 
done in carte or tierce by lowering 
the foil just enough to clear the ad- 
versary's, and raising it on the other 
side. In engaging, the foils are 
crossed at a point about nine inches 
from the point. The most common 
guards, besides those already de- 
scribed, are those of half-circle and 
octave. The half-circle guard is an 
inside low guard, usually to protect 
against a thrust in second or low 
carte (see below). To take it, the 
hand is raised to the left shoul- 
der, the elbow turned in, and the 
point of the foil is held on a level 
with the adversary's waist. The 
octave is a low outside guard, gener- 
ally used against the thrust of octave 
(see Fig. 9). The hand is raised to 
the chest, with the point of the foil 
on a level with the lower part of the 
adversary's chest. In disengaging 
from the guards of half-circle and 
octavC; the foil is slipped over that 



FENCING 



312 



FENCING 



of the opponent, not under, as in 
tierce. 

Thrusts. The usual thrusts are 



made by means of the half longe (or 
lunge) and the longe. To make the 
half-longe, the fencer stands on 





First Position. Fig. 5. — Second Position. Fig. 6. — Third Position. 



guard and first straightens the right 
arm, bringing the hand up as high as 
his face, and additional impetus is 



gained by throwing the left hand 
down, palm outward, so that the arm 
is parallel with the leg ; simultane- 




Fig. 7. — On Guard in Carte. 



ously, the left knee is straightened 
and the weight of the body thrown 
on the right leg, without moving 



either foot from the ground. The' 
full longe is made in like manner, 
but by also stepping forward with 



FENCING 



313 



FENCING 



the right foot as the weight is thrown 
on it (see Fig. 10). Reversing these 
movements so as to bringthe fenceron 
guard again, is called " recovering. " 



When the fencer, being on guard, 
wishes to advance, he moves the right 
foot forward about a foot, and in- 
stantly, almost at the same time, fol- 




Fig. 8. — Engaged in Carte. 



lows with the left, "so that the dis- 
tance between his feet remains the 
same. In retiring, the left foot 
makes the first movement. 



The thrusts usually take their 
name from the position of the fencer 
when he makes the longe. Thus 
the straight thrust in carte is made 




Fig. 9. — Guard of Octave. 



from the engage in carte. Whenever 
the fencer sees that his opponent is 
not " covering " or protecting him- 
self, there is said to be an " open- 



ing." In like manner, the semi- 
circle thrust (also called low carte) 
is made from the semicircle guard, 
and the octave thrust in like manner. 



FENCING 



314 



FENCING 



The thrust in carte over the adver- 
sarj^'s arm is made from the guard 
in tierce and differs from the thrust 
in tierce only having the nails turned 
upward. The thrust in second is 
made from the engage of tierce 
by dropping the point of the foil 
under the adversary's wrist. The 
fencer sometimes recovers from a 
thrust to the same guard as before, 
and sometimes to a different one. 
What is called the Time-thrust is 
made when an adversary is dilatory 
or not well covered. It is. made 
by opposing the adversary's foil 
strongly, and then longing quickly. 

Parades. The simplest parades 
are those of carte and tierce, which 



are called upper parades. That of 
carte is made from guard in carte by 
throwing the hand about six inches 
inward making an upward turn with 
the wrist, and at the same time 
drawing the foil back slightly, thus 
throwing off the opponent's foil. 
The point of the foil, the body, and 
the legs should be kept in the same 
plane while executing the movement. 
The parade in tierce is likewise made 
from the guard in tierce by stretch- 
ing the arm obliquely downward to 
the right about six inches. The 
parades of octave and half-circle are 
performed by bringing the foil into 
the positions of the octave and half- 
circle guards, and there turning aside 




Fig. 10. — The Longe. 



the opponent's foil. The parade of 
prime is made from the engage of 
tierce by bending the arm and wrist, 
raising the hand to the chin, draw- 
ing the arm inward at the same time, 
and pointing the foil toward the 
lower part of the opponent's chest. 
Counters, or Round Parades. 
These are performed by following 
the foil of the adversary in a small 
circle. For instance, being engaged 
in carte, if the fencer's opponent dis- 
engage he follows the latter's blade 
closely with his own by moving the 
wrist only, so as to join him again 



in carte. The parade of counter 
tierce is made in Hke manner, only 
in the reverse direction. The half- 
circle, octave, and other counters are 
made similarly. 

Fei7tts, movements intended to 
deceive an adversary and force him 
to uncover himself. The feint of 
One, Two (sometimes called by the 
French name Une, Deux) is per- 
formed by two disengagements. 
For instance, when disengaging from 
carte to tierce, if the opponent takes 
the guard of tierce, the fencer may 
quickly disengage back to carte and 



FENCING 



315 



FENCING 



longe. The same feint in reverse 
order can be performed when en- 
gaged in tierce. The feint of One, 
Two, Three (or Une, Deux, Trois) 
is performed in like manner by three 
disengagements, the last accom- 
panied by a longe. 

Cut over the Point, a movement 
executed by a fencer when his oppo- 
nent holds his hand low and the 
point of his foil high. Being engaged 
in carte, it is performed by raising 
the wrist so as to pass the foil over 
that of the adversary without expos- 
ing the body by moving the arm. 
At the same moment the thrust of 
carte over the arm is given. This is 



called the cut over the point from 
carte to tierce (see Fig. 11); that 
from tierce to carte is performed in 
like manner. 

Appels, Beats, and Glizades. 
These are movements intended to 
confuse an adversary. An appel is 
performed by beating on the floor 
with the right foot ; a beat, or beat 
on the blade, is executed by sharply 
striking the adversary's foil ; and a 
glisade by gliding the foil along that 
of the opponent, at the same time 
extending the arm. 

The Salute. Previous to a fencing 
contest it is customary for the fencers 
to go through certain movements as 




Cut over Point. 



a form of courtesy (see Fig. 12). 
These movements are also useful as 
exercises for the learner. The first 
three positions having been taken as 
already described, the fencers take 
guard in tierce, each with his foil out 
of the line of his opponent's body, 
and then each beats twice with his 
right foot. One then asks the other 
other to thrust first, whereupon the 
latter longes in carte, but without 
touching the body, by this means 
measuring his distance. After the 
one who thrust has recovered, each 



brings his right foot up to the hollow 
of the left, drops his left hand, and 
brings his right hand under his chin, 
with the foil raised vertically. He 
then performs the parades of carte 
and tierce, bringing his hand under 
his chin again, at the close of each ; 
then by a circular movement of both 
hands passes quickly to the guard of 
carte. The one who first thrust, 
now makes six disengages. At 
each disengage from carte to tierce, 
his opponent parries in tierce, at the 
same time turning the hand, nails 



FENCING 



316 



FENCING 



downward, and dropping the point 
of his foil. When the thruster takes 
guard in tierce the opponent en- 
gages, at the same time making an 
appel. Each disengage back to 
carte is similarly met, the foil being 
turned in a half circle, nails up, af- 
ter the parry. After making the six 
disengages thus, the fencer feints 
One, Two, without thrusting, re- 
covers in tierce, brings his right foot 
into the hollow of his left, and drops 
his left hand to his side. He then 
asks his opponent to thrust, and the 
whole salute is performed again, 
the movements being interchanged. 



Skilled fencers do not put on the 
mask till after finishing the salute. 

The Assault. A regular fencing 
contest in which each fencer tries to 
touch the other by using any of the 
movements described, in any order. 
In the assault each fencer should 
look steadily in his opponent's eyes, 
so as not to betray the movements 
he intends to make. It is well to act 
at first on the defensive to discover 
what are the favorite thrusts or 
feints of an adversary. At the same 
time the latter should use all the 
different movements, as much as 
possible, in order not to give such 




Fig. 12.— The Salute. 



information. A good fencer must 
not only be able to longe, recover, 
advance, and retreat quickly, but 
must also have what is called a good 
opposition ; that is, he must always 
stand with his right side toward his 
adversary, and cover himself well 
with his foil. He must be able, by 
the pressure of his adversary's foil 
on his own, to tell what the latter 
intends to do, and must be able and 
ready to take advantage of all open- 
ings his adversary gives, w^ithout 
giving any himself. 

The following examples serve to 



show how some of the movements 
already described are used, and 
would be good for beginners to 
practice. 

Ex. I. The fencers engage in 
carte. 

A drops his point and thrusts in 
low carte. 

B thrusts straight. 

A parries B's thrust in carte, and 
thrusts again in low carte. 

B parries, disengages to tierce, 
and thrusts carte over the arm. 

A parries, and having disengaged 
returns a thrust in carte. 



FENCING 



317 



FENCING 



B parries in carte, then drops his 
point and thrusts in low carte. 

Ex. 2. Engaged in carte. 

A retreats. 

B advances, keeping on guard in 
carte. 

A retreats again. 

B advances, disengaging to tierce. 

[B should advance at the same 
moment that his adversary retreats, 
and when the latter advances he 
should retreat.] Being engaged in 
carte again, 

A thrusts in carte. 

B forms the parade in carte and 
delivers its straight thrust. 

A thrusts in carte again. 

B throws it off as before, and, dis- 
engaging to tierce, thrusts carte over 
the arm. 

A disengages and thrusts carte. 

B parries in carte, disengages, 
thrusts carte over the arm. 

A parries, and thrusts in tierce. 

B makes the parade in tierce, and 
delivers a straight thrust. 

Ex. 3. Engaged in carte. B holds 
guard low and point high. 

A cuts over the point and thrusts 
carte over the arm. Engaged in 
tierce. 

B disengages and thrusts carte. 

A parries with octave. 

B disengages over A's arm as he 
recovers, and thrusts in low carte. 
Engaged in carte. 

A feints One, Two, and thrusts. 

B forms counter-parade in carte, 
and gives a quick return thrust in 
low carte. 

A makes an appel, at the same 
time beating on B's blade, and then 
thrusts straight carte. 

B parries, and disengages. 

A counters, performs a glizade, 
drops his point, and thrusts in octave. 

It is good practice for one of the 
fencers to make all his thrusts, 
feints, etc., while the other simply 
remains on guard, using the proper 
parades as he needs them. The 
second fencer should then thrust and 
the first parry. 

In fencing matches, the contes- 



tants fence for a stated time, and he 
that makes the greatest number of 
hits in that time is declared the win- 
ner. The hits are sometimes re- 
quired to be within certain lines, 
which are chalked on the breast. 
If one fencer hit the body and the 
other the mask at the same time, 
only the hit on the body is counted. 
If one of the fencers drop his foil, 
any hit made by his adversary, after 
seeing the foil drop, is not counted, 
but a hit is good if made before see- 
ing it drop. 

RULES. 

The following rules for fencing 
matches are those of the Amateur 
Athletic Union, and were adapted 
from the rules of Adolph Ruze of 
Paris. 

1. Jury. The jury is formed of 
at least three members, who judge 
without appeal. 

2. Position. The jury must place 
themselves on both sides of the 
fencers, looking toward their chests, 
so as to judge as well of the value of 
the touch as of its artistic quality. 

3. Director of the Competition. 
A director shall be chosen from 
among the members of the jury, who 
shall always give the signal to begin 
the assault. 

4. Stopping the Assault. When 
any member of the jury shall call 
" Halt ! " the contestants must take 
the first position and lower the points 
of their foils. 

^. Formation of the Bouts. Com- 
petitors to fence according to draw- 
ing. The committee in drawing 
lots for the preliminary bouts will 
endeavor to arrange them so that 
members of the same club shall not 
be drawn against each other. In 
the finals, however, the order of 
bouts will be No. i to fence with 
No. 2, and so on through the list. 

6. Odd Nu7nber of Contestants. 
Rule to be " miss and out " — i.e. the 
beaten contestant retires entirely 
from the contest. If the number of 
the contestants is odd, one of the 
defeated will be drawn to fence the 



FENCING 



318 



FENCING 



odd man ; if beaten, the odd man 
retires also. 

7. Witmer of Bout. The con- 
testant making the first five touches 
to win his bout. 

8. The Question of Artistic 
Merit. The jury in deciding the 
bout can add one point to the losing 
contestant if they think his general 
form in fencing superior to his oppo- 
nent. Should the score, by addition 
of this one point be made equal, they 
shall fence for three more points. 
This method of judging is based 
upon the idea that the contest is 
intended as an exhibition of skill 
rather than the mere securing of 
points. 

9. Value of a Touch. Touches 
to count only when made upon the 
body within the limits defined by a 
cord sewed on the fencing jacket, 
under supervision of the committee. 
Any contestant, however, who shall 
turn his back on his adversary, during 
a bout, shall forfeit one point for 
each offense. 

10. The Avoided Touch. When- 
ever there is a clear intention on the 
part of the one touched to avoid the 
point, either by a movement of arm 
or body, his adversary shall score 
one point. 

11. Slap and Touch. A touch is 
of no value when the point is twisted 
on the body after the slap of the foil. 

12. Foul Toiiches. A touch, 
whether fair or foul, stops the riposte 
(the return thrust). 

13. Simultaneous Attack. 
Double-touches, occasioned by both 
contestants lunging at the same time, 
are considered bad form, and in case 
of second offense, one point shall be 
deducted from each contestant. This 
punishment consists in increasing the 
fatigue, imposing upon both con- 
testants the obligation of regaining 
the point taken away. 

14. Validity of the Attack in the 
Double-touch. From the point of 
view of skill, the party attacking with 
the hand high and in opposition is 
always in the right, and his blade 



should be parried by the party at- 
tacked, in order to avoid the double- 
touch. 

The stop touch is allowed when 
the attack is in the low line and not 
in opposition. 

Double-touches are in general an- 
nulled. 

15. Renewal or Delay of the 
Attack. The touch scored in the 
renewal or in the delay of the attack 
is valuable if the parry made to the 
first attack has not been followed by 
a riposte, or when the riposte has 
been slow. 

16. Corps-a-Corps. The jury 
stop a corps-a-corps as soon as 
made, since it may serve to cover 
irregularities. 

17. Of Contestants at Close Quar- 
ters. When one of the contestants 
shall be driven into a corner, the 
director shall halt and replace them 
so as to leave ample space behind 
each, and so that the precept " to 
retreat is not to flee " may be ap- 
plied. 

18. Disarmament. A disarma- 
ment shall not count a touch, but a 
touch scored immediately following 
upon a disarmament shall count. 

19. Changing Fencing Hand. 
Each contestant must fence through- 
out the contest with the hand he 
begins with. | 

20. Costume. Each competitor 
shall wear a dark fencing jacket and 
dark trousers, so that the white 
chalk marks can be easily seen. 

Each competitor shall also wear 
in the foil contest a fencing belt not 
exceeding four inches in width. 

21. Space. Space allowed con- 
testants to fence in shall be thirty 
feet in length. 

22. Conclusion. See that the 
meetings do not relapse into a hand- 
to-hand struggle, that it be an exact 
representation of the art and beauty 
of fencing. 

History. Fencing was practiced 
in ancient times as a means of 
attack and defense with swords, and 
exhibitions of it were given in the 



FENCING 



319 



FENCING 



Roman arenas by gladiators. It 
afterwards fell into disuse when the 
custom arose of protecting the body 
by heavy armor, but when armor 
was abandoned it came again into 
fashion. The continual brawls and 
contests between factions in Italy 
made it a necessary part of every 
one's education there, and Italians 
became very expert fencers. It was 
imported thence into Spain, France, 
and England. The sword used by 
the Italians was the rapier, which 
was long and flexible, with a sharp 
point, but no cutting edge, and 
modern fencers always use foils 
shaped like the rapier unless some 
other shape is specially mentioned. 



Fencing may be practiced with a 
broadsword, bayonet, or stick, but 
the method in these cases differs 
somewhat from that described 
above. In the old Italian school of 
fencing there were eight kinds of 
parries, called priino, secondo, tirzo, 
etc. (first, second, third, etc.), and 
from these the French terms now 
used are derived. The early Italians 
and Spanish aided the management 
of the sword with the dagger and 
cloak, and allowed the -fencer to 
shift his position to the right and 
left in making his defense ; but when 
fencers became more expert, and 
attacked with greater velocity, the 
dagger and cloak became an incum- 




Fig. 13. — Fencing about 1600. 



brance rather than an aid. The 
rapier became a favorite sword for 
duels, since it was the fairest to both 
sides, as it depended least on mere 
brute force. Before its introduc- 
tion into England in Elizabeth's 
reign, duels were fought without re- 
gard to equality of arms, and any 
advantage, fair or unfair, was seized 
upon at once. Though dueling is 
wrong, fair fighting is to be preferred 
to unfair, so the introduction of 
fencing with the rapier did much for 
civilization. Now that duels are not 
fought, there is no use for the rapier 
as a weapon, since soldiers do not 
wear it, but fencing with the foils 
is still a favorite exercise, and fenc- 
ing with the heavy swords used by 



soldiers is, of course, taught them. 
Fig. 13, taken from an old German 
book, published in the 17th century, 
shows two fencers of that date. 

Authorities say there is no single 
exercise which combines so many 
advantages, as fencing, since it brings 
into play the muscles of every part 
of the body, expands the chest, dis- 
tributes the circulation equally, and 
gives delicacy of touch, while render- 
ing the hand steady and light. In 
1536 a book on the art of fencing 
was published by a Venetian named 
Marozzo, and since his time many 
works on the subject have appeared, 
one of the best of which is the little 
handbook in the " All England " 
series (1889). 



FIFTEEN IN A ROW 



320 



FIFTEEN PUZZLE 



FIFTEEN IN A ROW, a soli- 
taire game of CARDS, played with 
two full packs. At the beginning of 
the game all the cards are laid on 
the table, faces upward, in rows of 1 5 
each, the last row containing but 14. 
The cards of each lower row lie 
partly on those of the next row 
above. The player's object is to 
build up the cards in families, by 
suits, upward from four Aces (one of 
each suit) and downward from the 
four corresponding Kings. For this 
purpose one can begin with any in- 
dependent card, that is, any card 
that has no other resting on it. Any 
independent card may also be placed 
on any other independent card of the 
same suit, just above or just below 
it in rank. At the beginning of the 
game only the cards in the lowest 
row are independent, and if there 
are no Kings or Aces there, and none 
can be freed, they may be taken from 
the next higher row and their places 
filled by pushing up the cards just 
below, until one King and one Ace 
have been obtained to begin building 
up the families. When all the cards 
have been removed from any line it 
is called a Street, and any indepen- 
dent card may then be placed in it. 
If the families can be completed the 
player wins. 

FIFTEEN PUZZLE, a solitaire 
game played with fifteen numbered 




Fifteen Puzzle. 

blocks of wood in a shallow box, 
arranged as in the figure. 

The object is, having first arranged 
the blocks in any order desired, to 
bring them into the order represented 



above simply by sliding them past 
one another, without taking any from 
the box. We learn by the rule of 
permutations in arithmetic that 15 
numbers can be arranged in no less 
than 1, 307, 674,368,000 different ways. 
In half of these arrangements the 
game can be won, and in half it can- 
not. To find whether any given 
arrangement can be solved or not, 
write the figures on the blocks in a 
straight line, as they occur in the 
box, and then bring them back to 
order by changing the places of two 
adjoining ones at a time, as illus- 
trated below. If it requires an even 
number of changes, the game can be 
won from the arrangement; if an odd 
number, not. Thus suppose the ar- 
rangement is as follows : 

Write the numbers thus, 12375 
4 6 8 9 14 15 12 13 10 II. Find 
the number of changes, two by two, 
necessary to correct the order. To 
bring the Four into place it must 
change places, first with the Five and 
then with the Seven, that is, two 
changes are required. In like man- 
ner, the number of changes required 
to bring each of the numbers, in 
order, into its proper order will be 
found to be : 

To bring the 4 into place 2 



7 
10 
II 
12 
13 



Total, 16 

an even number. 

The game can therefore be won by 
this arrangement. 

The player must remember that 
each number must be changed only 
with an adjoining one ; thus, it would 
not give a correct result to exchange 
the Four and Seven at once, and call 
that one change. The best plan is 
to write the numbers on bits of paper, 
so that they can be shifted about 
easily. 

Trial will show that although the 
necessary number of changes varies 



FILBERTS 



321 



FISHING 



with different ways of changing, it 
will always remain even or odd, as 
the case may be. The reason that 
the arrangements with an even num- 
ber of changes are the only soluble 
ones is that the blocks can be moved 
about only in such a way as to give 
an even number of changes. The 
learner can convince himself of this 
by trial, remembering always to ar- 
range the blocks so that the right 
hand lower corner is vacant, before 
counting the changes. As any even 
number of changes can be made, 
any odd arrangement can be brought 
down to that in which there is only 
one more change necessary ; but one 
being still an odd number, that 
change can never be made. Thus, 
if the last hne reads 13, 15, 14, while 
the rest of the blocks are in order, it 
is impossible to win the game. 

The Fifteen game was invented 
in this country, and became very 
celebrated about 1880. Before its 
properties were studied many people 
wasted a great deal of time in trying 
to win it from impossible arrange- 
ments. 

FILBERTS, Experiments with. 
Minute dents are often seen in the 
ends of filberts. These dents are 
the ends of very small channels 
which lead completely through the 
nut. If one of them be pricked with 
a pin and the end of a hair inserted, 
it is possible, with great care and 
patience, to push the hair quite 
through the nut. Necklaces of fil- 
berts, strung on hairs in this way, 
have been made, but the experiment 
succeeds only after many trials and 
with great patience. 

FIRE-DRAWINGS. Make a solu- 
tion of saltpetre in water and with 
a splinter of wood draw designs, 
figures, or letters on a piece of un- 
glazed paper. When dry, the paper 
will appear as if nothing were on it. 
If a glowing coal be now touched to 
part of the design it will take fire, 
burning with a good deal of smoke, 
but no flame, and the fire will trace 
out the design marked on the paper, 



not burning any part untouched by 
the saltpetre. The design, of course, 
should not be interrupted, but must 




Fire Drawing. 

be in continuous lines. The illus- 
tration represents the drawing of an 
elephant thus made. 

FISH, FLESH AND FOWL. See 

Three Elements. 

FISHING. Fishing with hook 
and line is called angling, from 
angle, the old name for a hook. 

Hooks are of various shapes and 
are generally known by the name 
of the place where they were originally 
made, as the Limerick or Aberdeen 
hooks ; by the name of the maker, as 
the Kirby or O'Shaughnessy ; or by 
the fish they are intended to catch, 
as Bass, Salmon, or Trout hooks. 
Among the hooks shown on the next 
page are the New York trout and 
bass hooks (Figs. 1 1 and 1 2), the Kirby 
bowed (Fig. 4). the Carlisle (Fig. 13), 
the Aberdeen (Fig. 7), the Kinsey 
(Fig. 2). and the Sneck (Fig. 9). 
Hooks may be either hollow-pointed, 
like the Limerick (Fig. 3), or bowed, 
like the Kirby (Fig. 4), but Kirby 
hooks are also made hollow pointed. 
As a rule a straight hook is the best ; 
that is, one whose point is in line with 
the shaft and not kirbed or bent to 
one side, for it more surely hooks the 
fish. Most kinds of hooks are now 
made with ringed ends, flatted ends, 
knobbed ends, or plain ends. Lime- 
rick hooks formerly always had plain 
ends, but are now made also with 




Fie. I. Gang-hooks. Fig. 2. Kinsey hook. Fig. 3. Limerick hook. Fig. 4. Kirby 
hook Fig. s. Barbless hook. Fig. 6. Snap-hook, open. Fig. 7. Aberdeen hook. 
Fig. 8. Snap hook, shut. Fig. 9. Sneck hook. Fig. 10. Treble hook. Fig. 11. New 
York trout iiook. Fig. 12. New York bass hook. Fig. 13. Carhsle hook. Fig 
Sizes of hooks, i to 16. 



14. 



32: 



FISHING 



323 



FISHING 



ringed ends, as shown in Fig. 15. 
The Barbless hook (Fig. S) has, 
instead of a barb, a sharp piece of 
wire extending across the opening of 
the hook, making it ahnost impossi- 
oie for a fish to escape after he has 
once hooked himself, but such hooks 




Fig. 15. — Sizes of Hooks. 

are little used. The snap-hook (Fig. 
8) has two hooks, which are set to- 
gether like a trap, and which spring 
apart (Fig. 6) after they are in the 
fish's mouth, thus holding him 
securely. The treble hook (Fig. 10) 
consists of three hooks fastened to- 



gether. Several treble hooks are 
often placed one below the other in 
what are called " gangs " (Fig. i). 
Figs. 14 and 15 show the sizes 
of hooks and the numbers denoting 
them. Some kinds of hooks are in- 
tended to be used without bait. 
The spoon-hook, of which two kinds 
are shown in Fig, 16, has on it a 




Fig. 16. — Spoon-hooks. Fig. 17. — Squid. 



piece of polished metal shaped some- 
thing like the bowl of a spoon. 
When it is drawn rapidly through 
the water the spoon twirls, and as it 
flashes along attracts the fish, which 
snaps at it and is caught by the 
hook. This kind of fishing is called 
trolling and is successful with blue 
fish, lake trout, pickerel, and other 
fish. For pickerel fishing several 
hooks and artificial flies are often 
fastened to the spoon. The line is 
fastened to a spoon-hook by a little 
swivel so that when the hook twirls 
it does not twist the line. 

The hook used in blue-fishing has 
its shank covered with a cigar-shaped 
piece of white metal called a squid 
(Fig. 17), which is sometimes cov- 
ered with eel-skin, with the silvery 



FISHING 



324 



FISHING 



side outward. The squid, which is 
often shaped like a Httlefish, glistens 
when drawn through the water, and 
attracts the lish just as the spoon- 
hook does. 

Snells. The end of the hook is 
generally attached to a piece of fine 
silkworm gut called a snell, which, 
being hard to see under water, pre- 
vents the fish from discovering that 



a line is fastened to the hook. 
Kooks may be bought already at- 
tached to snells, which are either 
single or double. Instead of snells, 
some hooks are fastened to gimp 
(a kind of coarse thread), and hooks 
for catching very large fish are at- 
tached to wire. 

Lines. Fish-Hnes are made of 
linen, hemp, silk, or hair, and cheap 




Fig. 18. 




Fig. 19. 



Fig. 20. 




ones of cotton. For small lake or 
pond fish, linen or hemp is gen- 
erally used, and for salmon or 
trout, braided silk or silk and hair. 
In fishing from a boat, in a lake or 
on salt water, the line is generally 
held in the hand, but in fishing from 
shore it is usually attached to a rod. 

Sinkers and Floats. The sim- 
plest sinkers are little pieces of sheet 
lead fastened to the line by pounding 
them around it, or bullets cut in half. 



and the simplest floats are ordinary 
bottle corks tied to the line, but one 
can buy both floats and sinkers. 
Most floats are made of cork and 
quill, and are intended to be fast- 
ened to the line at both ends. Fig. 
18 is called an "egg-shape" float, 
and Fig. 19 a "barrel shape." Fig. 
21 shows adjustable floats, with the 
manner of placing them on the line. 
Figs. 22-24 show different shapes of 
sinkers. 



FISHING 



325 



FISHING 



Rods are made of any tough and 
elastic wood. For fly-fishing, split 
bamboo is best : for other kinds of 
fishing, lancewood, ash, or hickory 




Figs. 22, 23, 24. — Sinkers. 

may be used. A good bamboo rod 
weighs from 4 to 12 ounces and is 
from 8 to 13 feet long. What are 
called double-handed rods, for catch- 




Fig. 25. 
Ring Guide. 



Fig. 26. 
Tie Guide. 



ing large salmon, maybe 20 feet long 
and weigh two or three pounds. 
Rods are usually made in sections or 
joints, which can be taken apart and 
carried easily. In the simplest kind 
of still-fishing, the line is fastened 
directly to the end of the rod, but it 
is better to wind it on a reel, fixed on 
the rod where the angler can reach 
it, running the line through little 
guides on the rod, till it reaches the 



tip. The length of the line can thus 
be varied at will by winding up the 
reel. The guides through which the 
line passes are either "ring guides " 
(Fig. 25), being fastened to the rod 
by rings around it ; or " tie guides " 
(Fig. 26), which are tied to the rod. 

Reels are of many kinds. Most of 
them are operated by turning a 




Fig. 27. — Automatic Reel. 

handle, but there are " automatic " 
reels containing a spring A, which 
winds the line when the angler 
presses a lever C (see Fig. 27). 




Fij;. 28. — Home-made Reel. 

The line passes through the guide 
B, and the reel is fastened to the 



FISHING 



326 



FISHING 



pole at D. A home-made reel 
(Fig. 28,) can be constructed by 
fastening an ordinary spool between 
the prongs of a forked stick which 
are tied together at the top with 
string or wire. The spool is fitted 
with a crank made of wire. 

Bait. The bait may be some- 
thing on which the fish naturally 
feeds, or anything resembling it. The 
bait used for each kind of fish is 
described below. The most com- 
mon baits for fishing near shore are 
the ordinary earth-worm (called 
angle-worm because it is so often 
used in angling), live minnows, the 
grubs or larvee of insects, grass- 
hoppers, and artificial flies. In some 



places, especially in Europe, what 
are called " pastes " are used for 
bait. There are many kinds, some 
of the most common being made of 
wheat boiled in milk, or bread and 
bran softened with water and made 
into balls. In salt water fishing, 
sand-worms, pieces of raw fish, clam, 
lobster, and the little crabs called 
" fiddlers," are also commonly used. 
For most fishes the bait should be 
put on so as to conceal the hook as 
much as possible, but some are so 
greedy that they will bite even at a 
hook without bait. In baiting with 
worms, the hook should be run 
through the worm lengthwise until 
it is hidden, leaving a little hanging 




Fig-. 29. — Fly-book. 



from the point. Small fish are 
usually placed on the hook by pass- 
ing the hook through the body at the 
mouth and out at the tail. Artificial 
flies are also permanently attached to 
hooks, and are used for catching fish 
that will jump from the water at 
insects. The flies of which Anglers 
usually keep a variety, in cases called 
fly-books (Fig. 29), can be bought, 
or made at home, the materials being 
feathers, fur, hair, silk-worm gut, silk, 
and tinsel. The beginner may learn 
to tie his own flies from some ex- 
perienced fly-fisher, but flies may be 
bought so cheaply that most anglers 
prefer to buy them ready-made at the 
fishing-tackle stores. They are not 
always made to imitate natural ones 



exactly, though anglers differ as to 
whether fish bite better at imitations 
or not. Sometimes trout will rise at 
almost anything. Fly fishing is de- 
scribed more fully below. 

Nets. The only net used by 
sportsmen is the landing net, to take 
a fish out of the water when it has 
been brought to the surface by means 
of the hook and line. It is merely a 
small net stretched over a hoop of 
wood or metal, and provided with a 
wooden handle. 

A small net, called a scoop-net, 
much like a landing net, is frequently 
used to catch little fish in brooks, by 
boys for amusement and by older 
fishermen to obtain bait. A good 
scoop-net can be made by binding 



FISHING 



327 



FISHING 




Fig. 30. 
Head of Fish Spear. 



together the ends of the prongs of a 
forked sapling to form a hoop, leav- 
ing the main 
stem for the 
handle, and 
then sewing 
around the hoop 
a bag of mos- 
quito-netting. 

Spears. Eels, 
p ic kerel, and 
many other fish 
are sometimes 
taken with 
spears (Fig. 30), 
especially in 
winter, through 
holes in the ice, 
in the manner 
described below. 
The spear gener- 
ally used is 
shown in Fig. 30. 

Spearing fish is thought by many 
to be good sport, but anglers gener- 
ally condemn it, and in some States 
the law prohibits taking certain kinds 
of fish in this way. 

Fly Fishing. Before fishing with 
the artificial fly, the angler must first 
learn how to "cast" or throw the 
lines so that the fly will settle on the 
water just where he wishes, in imita- 
tion of a real fly. Skillful fly-casters 
can throw out more than ninety feet 
of line with accuracy, but in practice 
thirty feet is generally all that is 
wanted, and the beginner should 
use but nine or ten feet. Fly-casting 
can be learned on any level spot of 
ground, as well as near the water. 
To begin with, a small piece of wood, 
about an inch square, should be tied 
to the end of the line instead of bait. 
Holding the rod in the right hand, 
the reel on the under side, the learner 
draws out about eight feet of line 
with his left hand and then, holding 
the piece of wood in his left hand, 
raises the rod with his right till the 
line is taut. He then releases the 
wood and the elasticity of the rod, 
aided by a slight upward motion, 
throws the line over the angler's head 



where it straightens out behind his 
back. This is called the " back cast." 
Before it touches the ground — bet- 
ter before the end is lower than his 
head — the rod is moved forward, 
casting the line straight out in front. 
The forward motion is made chiefly 
by the wrist. For the second back 
cast the line is raised directly from 
the ground, without taking hold of 
the piece of wood again. The line 
should be lengthened gradually, till 
twenty or thirty feet can be cast, and 
the learner should also practice cast- 
ing at a mark, which may be any 
small object on the ground. In fish- 
ing from the bank of a stream it is 
important to know how to make the 
back cast without letting the fine 
drop below the head, for otherwise it 
is likely to catch in bushes or shrubs. 
The beginner should, if possible, seek 
instruction from an angler when 
learning to cast the fly ; once seeing 
it done is worth many pages of 
printed instructions. 

In actual fishing, the angler casts 
his fly time after time till a fish rises 
to the surface and seizes it. Some- 
times the fish will not bite unless the 
fly is dropped directly over their 
heads. As soon as the fly is taken, 
the angler must " strike," that is 
raise the pole with a sudden jerk, to 
drive the hook into the fish's jaws, 
otherwise the fish may release the fly 
without hooking himself. When the 
fish is hooked it will try to get free, 
and here the skill of the angler 
shows itself. After allowing the 
fish to tire itself by lashing to and 
fro, and letting it unwind plenty of 
line from the reel, the fisherman 
draws it in by turning the reel crank, 
whenever the fish is tired enough to 
permit. But with a strong fish, he 
must sometimes let the line run out 
to prevent its being broken. This 
alternate pulling in and releasing is 
called "playing." Sometimes it is 
kept up for hours, until the fish is 
near enough to be taken from the 
water with a landing net, or, if it 
be a very large fish, with a big hook 



FISHING 



328 



FISHING 



on the end of a rod, called a gaff. 
" Playing" a fish is the angler's great 
sport. A fish may escape, after be- 
ing hooked, by tearing itself from 
the hook, by breaking the line, or by 
cutting it against sharp rocks, and 
the angler should take care that the 
fish is not allowed to give a sharp 
and sudden pull. 

Fish Spearing through Ice. A 
board shelter or cabin, of convenient 
size, which can be moved about from 
place to place on the ice, is some- 
times built. It may be just large 
enough for the fisherman to sit in, 
say four feet high, and four feet 
square at the bottom, sloping to two 
feet square at the top, and usually 
has no floor (see Fig. 31). It must 




Fig, 31. — Frame of Spearman's Cabin. 

be quite dark, so that the only light 
comes up through the ice, thus enab- 
ling the fish to be seen clearly. The 
fisherman sits on a box or block of 
wood, holding in his hand the spear, 
which has barbed tines. The handle, 
of spruce or light pine, and 9 to 12 
feet long, projects through a hole 
in the top of the shelter, the light 
being shut out by a loose piece of 
cloth, tacked to the edge of the hole, 
and fitting closely around the spear 
handle. The cloth should be large 
enough to allow the spear to move 
from side to side of the hole, by 
wrinkling. In the middle of the 
cabin a hole about a foot in diameter 



is cut through the ice. Through 
this the fisherman lowers a line, hav- 
ing on its end a decoy fish. This 
may be easily made of a piece of 
pine, painted white, with the back 
dark gray, fitted with tin fins, and 
weighted with lead. The line is 
fastened to its back by a bent 
pin, and by experiment the fins can 
be so arranged that when the Una 
is pulled up the fish will move ahead, 
as if it were swimming. The fisher- 
man continues to move this decoy 
about in the water until he sees that 
it has attracted a fish. The decoy is 
now gradually lifted with the left 
hand and the spear is slowly lowered 
with the right till it is about a foot 
above the fish's back, when it should 
be given a sudden thrust. The line 
may be thrown over the knee and 
the spear managed with both hands. 
If the fish is caught, it should be put 
outside the door of the shelter. A 
cabin like the one described is com- 
fortably warm, even when the ther- 
mometer is very low outside. Some 
fishermen build cabins having floors, 
seats, and a small charcoal or oil 
stove, so that a whole day can be 
passed in them. The best times for 
fish-spearing through ice are just 
before and just after sunset, during 
a snow-storm, or when the day is 
partly cloudy. > 

Snaring. Fish can be snared 
through the ice from a shelter like 
that used for spearing. The pro- 
cedure is exactly the same, save 
that instead of a spear the fisherman 
uses a slip-noose made of fine copper 
or brass wire attached to the end of 
a line. The line must not be jerked 
with too much force, or the wire 
snare may cut the fish in two. Trout 
can be snared in like manner with 
horsehair nooses. In most of the 
States it is forbidden to snare or spear 
trout, bass, and other food fish ; and 
anglers generally regard with dis- 
favor any method of capture except] 
with hook and line. 

A mode of fishing sometimes pra- : 
ticed in the Southern States is called; 



FISHING 



329 



FISHING 



" jugging." Five or six empty jugs 
are tightly corked, and floated in the 
water. To the handle of each is 
fastened a line about five feet long, 
fitted with a sinker and a baited 
hook. As the jugs float with the cur- 
rent, they are followed and watched 
by the fisherman. When a fish is 
hooked, the jug to which the line is 
fastened begins to bob up and down 
and darts about in all directions. 
Such a jug is at once pursued and 
the fish hauled in. 

A device used by fishermen, in 
tending several set lines on the ice, is 
called a tip-up. In its simplest form, 
a stick is laid across the ice hole, and 
to it is fastened at right angles an- 
other stick a foot or two long, having 
the line fastened to one end, and on 
the other a small red flag. The 
flag rests on the ice till a fish is 
hooked and then it is waved up and 
down by the struggles of the fish, at- 
tracting the notice of the fisherman. 

The following is a list of the 
principal game-fish of the United 
States, with a few words about each. 
The appearance of most of them is 
described in C. C. T., in separate 
articles. 

FRESH-WA TER FISH. 

Dace. Among the first fish usually 
caught by boys in fresh water are 
the various minnows sometimes 
called shiners and chubs, the most 
common of which is the dace or 
roach. The dace is found in most 
of the brooks and ponds in New 
England and the Middle States, and 
is caught with a light rod, and worms 
or artificial flies as bait. 

Sun fish, also called " Sunny," 
" Pumpkin seed," Pond Perch, Roach, 
and Bream. It is found in brooks 
over a large area in the United States 
(sometimes in salt tidal rivers), and 
is good eating. It is caught with 
small hooks and tackle, and worms 
as bait, and will also take the arti- 
ficial fly. The blue sunfish, blue 
bream, or copper nosed bream is 
fished for in the Southern States with 
artificial flies and affords good sport. 



The common bream of Southern 
waters is sometimes caught with a 
bait made of brown bread and honey. 
Yellow Perch. This favorite of 
young fishermen is common in most 
parts of the Eastern States, and 
furnishes sport most of the year 
round, being taken in summer with 
worm or minnow bait. In winter 
it is fished for through holes cut in 
the ice, the bait then used being the 
white grub found in decayed wood. 
In the spring the perch will rise to 
the fly. In weight the perch rarely 
exceeds two pounds, though speci- 
mens have been caught of twice that 
weight. 

Pike-Perch. This fish sometimes 
called the Glass Eye, Wall-eyed Pike, 
Ohio Pike, or Ohio Salmon, though 
it is neither pike nor salmon, is 
found in the Southern States, the 
great lakes, Western New York, and 
Canada. In Canada it is called the 
Doree, and another Canadian fish of 
the same species is called the Sandre. 
The pike-perch is bold and greedy 
and is readily taken with the hook, 
with almost any small fish for bait. 
In Lake Champlain it is sometimes 
caught by trolling. The weight of 
the pike-perch is from one to five 
pounds. Its flesh, which is white, is 
highly esteemed in the West. 

Pickerel. The Pike or Pickerel 
family includes the Muskallonge or 
Maskallonge (sometimes called the 
'Longe),andthe Northern Pickerel, of 
the great lakes ; the Common Pickerel, 
found in all the ponds and streams 
of the Northern and Middle States ; 
the White Pickerel of the Ohio and 
other western rivers ; and the Black 
Pickerel of Pennsylvania. They are 
all distinguished by length of body. 
The muskallonge, which, though of 
the pike family, is not a gigantic pike, 
as some think, attains sometimes a 
weight of 50 and even 80 pounds. 
The pike seldom grows to be more 
than three feet long, but the muskal- 
longe has been known to attain seven 
feet, especially in the Michigan lakes 
and in the upper waters of the Mis- 



FISHING 



330 



FISHING 



sissippi River, The finest muskal- 
longe are caught in Rice Lake, 
Canada, and good-sized ones, though 
not the largest, in the St. Lawrence 
River. They are generally caught by 
trolling w^ith a spoon. The common 
pickerel or pond pike is perhaps the 
commonest of all game fishes in the 
United States. It weighs, on an 
average, about five pounds. All the 
pickerel are voracious, and destruc- 
tive not only to small fish but to 
frogs and water rats. There are 
many modes of catching them, and 
they will take almost any kind of 
bait, but they are caught best by 
trolling with a gorge hook, or fishing 
with a snap hook. 

Cat-fish, Bull-head, Bull Pout, or 
Horned Pout. These, which are 
nearly related, are found in all North 
American waters. Cat-fish are found 
in the great lakes and in the West 
as well as in salt water, and bull- 
heads in most all fresh water. They 
have no scales, the skin being either 
naked or protected by large plates. 
The largest cat-fish weigh 150 
pounds. The flesh of the smaller 
kinds is rich, and in some places is 
considered a great delicacy. All the 
cat-fish are greedy biters, and will 
take almost any kind of bait. The 
ordinary bull-heads of the Eastern 
States are caught on muddy bottoms 
with worms as bait ; they bite best 
at night. The kind called " channel 
cat," found in the West and South, 
is very gamy and caught with heavy 
tackle and minnow bait. In the 
Southern States " jugging," described 
above, is a favorite method with the 
negroes of catching cat-fish. 

Black Bass is found in many 
lakes and streams east of the Rocky 
Mountains, and is much prized as a 
game fish. It is often caught with 
minnows, frogs, or grasshoppers, or 
by trolling with a Spoon hook, but 
rises readily at an artificial fly. The 
rods used are about 10 feet long and 
stiffer than those used for trout. 
In weight the black bass runs from 
two to four pounds for full grown 



fish, in Northern waters. Specimens 
have been taken weighing seven 
pounds and more. In the South, the 
fish are much larger. Florida bass 
have been caught exceeding twenty 
pounds. The colors of the black 
bass vary in different waters ; they 
have received many local names. 
They are called Trout in most parts 
of the South, Chubb in Virginia, and 
Welshmen in the Carolinas. 

Eels bite freely at worms, or bits 
of meat, and are also taken by 
spearing and by " bobbing." Eel 
bobs are made by stringing angle- 
worms in a bunch on a piece of 
stout thread at the end of an ordinary 
fish line. The eels bite at the bunch, 
and, their teeth becoming entangled 
in the thread, they are drawn ashore. 
Eels bite best at night and frequent 
muddy bottoms. Salt water eels are 
often captured in a sort of trap called 
an eel-pot. 

The Sucker is very commonly 
found in fresh waters in the North- 
ern States and is well know to country 
boys. It bites readily at angle-worm 
bait, and is often caught through the 
ice in winter. A favorite mode of 
capturing suckers is by means of a 
slip-noose of horsehair or copper 
wire, and they are also speared. 

Carp was imported from Europe 
about 1855, and is now found in 
many Eastern waters, and also in 
California and Oregon. It frequents 
muddy waters, and is not readily 
captured by angling, though it will 
sometimes take worms, artificial flies, 
and a bait of flour paste. 

Chub, Honey-head, or River Chub. 
This fish is widely distributed in fresh 
waters. It takes the hook readily, 
and is caught with worms or min- 
nows, the tackle used being the same 
as for black bass. 

Grayling. This fish is found 
along the Northern border of the 
United States, and catching it is con- 
sidered fine sport. It is best caught 
with a fly, but bites also at worms 
and insects. 

Salmon. The true salmon is 



FISHING 



331 



FISHING 



caught chiefly in Canadian rivers, and 
in the Penobscot River of Maine, 
from about the middle of May to the 
end of July, while on the way up 
from its annual visit to the sea, to 
deposit its spawn or eggs in fresh 
water. The fish deposit their eggs 
in the gravelly bed of the upper parts 
of the rivers in the autumn and then 
return to the sea. The young fish, 
when first hatched, are called Pinks 
or Paer, in their second year Smolts, 
and in their third Grilse. In fishing 
for salmon, artificial flies of various 
kinds are used. 

Trout. The Speckled, Brook, or 
Mountain Trout, which ranks second 
only to the salmon as a game fish, 
also migrates, or visits the sea, when 
it is possible for it do so. It is found 
in clear, cold streams and lakes ; and 
is caught with angle-worms, artific- 
ial flies, and minnows. In meadow 
brooks and mountain streams the 
fish caught do not average more than 
a pound in weight ; but, in the rivers 
and lakes of Maine and Canada, 
speckled trout of four to six pounds 
are not uncommon, while speci- 
mens have been caught weighing ten 
pounds. The lake trout is found in 
the great lakes, where it is often 
called the Mackinaw trout, and in the 
lakes of Northern New York, New 
England, and Canada. In the great 
lakes it sometimes reaches a weight 
of forty pounds; but in the other 
localities named it is much smaller. 
The lake trout is taken by trolling 
with minnow or spoon bait, and also 
by still-fishing near the bottom in 
deep water. 

White Fish, found in the great 
lakes, is much prized for food. It is 
caught usually in nets called " pound 
nets," from 500 to 1000 feet long. 
The net is stretched on poles, and 
ends in a pocket or trap, into which 
the fish swim and are caught by 
thousands. 

SA L T- WA TER FISH. 

The Cunner, also called the Salt- 
water Perch, Chogset, Burgall, Nib- 
bler, and Blue Perch, is found in 



great numbers along the coast of the 
United States. It is usually one of 
the first salt water fish caught by 
boys, and will bite readily at almost 
any bait. Clams' heads are often 
used. Light tackle is employed. 
Cunners often annoy fishermen very 
much by nibbling off their bait, 
when they wish to catch larger fish. 

Flat Fish are more gamy than 
the cunner, and excellent eating. 
They have flat bodies and large 
mouths. The tackle and bait are 
like those used for cunners. 

Flounder. This fish is taken all 
along the Atlantic coast, and bites 
best in spring and autumn. It is 
caught either with light tackle and 
clam or lobster bait, or in set-nets, 
and sometimes by spearing at night. 

Striped Bass, or Rock Fish. 
Though a sea fish, it enters tidal riv- 
ers to spawn, and often runs up 
fresh water streams in search of 
food. Next to the members of the 
salmon family it is considered the 
best game fish in the United States. 
It attains sometimes seventy or eighty 
pounds, but those weighing about 
eight pounds have the best flavor. 
It bites at nearly every kind of bait, 
and even at a white rag or bit of 
cotton, and it can also be caught with 
the artificial fly. A line baited with 
small fish is often cast directly into 
the surf, as in fly-casting. In troll- 
ing for it, the best bait is the min- 
now. Great care is necessary in 
landing the fish after it is hooked, 
for it is very strong, makes long and 
rapid runs, and is not easily tired. 
The Sea Bass, also called Black-fish, 
is caught on the coast of the Northern 
States in May, June, and July. It is 
sometimes caught from the shore, 
but generally from boats at some 
distance from land. It bites best at 
the turn of the tide, and is caught 
with black-fish tackle, and clams or 
shrimp for bait. 

Sea Chub. This fish is common in 
the South and occasionally appears as 
far north as New York. It was found 
there in abundance during the visit 



FISHING 



332 



FISHING 



of Gen. Lafayette to this country in 
1836, and hence is often called the 
Lafayette. It is prized as a delicacy. 

Weak Fish. It is found on al- 
most all the coasts of the United 
States between June and December. 
In the South it is often miscalled 
Trout, which fish it much resembles 
in flavor. Its weight is generally 
from a few ounces up to seven or 
eight pounds, and it is asserted that 
sometimes weighs 25 to 30 pounds. 
It is caught during flood tide, usu- 
ally with clam bait. A large hook 
of fine steel is used on account of the 
fish's large mouth and soft jaws. The 
same tackle is used as for black bass. 
Weak Fish must be eaten within 
three or four hours after it is caught, 
as its flesh soon gets soft. Some say 
that the name " Weak," was given 
because the mouth is easily torn by 
the hook ; some that it is a corruption 
of " Wheat Fish," since it is caught 
when wheat is ripe ; and others 
assert that it is corrupted from the 
original Indian name, Squeteague. 

Sheepshead. This is naturally a 
Southern fish, but is taken along the 
coasts of the Northern States from 
June till October. It generally weighs 
seven or eight pounds, but sometimes 
as much as seventeen. It has a head 
sloping abruptly to the snout and 
large oblong scales ; is of a dull silver 
color with coppery gleams, and has 
five dark arched bands across the 
back and tail. Its head and forehead 
are black and the chin is marked 
with patches, which, with its peculiar 
profile and prominent teeth, give it 
a fancied resemblance to the head of 
a sheep. It a wary and hard fish to 
hook and to land. Sheepshead is 
delicious eating and highly prized by 
epicures. Special hooks are made 
for sheepshead fishing ; clam, crab, 
or fiddler bait is the best. Sheeps- 
head are found about wrecks, sunken 
timbers, the piles of wharves, or on 
a rock bottom, and hand-line fishing 
is commonly practiced, though the 
use of rod and reel affords better 
sport. 



Scup, or Scuppog. It is called 
also the Porgie, Forgy, or Paugie, and 
is found all along the Atlantic coast. 
It is caught generally from arowboat 
with a hand line, a medium sized 
hook, and a sinker heavy enough to 
carry it to the bottom. Clam bait is 
commonly used, though the fish bite 
well at shrimp. 

Blue-fish. It is called also the 
Skipjack, and sometimes the Horse 
Mackerel, or the Snapper, is found 
on the American coast from Brazil to 
Massachusetts, and is common also 
in Europe. Full-grown Blue-fish 
are one to three feet long, and weigh 
fourto ten pounds. They are usually 
caught with a squid, as described 
above, trolled from a sailboat, or 
thrown out and drawn in from shore. 
They often run in "schools," through 
which the fishermen sail to and fro, 
trolling their lines, and taking the 
fish with great rapidity. They swim 
near the surface, and leap at any 
living thing they see. When fresh 
from the water they are delicious eat- 
ing, but their delicate flavor is lost if 
they are kept more than a few hours. 
Small blue-fish are caught from 
the shore in New England, during 
the early autumn, with light tackle 
baited with clams or minnows, at 
which they bite greedily. 

Mackerel are commonly taken in 
seines, but may be caught in much 
the same way as blue-fish, though 
the squids used are smaller. They 
will bite also at hooks baited with 
small bits of mackerel skin, or even 
with bits of white or red cloth. 

Smelts. These fish are taken 
along the coast north of New Jersey 
in large seines, but will bite also at 
hooks. They run up the rivers to 
spawn like salmon, and in Maine and 
the British provinces they sometimes 
pass their lives wholly in fresh water. 
Smelts are caught in Maine, through 
the ice, with what is called the "um- 
brella tackle," consisting of an ar- 
rangement made like an umbrella 
frame without the handle. To the 
end of each rib hangs a short line 



FISHING 



333 



FISHING 



with a hook, and the whole is sus- 
pended from a fish-pole by a single 
line, fastened at the place where the 
top of an ordinary umbrella handle 
comes through. 

Herring. This fish, which runs 
into the mouths of all the northern 
and northeastern rivers of America, 
is greatly sought for food. It is usu- 
ally caught with a net, but may be 
angled for with an artificial fly in the 
spring. It is colored blue above and 
silvery white below. The shad, which 
is of the same family as the herring, is 
likewise generally taken with a net, 
but can sometimes be caught with 
the fly, affording excellent sport. The 
shad is a dusky blue above, with 
brown and green tints. His sides 
are silvery white, with a tinge of cop- 
per color. It is considered by many 
the most delicious of all table fish, 

Tautog, or Black-fish, It is found 
from South Carolina to Massa- 
chusetts Bay, and is usually caught 
best near rocks, sunken wrecks, or 
deserted docks. The grounds it 
frequents are often " baited " by 
throwing crabs or clams into the 
water, in hopes of enticing it to come 
there to feed. Black-fish usually 
weigh two to ten pounds. The 
ordinary bait is soft clams, fiddler 
crabs, or bits of lobster. Two hooks 
are generally used, with snells of 
twisted gut, one twelve, and one 
fifteen inches long. Either hand- 
lines or rods are used. 

Fish caught in deep salt water, 
such as the Cod. Haddock, Whiting, 
and Halibut, are not usually classed 
as game fish, being caught chiefly 
for a livelihood. They are some- 
times taken for sport, but this con- 
sists merely in the frequency of the 
biting, for they offer little resistance, 
and are hauled in by mere strength. 
They are all found everywhere north 
of New York, and pleasure parties 
are sometimes formed to catch them. 
Cod and haddock are caught off 
Block Island, on the Rhode Island 
coast, salted clams or pieces of fish 
being used for bait. The line is a 



heavy cotton one from 400 to 600 
feet long, with a sinker weighing 
twelve ounces or more, and very 
large hooks. 

FISH LA ws. 
Most of the States have laws 
regulating the fishing for food and 
game fish. Thus, it is forbidden to 
capture trout, bass, and other fish 
by netting or spearing, or in any 
way except with hook and line. 
Fishing is permitted only during cer- 
tain months, which are called the 
"open season." The State,county,and 
town laws are frequently changed, 
and,therefore,the table which follows 
is probably not quite exact. Some 
States forbid taking fish under a cer- 
tain size or weight. In general, the 
purpose of the law is to forbid fishing 
methods that will destroy the supply. 
Heavy fines, and even imprisonments, 
are the penalties for violating the fish 
laws ; but anglers consider it a point 
of honor to obey the laws and to 
influence others to obey them. The 
laws apply to fishing in private 
waters as well as in those that are 
public. The following table shows 
when fish are in season in States 
where the catching of such fish is 
regulated by law. To find what fish 
are in season in any particular 
month, the reader must look down 
the column under the name of the 
month. The fish, opposite whose 
names there is a black line in that 
column, are then in season. The 
shorter black lines mean first half of 
the month, when printed toward the 
left ; and last half when toward the 
right. By beginning with the fish's 
name and following the line toward 
the right, it can be seen, in like 
manner, during what time it can be 
legally taken. For instance, the 
table shows that the trout season in 
Illinois begins on February 15, and 
ends on June 15, These times 
are only approximately correct, as 
legislatures are constantly changing 
them. The sportsman to be abso- 
lutely safe should therefore make 
special inquiry in each case. 



FISHING 



334 



FISHING 







J2 




t 
< 


^ 
S 


i 

3 
1— » 


1—. 


3 
< 


i 

CO 


o 


i 

z 


i 


Trout. 

Palifnrnia and Orefon 




TllinoiQ 




Maine (bv citizens). . . . 


1 


" <hu nfhpr<«^ 


Maryland 

Massachusetts 1 


and Minnesota f 


New Hampshire (with hook and line) 
" " (in any way) 


— = 


— 


— 


New Mexico . . 


North Carolina 1 

West of the Blue Ridge f 

Ohio 





— 


(Lake) 


Vermont • 




Wisconsin . . ..... ... 


Salmon. 




Iowa 


Maine (with hook and line) 




Massachusetts 


Ohio 

Pennsylvania . .................. 


West Virginia 

Black Bass. 
Dakota 


Illinois ...................' 


Maine 


Massachusetts 

New Hampshire 


New York 


Rhode Island 




Wisconsin 


Grayling. 


New Hampshire 

Shad. 
California 


District of Columbia . . . . . 


Blue Fish. 
In Southern W^aters 


__, 






Shad. 
On North Atlantic Coast 




Mackerel. 
Weak Fish. 
Sheepshead. 
In Southern Waters 




In Northern Waters 




Sea Bass. 

In Southern W^aters 


_^ 


In Northern Waters 

Black Fish. 
Muscalonge. 




New Hampshire 

Pike and Pickerel. 

Dakota 

New Hampshire 


— 


Vermont 


- 








^ 



I 



FISHING 



335 



FISHING 





c 






a. 
< 


>> 

a 


G 
1—, 


>— > 


3 

<: 


C/3 


o 






Perch. 

Maine 

New Hampshire 

Herring. 

District of Columbia 

Smelt. 

Maine (except by hook and line) 

Massachusetts 









— 










^^ 




— " 


— - 


— 







Trespassing. If the bottom of a 
stream is owned by any one, as it is in 
some cases, the owner alone has the 
right to fish in it, even if it is deep 
enough to float a boat. If it is not 
deep enough for boats, then the right 
belongs to the owner of the land on 
the nearest bank, no matter how 
wide the stream might be. In tide 
water, the right to fish belongs to 
the State, and it is usually free to all; 
but in some cases the State grants it 
to particular persons. When a per- 
son fishes in water without the per- 
mission of the one who owns the right 
to do so, he is a trespasser. What 
has been said on this subject, under 
Hunting, applies to fishing also. 
Some States have made special laws 
on this subject, but in general the 
law is as it has been given above. 

History. The earliest tribes of 
men caught fish with what are 







F^ig" 32. — Ancient Bronze and Stone 
Gorges. 

called gorges (see Fig. 32), pieces of 
pointed stone about an inch long, 
and having a groove in the middle 



for the line. The bait was put on so 
as to cover the gorge, which turned, 
after it was swallowed, across the 
fish's gullet and held it fast. One 
of these gorges, dug up in France, 
was used in what is called the Stone 
Age, before man understood the use 
of metals, and is estimated to be 
eight or nine thousand years old. 
Later, in the Bronze Age, gorges of 
bronze were used, and then hooks 
of bone and of bronze (see Figs. 33- 




Fig. 33. — Ancient Bone Hooks, 

34). The Indians of California used 
hooks made of shell (Fig, 35), On 
the coast of France hooks are some- 
times made of thorns, and the Piute 
Indians use the spine of a cactus. 
The Bible shows us that the use of 
hook and line was known, very early, 
to the Jews. The question in the 
book of Job, "Canst thou draw out 
Leviathan with a hook } " is supposed 
to refer to it. The prophet Isaiah 
says, " The fishers also shall mourn, 
and all they that cast angle in 
the brooks." Among the ancient 
Greeks and Romans angling was 
much practiced, and Antony and 
Cleopatra and the Emperor Trajan 
were fond of it. The sport has 
always been a favorite with many 
great men, among them Lord Nelson, 
Sir Walter Scott, and Sir Humphrey 



FISHING 



336 



FLAT-BOATING 



Davy. More than a thousand books 
on angling have been v^ritten in 




Fig. 34.- 



-Ancient Double and Single 
Bronze Hooks. 



English alone, the first of which, by 
Juliana Berners, was published in 




Fig. 35.— Shell Hook. 

1496. One of the most celebrated 
is " The Compleat Angler," by Isaac 



Walton, a noted angler, which first 
appeared in 1653 and has been repub- 
lished many times. The fifth edition 
(1676) was accompanied by a second 
part, giving instructions for fly fish- 
ing, by his adopted son Charles 
Cotton, and the two are now always 
printed together. 

FISH POND. See Angling. 

FIVES. See Rackets. 

FLAT-BOATING. Broad, flat-bot- 
tomed boats, called flatboats, bear- 
ing a wooden cabin, are used on 
shallow rivers and inlets by sports- 
men. A flatboat is easily built by 
any one with a taste for carpentry 
The hull should be about 14 feet 
long, 6 feet wide, and 18 inches 
deep, of two-inch pine planks, with a 
bottom of half-inch boards nailed on 
lengthwise. The whole should be 
calked with oakum and painted with 
coal-tar. The cabin is a framework 
covered with thin plank, and is about 
five feet high, and six feet square. 
In front of the cabin two oar-locks 
are fastened, which may be made of 
notched boards, and near the bow a 
small mast is set up. Another oar- 
lock, for the steering oar, is placed 
at the stern. The boat is propelled 
by rowing, and sometimes also by a 
square sail. It is slow, but its object 
is simply to furnish shelter to the 
sportsman, and enable him to move 
about from place to place in search 
of fish or game. It can float in 
water too shallow for a rowboat. 
A simpler kind of flatboat, which 
has been named a Crusoe-raft, is a 
raft of logs, joined together by cross 
strips, fastened by wooden pegs 
driven through auger holes. On the 
raft is a sort of tent made of bent 
saplings, covered with cloth, like the 
top of an old-fashioned emigrant 
wagon. For oars, long poles, with 
flat boards at the ends, may be used, 
and the tent should be floored with 
small sticks and partially filled with 
hay or straw. Such a raft may be 
built in the woods, floated down a 
river, and then abandoned, the boat- 
ing party returning by rail. A flat- 



FLOUR 



337 



FLYAWAY 



boat journey is a kind of CAMPING 
OUT on tiie water and the outfit should 
be much the same as for a camp on 
land. An oven of stones may be 
built on the boat, so that cooking 
may be done on board. 

FLOUR, an Explosion with. Any 
fine flour can be used in this experi- 
ment, but the best is ordinary corn 
starch. Nail together two boards, 
each about eighteen inches square, in 
the shape of a V, so that they make an 
angle of about 60 degrees. Lay the V 
on its side and at the top of the angle, 
fasten a candle by a wire, so that it 
projects into the space within the 
boards about an inch. Place within 
the V about a handful of corn starch, 
and, having lighted the candle, blow 
the starch toward the angle vigor- 
ously with an ordinary bellows. A 
dense cloud of flour will rise at the 
angle, and as it passes the candle it 
will take fire with a sudden puff, 
making a mass of flame. If the 
cloud does not catch tire at first it is 
probably because it is not thick 
enough. This can be remedied by 
using more corn starch, or blowing 
it more vigorously. 

To blow the side out of a box 
with an explosion of this kind, remove 
one side of a wooden box about eight 
or ten inches square, and replace it 
with thick brown wrapping paper, 
gummed on tightly. Bore a hole in 
one of the lower corners to admit the 
bellows nozzle, and another in the top 
for ventilation. Put in a handful of 
corn starch through the hole in the 
top, and lower a lighted candle 
through the same hole with a wire, 
bending the wire so that the candle 
will hang within the box. Blow with 
the bellows through the lower hole, 
and after a few trials an explosion 
can be produced which will blow 
out the paper side of the box. 

The reason why flour explodes 
thus, when it is in the form of a 
cloud, is that then each particle 
is surrounded by oxygen enough to 
burn it (see Fire, in C. C. T.), and 
yet the particles are near enough for 



the fire to pass from one to the other 
so that they flame up all at once. 

FLOWERS, Changes of Color in. 
Pour some common ether into a 
wane-glass, and to it add about one- 
tenth its bulk of strong ammonia 
v;^ater. This mixture has the prop- 
erty of changing the colors of many 
flowers when they are dipped into 
it. Some whose colors are red or 
violet, such as the red geranium, the 
violet, the periwinkle, the lilac, the 
rose, and the heliotrope, are turned 
bright green. The upper petal of 
the violet sweet pea becomes dark 
blue and the lower petal green. The 
streaked carnation becomes brown 
and bright green. White flowers 
generally turn yellow or orange, 
but yellow ones are not changed. 
The action of the liquid is so quick 
that flowers can be spotted simply 
by sprinkling it over them. Similar 
changes can be produced by using 
ammonia alone, through not so quick- 
ly. The ammonia may be poured on 
a glass plate and covered with an in- 
verted dish, containing the flowers. 
Asters acquire an aromatic odor 
when thus treated. The colors of 
flowers which have been turned 
green in either of these ways may 
be somewhat restored by placing 
them in a vessel over hydrochloric 
acid. (See also Sulphur.) 

FLUORESCENCE, Experiments 
on. See Quinine. 

FLY AWAY, a game played by any 
number of persons, with marbles, 
and an upright frame, seven inches 
high, on which are hung live small 
weights by elastic cords. The cords 
are kept stretched by fastening the 
weights to a cross bar near the 
ground, but, if one of the weights is 
struck by a rolling marble, it is un- 
fastened and the elastic pulls it up 
quickly, so that it seems to fly away. 
The players take turns in rolling one 
or more marbles at the frame, and 
when a weight is struck the player 
scores whatever number is written 
above it. In another form, the 
weights are replaced by little boards 



FLYING CONE 



338 



FOOT BALL 



which, on being struck with the 
marbles, turn over, showing a comi- 
cal picture on the other side. 

FLYING CONE, or Devil on Two 
Sticks, a toy consisting of two cones 
joined at their points (see A, in illus- 
tration), and made to spin in the air 



RIGHT HAND 




Flying Cone. 

by means of a string a yard long, 
fastened by two sticks, each about 
two feet long. The toy is first laid 
on a table with the string under it, the 
player holding one of the sticks in 
each hand. The cone being near 
the right-hand stick, the player lifts 
that steadily so as to make the cone 
revolve. By tossing it up a little way 
the string can be brought back to 
the same point, and by repeating the 
process the cone is made to spin very 
rapidly. The skillful player can then 
toss it high into the air, and catching 
it, make it dance on the tightened 
string, cause it to roll up one of the 
sticks to his arm, and perform many 
other feats. 

History. This toy had its origin 
in China, where peddlers use it to 
announce their approach by its hum- 
ming. The Chinese form is much 
larger than ours, and consists of two 
cylinders of metal or bamboo united 
by a thin stem. The string makes 
a running knot around the stem, and 
no sticks are used in spinning it. 
On its introduction into Europe, 
early in this century, it assumed its 



present form. In France, where it 
it called Le diable (The Devil), it 
was at one time so popular that, says 
a French writer, the toys " were 
made of the most valuable woods 
and even of glass. They were played 
with in parlors and on roofs, in 
public places and 
promenades ; the 
sport was not con- 
fined to children, 
but ladies and even 
persons of emi- 
nence strove to ex- 
cel in it, often to 
the great risk of 
the glass and por- 
celain in parlors, 
and often, too, with 
danger to the heads 
of the passers by, 
when the Devil was 
sent from afar by 
an inexpert player." 
The English 
scientist. Maxwell, a professor in the 
University of Cambridge, devoted 
much time to studying the move- 
ments of the Double Cone in the 
air, and succeeded in completely 
explaining it mathematically. 
FLYINQ TOP. See Tops. 
FLY THE GARTER. See Leap 
Frog. 

FOLLOW MY LEADER, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
one of whom is chosen as leader, 
while the others follow him and do 
whatever he does. The players 
form in line behind the leader, who 
generally begins the same by doing 
some simple thing like leaping, hop- 
ping, or shouting. If any of the play- 
ers fail to perform any of the leader's 
feats, that player must fall behind 
all those who were able to do so. 
The game may be made exciting by 
a good leader, but he should be care- 
ful not to lead his followers into 
danger. 

FOOT AND A HALF. See Leap 
Frog. 

FOOT BALL, a game played by 
22 persons, 1 1 on each side, with a 



FOOT BALL 



339 



FOOT BALL 



large oval ball, usually of inflated 
rubber with a leather cover, on a 
field 330 feet long and 160 feet wide. 



At each end is a goal made of two 
posts i8i feet apart, with a crossbar 
10 feet from the ground. The 







In Goal. 






'Foo ui 


qonox 


Goal Line. Goal Line. 
(18% feet.) 


•poo 


m qonox 






( Goal. ) 










160 feet. 








4 


•jno->[Ox;H jo iiraiq smi-pivA Sz 










1 

w 



-s 


• 


.a 



>-t 

w 

i- 




25 yard-line Limit of Kick-out. 






•;99J09I 










( 'Foo ) 










(•;39j K81) 
•aujq I'BOQ 'auiq iboq 






Touch in Goal. 




Touch 


in Goal. 






•poo UI 







Diagram of Field. 



posts project several feet above the j space beyond these lines, on either 
crossbar. The end boundaries of ! end and between the extended side 
the field are called goal lines. The 1 lines, is called a Goal. The space 



FOOT BALL 



340 



FOOT BALL 



outside the side lines and between 
tiie extended goal lines is called 
Touch, and the space at the corners 
of the field, between the extended 
goal and side lines, is called Touch- 
in-Goal, as shown in the figure. 
Usually the field is marked also with 
cross-lines every five yards, to aid 
the referee in determining how far 
the ball has advanced. These lines 
give the foot-ball field the look that 
has led to its popular name of " the 
gridiron." Two of them, the fifth 
from each goal respectively, are 
called the " 25-yard lines." All the 
lines are marked with lime. Each 
party or " team " consists of eleven 
persons, namely, seven Rushers or 
Forwards, a Quarter Back, two 
Half Backs, and one Full Back or 
Goal Tend. The opposing players 
face each other, and each side tries 
to carry or kick the ball toward the 
opposite goal, and either to touch 
the ball to the ground behind the 
goal (called " making a Touch- 
down ") or to kick it over the cross- 
bar between the goal posts (called 
" kicking a Goal "). In general, the 
Rushers try to carry the ball for- 
ward and also to protect the Half 
Backs and Full Back, who do all the 
kicking. 

The Center Rusher or " Snapper- 
back," should be a large, powerful 
man. but it is not necessary that he 
should run fast. His neighbors on 
either side are called " Guards," 
those next to these the " Tackleis," 
and the farthest ones the " End 
Rushers," who must be good gen- 
eral players and fine runners. The 
Quarter Back's position is the most 
responsible on the field, as it rests 
with him to determine the direction 
of the playing, and at critical mo- 
ments he may even change the cap- 
tain's policy. When the ball is held 
by the enemy the Quarter Back plays 
as a Rusher or Half Back. The 
best players in this position have 
usually been rather small men. The 
Half Backs should possess coolness 
and pluck, and must run, kick, and 



tackle well. The Full Back must be 
a long kicker and fine tackier, so 
that it will be almost impossible for 
a hostile man to pass him. The 
captains usually direct the play of 
their men by secret signals pre- 
viously agreed upon. 

The leaders of the sides toss up 
before the game, and the winner 
takes either the " kick-off " or the 
choice of goals. 

The players on each side now 
stand with their backs toward their 
own goal — the seven Rushers in a 
line, the Quarter Back just behind, 
then the Half Backs a few yards 
away, and finally the Full Back a 
dozen yards or so to the rear. The 
side having the " kick-off " places 
the ball in the center of the field, and 
one of that side kicks it toward the 
opposite goal. As soon as it is kicked 
it is said to be " in play." Before 
that, all on the kicking-off side stand 
behind the kicker, and all on the 
opposite side must stand at least 10 
yards before the ball. The player 
who next gets possession of the ball 
has the choice of kicking it, of run- 
ning with it, or of throwing it to 
some other player on his own side, 
but he must throw it sideways or 
back, never straight or diagonally 
forward. If he run with it, the 
opposed players may try to stop him 
by seizing or " tackling " him any- 
where above the knees. He may 
try to keep them off by pushing 
with his open hand, but not with his 
closed fist. It requires skill as well 
as strength to stop a good runner. 
Sometimes four or five men will be 
unable to hold him, while at others a 
small player will stop a large one 
almost instantly. If he be tackled, 
and the ball fairly held, he must say 
" Down," and a player on his side, 
usually the Snapper-back, then puts 
the ball on the ground for a " scrim- 
mage." The opposing rushers form 
in two lines, facing each other, each 
on their own side of the place where 
the ball was down. The Snapper- 
p3.ck takes the ball and " snaps " it 



FOOT BALL 



341 



FOOT BALL 



(see note under Rule 6) back to the 
Quarter Back, who passes it cO an- 
other player on his own side. That 
player may then try to carry it 
through the opposing rush line or 
kick it, but if in three successive 
" downs " by the same side the ball 
is not advanced 5 yards, or taken 
back 20 yards, it must then be 
kicked, or surrendered to the oppo- 
nents on the next failure to advance. 
When a ball is kicked, anyone on 
the opposite side who catches it 
fairly, without stepping from his 
place, at the same time making a 
mark with his heel on the ground, 
may have a " free kick." The op- 
ponents may then come up to that 
mark, but must not pass it till, after 
retiring as far as he wishes, the one 
who made the catch kicks it. He 
may take a " drop-kick," or a 
" punt," or hold the ball for a " place- 
kick " (all of which are described 
in Rule 2, below), but if he takes 
a place-kick the opponents may 
advance, or " charge," as soon as 
the ball touches the ground. When 
in the course of the game a player 
succeeds in getting the ball near 
enough to his opponents' goal, he 
may try to kick a goal, which he may 
do in any way except by a punt, or he 
may touch the ball down in Goal, 
which is called making a Touchdown. 
His side must then make a " Try at 
Goal," either by a place-kick or a 
punt-out as described in Rules 24 
and 25. When a side has the ball, 
but is hard pressed, near its own 
goal, it may gain a temporary advan- 
tage by taking the ball back across 
the goal line and making a Safety 
touchdown, or " Safety," as described 
in Rule 4 (d). The ball can then be 
carried straight out, not more than 
25 yards from the goal line, and 
kicked. Till it is so kicked the op- 
posing side must not come nearer 
the goal line than 25 yards. A 
" Safety " counts against the side 
making it, but if the ball is kicked 
or carried across the goal line by 
one of the opposite side and then 



comes into possession of the owners 
of the goal, who touch it down, it is 
called a Touchback, and does not 
count against them. If the ball 
crosses the side lines, or " goes in 
touch," it is put in play again, as 
described in Rule 22. 

During the game every player is 
either " off-side " or "on-side " and 
only those " on-side " can take active 
part in the game. Rule 10 tells 
when a player is off-side and how 
he is put on-side again. The ball 
must be either " in play " or " dead," 
and while it is " dead " no play may 




Drop Kick. 

be made. For instance, when a 
Safety has been made, the ball is 
dead till it is put in play, according 
to rule, by a kick-out. Till it is so 
put in play, the player holding it 
may not run with it, kick it, nor 
throw it, and the opposing players 
must make no effort to get pos- 
session of it. Rule II gives all 
the cases where a ball is dead. All 
disputed points during a match game 
are decided by a referee, an umpire, 
and a linesman, as described in Rule 
29. In a practice game one person 
often does duty for all three. 

A game consists of two halves, 
each 35 minutes long, with a ten- 
nn'nute intermission ; and the side 
scoring the greatest number of 



FOOT BALL 



342 



FOOT BALL 



points wins. The points are deter- 
mined by the Goals, Touchdowns, 
and Safeties as explained in Rule 26. 
The details of the game will be 
better understood by studying the 
rules given below. 

The balls used for playing are of 
various kinds. The Rugby, once 
used in all foot-ball games in this 
country, is oval, and consists of an 
India-rubber bladder with a leather 
case. The English Association ball 
has also a bladder and case, but is 




Foot Balls. 

round. These different kinds of ball 
are made in various sizes, from 20 to 
33 inches in circumference. Foot- 
ball players now usually wear canvas 
jackets lacing in front, and trousers 
of fustian or some other stout ma- 
terial, padded over the knees and 
thighs. Long woolen stockings are 
worn, and sometimes the Forwards 
use shin-guards. Shoes are of 
leather or canvas, with leather-strips 
or spikes on the sole. The Quarter 
Back, Center Rush, and Full Back 
often wear simply knit jerseys. 

Foot-ball Rules. Substantially as 
adopted in 1898 by the UniveVsity 
Athletic Club : * 

EQUIPMENT, OFFICALS, ETC. 

Rule I.— («) The game shall be 
played upon a rectangular field, of 
dimensions described in the preced- 
ing article. 

(J)) The game shall be played by 
two teams of eleven men each. 

(6-) The officials shall be a referee, 
an umpire, and a linesman. 

{d) The foot ball used shall be of 
leather, enclosing an inflated rubber 

* In the same year associations of Western and 
Southern colleges adopted rules of their own 
which differ slightly from these. 



bladder. The ball shall have the 
shape of a prolate spheroid. 

DEFINITION OF TERMS. 

Rule 2.— {a) A Drop-Kick is 
made by letting the ball drop from 
the hands and kicking it the instant 
it rises from the ground. 

(b) A Place-Kick is made by 
kicking the ball after it has been 
placed on the ground. 

{c) A Punt is made by letting the 
ball drop from the hands and kick- 
ing it before it touches the ground. 

{d) A Kick-Off is a place-kick 
from the center of the field of play, 
and cannot score a goal. (Rule 8.) 

{e) A Kick-Out is a drop-kick, 
place-kick, or punt made by a player 
of the side which has made a safety 
or a touchback. 

(/") A Free Kick is a teim used 
to designate any kick when the op- 
ponents are restrained by rule from 
advancing beyond a certain point. 

Rule 3.— (^) The ball is Out of 
Bounds when it or any part of the 
player who holds the ball touches 
the ground on or outside the side 
line or side line extended. 

(b) If the ball is kicked so that it 
goes out of bounds before crossing 
the opponents' goal line, it shall be- 
long to the opponents. If, however, 
it strikes any player who is on-side, 
and then goes out of bounds, it shall 
belong to the player who first ob- 
tains possession of it. 

Rule 4. — {d) A Touchdown is 
made when the ball in possession of 
a player is declared dead by the 
Referee, any part of it being on, 
over, or behind the opponents' goal 
line. 

{b) The point where the touch- 
down is marked, however, is not 
where the ball is carried across the 
line, but where the ball is fairly held 
or called " down." 

{c) A Touchback is made when 
the ball in possession of a player 
guarding his own goal is declared 
dead by the Referee, any part of it 
being on, over, or behind the goal 
line, provided the impetus which 



FOOT BALL 



343 



FOOT BALL 



sent it to or across the line was 
given by an opponent. 

{d) A Safety is made when the 
ball in the possession of a player 
guarding his own goal is declared 
dead by the Referee, any part of it 
being on, over, or behind the goal 
line, provided the impetus which 
caused it to pass from outside the 
goal to or behind the goal line was 
given by the defending side. 

Rule 5. — A Punt-Out is a punt 
made by a player of the side which 
has made a touchdown to another 
of his own side for a fair catch. 

Rule 6. — {a) A Scrimmage takes 
place when the holder of the ball 
places it upon the ground and puts it 
in play by kicking it forward or 
snapping* it back. 

ib) If, after the snapper-back has 
taken his position, he should volun- 
tarily move the ball as if to snap it, 
the scrimmage has begun. 

(c) When snapping the ball back, 
the player so doing must be on-side, 
the hand or foot used in snapping 
the ball excepted. (Rule lo.) 

Rule 7.— (a) A Fair Catch con- 
sists in catching the ball after it has 
been kicked by one of the opponents 
and before it touches the ground, or 
in similarly catching a punt-out by 
another of the catcher's own side, 
provided the player, while making 
the catch, makes a mark with his 
heel. It is not a fair catch if the 
ball, after the kick, was touched by 
another of his side before the catch. 
Opponents who are off-side shall not 
interfere in any way with a player 
attempting to make a fair catch, nor 
shall he be thrown to the ground 
after such catch is made unless he 
has advanced beyond his mark. 

{b) If a side obtains a fair catch, 
the ball must be put in play by a 
punt, drop-kick, or place-kick, and 
the opponents cannot come within 
ten yards of the line on which the 
fair catch was made ; the ball must 

* Snapping the ball means putling it back by 
hand or foot with one quick and continuous 
motion from its position on the ground. 



be kicked from some point directly 
behind the spot where the catch was 
made, on a line parallel to the side 
line. 

Rule 8. — A Goal is made by kick- 
ing the ball in any way, except by a 
punt, from the field of play over the 
crossbar directly over one of the up- 
rights of the opponents' goal. 

Rule 9. — Charging is rushing 
forward to seize or block the ball or 
to tackle a player. 

Rule 10. — \d) In a scrimmage no 
part of any player shall be ahead of 
the ball when it is put in play. 
(Exception under Rule 6, c.) 

{b) A player is put off-side if the 
ball in play has last been touched by 
one of his own side behind him. 
No player, when off-side, shall touch 
the ball except on a fumble or a 
muff, nor shall he interrupt or 
obstruct an opponent with his hands 
or arms until again on-side. No 
player can, however, be called off- 
side behind his own goal line. 

if) A player being off-side is put 
on-side when the ball has touched 
an opponent, or when one of his own 
side has run in front of him, either 
with the ball, or having been the last 
player to touch it when behind 
him. 

{d) If the ball, when not in pos- 
session of either side, is touched 
when inside the opponents' ten-yard 
line by a player who is off-side, it 
shall go as a touchback to the de- 
fenders of that goal. 

Rule ii.— The ball is Dead : 

(a) Whenever the Referee or 
Umpire blows his whistle or declares 
a down. 

(b) When the Referee has declared 
that a down, touchdown, touchback, 
safety, or goal has been made. 

(c) When a fair catch has been 
heeled. 

(d) When it has been downed 
after going out of bounds. 

Rule 12.— (a) The length of the 
game shall be 70 minutes, divided 
into two halves of 35 minutes each, 
exclusive of time taken out. There 



FOOT BALL 



344 



FOOT BALL 



shall be ten minutes' intermission 
between the two halves. 

{b) The game shall be decided by 
the score at the end of the two halves. 

{c) Time shall not be called for 
the end of a half until the ball is 
dead, and in case of a touchdown, 
the try-at-goal shall be allowed. 

{d) Time shall be taken out 
whenever the game is unnecessarily 
delayed or while the ball is being 
brought out for a try-at-goal, kick- 
out, or kick-off, or when play is 
for any reason suspended by the 
Referee or Umpire. Time shall be- 
gin again when the ball is actually 
put in play. 

{e) No delay shall continue more 
than two minutes. 

Rule 13. — {a) The captains shall 
"toss up " before the beginning of 
the game, and the winner of the toss 
shall have his choice of goal or kick- 
off. The ball shall be kicked off at 
the beginning of each half. When- 
ever a goal, following a touchdown, 
has been tried or a goal from the 
field has been kicked, the side de- 
fending that goal shall kick off. 
The teams shall change goals at the 
beginning of the second half. The 
same side shall not kick off at the be- 
ginning of two successive halves. 

{b) At kick-off, if the ball goes out 
of bounds before it is touched by an 
opponent, it shall be brought back 
and kicked off again. If it is kicked 
out of bounds a second time it shall 
go as a kick-off to the opponents. 
If either side thus forfeits the ball 
twice, it shall go to the opponents, 
who shall put it in play by a scrim- 
mage at the center of the field. 

(c) At kick-off, if the ball is kicked 
across the goal line and is there 
declared dead when in the posses- 
sion of one of the defending side, it is 
a touchback. If it is declared dead 
thus in possession of the attacking 
side, it is a touchdown. 

{d) At kick-off and on a kick from 
a fair catch, the opposite side must 
stand at least ten yards in front of 
the ball until it is kicked. On a 



kick-out, the opposite side cannot 
stand nearer the goal than the 25- 
yard line, except on a kick-out made 
after a drop-kick upon the first down 
inside the 25-yard line, when the 
15-yard line is the restraining mark. 
(See Rule 23, exception.) 

Rule 14.— (a) The side which 
has a free kick must be behind the 
ball when it is kicked. 

{b) In the case of a kick-off, kick- 
out, or kick from a fair catch, the 
ball must be kicked a distance of at 
least ten yards towards the oppo- 
nents' goal from the line restraining 
the player making the kick, unless it 
is stopped by an opponent ; other- 
wise the ball is not in play. 

Rule 15. — {a) Charging is law- 
ful, in case of a punt-out or kick-off, 
as soon as the ball is kicked ; and 
the opponents must not charge until 
the ball is kicked. 

{b) In case of any other free kick, 
charging is lawful: (i) When the 
player of the side having the free 
kick advances beyond his restraining 
line or mark with the ball in his pos- 
session ; (2) When he has allowed 
the ball to touch the ground by 
accident or otherwise. 

((f) If such lawful charging takes 
place, and if the side having the 
free kick fails to kick the ball, then 
the opponents may line up five yards 
ahead of the line which restrained 
them before charging. In that case, 
the side having the free kick must 
kick the ball from some point 
directly behind its mark, if the free 
kick resulted from a fair catch, 
and in other cases from behind the 
new restraining line. 

Rule 16. — {d) The snapper-back 
is entitled to full and undisturbed 
possession of the ball. The op- 
ponents must neither interfere with 
the snapper-back nor touch the ball 
until it is actually put in play. 

{b) In snapping the ball back, if 
the player so doing is off-side, the 
ball must be snapped again, and if 
this occurs again on the same down 
the ball goes to the opponents. 



FOOT BALL 



345 



FOOT BALL 



(r) The man who snaps back and 
the man opposite him in the scrim- 
mage cannot afterward touch the 
ball until it has touched some player 
other than these two. 

{d) If the man who puts the ball 
in play in a scrimmage kicks it for- 
ward, no player of his side can touch 
it until it has gone ten yards into the 
opponents' territory, unless it be 
touched by an opponent. 

{e) The man who first receives the 
ball when it is snapped back shall 
not carry the ball forward beyond 
the line of scrimmage unless he has 
regained it after it has been passed 
to and has touched another player. 

Rule 17. — {a) Before the ball is 
put in play no player shall lay his 
hands upon, or by the use of his 
hands or arms interfere with, an op- 
ponent in such a way as to delay 
putting the ball in play. 

{b) After the ball is put in play, 
the players of the side that has the 
ball may obstruct the opponents with 
the body only, except the player run- 
ning with the ball, who may use his 
hands and arms. 

{c) The players of the side not hav- 
ing the ball may use their hands and 
arms, but only to get their opponents 
out of the way in order to reach the 
ball or stop the player carrying it. 

Rule 18. — {a) Before the ball is 
put in play in a scrimmage, if any 
player of the side which has tlie ball 
takes more than one step in any 
direction, he must come to a full 
stop before the ball is put in play. 

When the ball is put in play by a 
scrimmage : 

{b) At least five players of the side 
having the ball must be on the line 
of scrimmage. 

{c) If five players, not including 
the quarter back, are behind the line 
of scrimmage and inside of the posi- 
tions occupied by the players at the 
ends of said line, then two of these 
players must be at least five yards 
back of this line, but all of these 
players may be nearer than five 
yards to the line of scrimmage if 



two of them are outside the positions 
occupied by the players at the ends 
of said line. 

Rule 19. — A player may throw, 
pass, or bat the ball in any direction 
except toward his opponents' goal. 

Rule 20. — {a) If a player having 
the ball is tackled, and the move- 
ment of the ball stopped, or if the 
player cries " down," the Referee 
shall blow his whistle, and the side 
holding the ball shall put it down for 
a scrimmage. 

{b) As soon as a runner attempt- 
ing to go through is tackled and 
goes down, being held by an oppo- 
nent, or whenever a runner having 
the ball in his possession cries 
" Down," or if he goes out of bounds, 
the Referee shall blow his whistle, 
and the ball shall be considered 
down at that spot. 

{c) There shall be no piling up 
on the player after the Referee has 
declared the ball dead. 

Rule 21. — {a) If, in three con- 
secutive downs (unless the ball 
crosses the goal line), a team has 
neither advanced the ball five yards 
nor taken it back twenty yards, it 
shall go to the opponents on the 
spot of the fourth down. 

{b) When a distance penalty is 
given, the ensuing down shall be 
counted the first down. 

Rule 22.— If the ball goes out of 
bounds, whether it bounds back or 
not, a player of the side which 
secures it must bring it to the spot 
where the line was crossed, and 
there either 

{a) Touch it in with both hands at 
right angles to the side line and then 
kick it ; or 

{b) Walk out with it at right 
angles to the side line, any distance 
not less than five nor more than 
fifteen yards, and there put it down 
for a scrimmage, first declaring how 
far he intends walking. 

Rule 23. — A side which has 
made a touchback or a safety must 
l<ick out, from not more than twenty- 
five yards outside the kicker's goaL 



FOOT BALL 



346 



FOOT BALL 



If the ball goes out of bounds before 
striking a player, it must be kicked 
out again, and if this occurs twice in 
succession, it shall be given to the 
opponents as out of bounds on the 
twenty-five-yard line on the side 
where it went out. At kick-out, the 
opponents must be on the twenty- 
five-yard line or nearer their own 
goal, and the kicker's side must be 
behind the ball when it is kicked. 
Should a second touchback occur 
before four downs have beeri played, 
the side defending the goal may have 
the choice of a down at the twenty- 
five-yard line, or a kick-out. 

Rule 24. — (a) A side which has 
made a touchdown must try at goal, 
either by a place-kick or a punt-out. 

(d) After the try-at-goal, whether 
the goal be made or missed, the ball 
shall go as a kick-off at the center 
of the field to the defenders. 

Rule 25. — (a) If the try be by 
a place-kick, a player of the side 
which has made the touchdown 
shall hold the ball for another of his 
side to kick at some point outside 
the goal on a line parallel to the side 
line passing through the point where 
the touchdown was declared. The 
opponents must remain behind their 
goal line until the ball has been 
placed upon the ground. 

(d) If the try-at-goal is to be pre- 
ceded by a punt-out, the punter shall 
kick the ball from the point at which 
the line parallel to the side line, and 
passing through the spot of the 
touchdown, intersects the goal line. 
The players of his side must stand 
in the field of play not less than five 
yards from the goal line. 

(c) The opponents may line up 
anywhere on the goal line except 
within the space of ten feet on each 
side of the punter's mark, but they 
cannot interfere with the punter. If 
a fair catch be made from a punt- 
out, the mark shall serve to deter- 
mine the positions as the mark of 
any fair catch, and the try-at-goal 
shall then be made by a place-kick 
from this spot, or any point directly 



behind it. If a fair catch be not 
made on the first attempt, the ball 
shall go as a kick-off at the center of 
the field to the defenders. 

(d) The holder of the ball in any 
place-kick may be off-side or out of 
bounds without vitiating the kick. 

Rule 26. — The following shall be 
the values of plays in scoring: Goal 
obtained by touchdown, 6 points ; 
goal from field kick, 5 points ; touch- 
down failing goal, 5 points ; safety 
by opponents, 2 points. 

Rule 27. — (a) No one having 
projecting nails or iron plates on his 
shoes, or wearing upon his person 
any metallic or hard substance that 
in the judgment of the Umpire is 
liable to injure another player, shall 
be allowed to play in a match. No 
sticky or greasy substance shall be 
used on the persons of the players. 

{d) A player may be substituted 
for another at any time at the dis- 
cretion of the captain of his team, 
and the player who has been re- 
placed cannot return to the game. 

(c) There shall be no tripping or 
tackling below the knees. 

PENALTIES. 

Rule 28. — A foul is any violation 
of a rule. [The latest rules prescribe 
minutely the penalties for each kind 
of foul. In general, when the of- 
fending side has the ball, it is pun- 
ished by being made to surrender it 
to the other side ; if not, the ball is 
advanced from 5 to 15 yards.] 

DUTIES OF OFFICIALS. 
I. — The Referee. 

Rule 29. — The Referee is respon- 
sible for the enforcement of Rules 
1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6 {a and b) ; 7 (except 
as relates to interference, throwing 
catcher, and positions of players) ; 8, 
II, 12, 13 (except d)\ \^,b; 16, e; 
19, 20 {a and b)\ 21, 22, 23 (except 
as relates to positions of players) ; 
24, 25 (except as relates to positions 
of players and interference) ; 26. 

In making his decisions the 
Referee must recognize and allow 
precedence to any penalty inflicted 
by the Umpire for a foul. 



FOOT BALL 



347 



FOOT BALL 



The Referee's decisions are final 
upon all points not specified in the 
duties of the Umpire. 

The Referee shall see that the ball 
is properly put in play, and he is 
judge of its position and progress. 

At the beginning of a game and 
after time has been taken out, he shall 
ascertain from each captain that his 
team is ready, before ordering play. 

He is sole authority for the score 
of the game and is judge of forfeit- 
ure of the game under the rules. 

The Referee may appeal to the 
Umpire and Linesman for testimony. 
//. — The Umpire. 

The Umpire is responsible for the 
enforcement of all rules whose in- 
fringement is punishable by a dis- 
tance penalty or by the surrender of 
the ball to the opponents, except 13, 
b; 16, e ; 19. and 23, viz. : Rules 6, 
c; 9, 10, 13 ^/ 14 a; 15, 16, (except 
e) ; 17, 18, 20 c; 27. 

The Umpire is judge of the con- 
duct of the players, and his decision 
is final regarding such fouls as are 
not specifically placed within the 
jurisdiction of the Referee. 

The Umpire is judge of charging, 
and of the positions of players when- 
ever the ball is put in play. 

He may appeal to both the Ref- 
eree and Linesman for testimony in 
cases of fouls seen by them. 

The Umpire shall not blow his 
whistle nor declare the ball dead, 
nor call time, except to grant a 
penalty for a foul committed. 
///. — T/ie Linesman. 

The Linesman shall, under the 
supervision of the Referee, mark 
the distances gained or lost in the 
progress of the play. 

He shall be provided with two 
assistants, who shall remain outside 
the field of play and who shall use, in 
measuring distance, a rope or chain. 

The Linesman shall, under the 
direction of the Referee, also keep 
the time and shall notify the captains 
of the time remaining for play, not 
more than ten nor less than five 
minutes before the end of each half. 



History. Foot ball was a favorite 
game in ancient Greece and Rome. 
The game comes to us from England, 
where it has been played for cen- 
turies. It was customary at one 
time for the different villages in the 
Midland counties to play against 
each other, and desperate strug- 
gles often took place which some- 
times grew into riots and produced 
long and bitter feuds. Foot ball was 
early played at the great English 
schools, and at each of them new 
features were introduced, till several 
forms of the game were developed. 
About i860, foot-ball clubs began to 
be formed near the large cities, and 
on May 8, 1866, these clubs sent 
delegates to a convention, and 
adopted rules, excluding features of 
the school games that were consid- 
ered too rough. Foot ball, as thus 
played, did not become popular in 
this country till about ten years after 
the adoption of these rules. In 1875 
Harvard and Yale played their first 
game of foot ball with Rugby rules, 
and soon afterwards the game be- 
came a favorite at other colleges. 
The game just mentioned was played 
with eleven men on a side, and this 
is the number that the present col- 
lege rules allow, though in the 
years 1878 and 1879 it was played 
with fifteen on a side. The game 
is played in this country from about 
the 1st of October till the end of 
November. The last official foot- 
ball guide contains records of 'j'] 
school and college teams and of 
6 others, chiefly from athletic 
clubs. To play foot ball well re- 
quires strength, skill, and cour- 
age, and an English general once 
attributed much of the pluck of 
the English troops to their experi- 
ence of the game. It is very rough, 
and often results in injury to the 
players, but the roughness is now 
restrained, by strict rules, within 
reasonable limits, and a slight degree 
of danger adds to the fascination of 
the game for most persons. There 
are no professionals, or paid foot-ball 



FORFEITS 



34S 



FORTUNE-TELLING 



clubs, and the game is seldom played 
by men more than twenty-five years 
old. 

FORFEITS, a game played by any 
number of persons, in which articles 
given up by each of them are 
restored on the performance of 
some difficult or ridiculous feat. 
Usually the forfeits have been paid 
in a previous game, as punishment 
for breaking some rule. One of the 
players, who has been selected as 
judge, sits in a chair, while another, 
who must know to whom the forfeits 
belong, holds them over the judge's 
head one by one, saying : " Heavy, 
heavy, what hangs over your head ? " 
The judge then asks, " Fine or 
Superfine ? " to which the other 
answers " Fine," if the owner of the 
forfeit is a boy, or, " Superfine," if a 
girl, adding, " What shall the owner 
do to redeem it ? " The judge then 
tells what the owner must do to get 
back his property. Sometimes in- 
stead of the first question the follow- 
ing is used : " Here is a forfeit, 
a very fine forfeit. What shall be 
done to redeem it ? " A few of 
the most common tasks are given 
below. 

Forfeits for either boys or girls : 

1. Blowout a candle as it is passed 
rapidly back and forth before the 
mouth. 

2. Place a candle at one end of 
the room, and then walk toward it 
blindfold from the other, and blow it 
out. 

3. Laugh in one corner of the 
room, sing in another, cry in the 
third, and whistle in the fourth. 

4. Bow to the prettiest person in 
the room, kneel to the wittiest, and 
kiss the one you love best. 

5. Count any required number 
backward. 

6. Pay a compliment to each per- 
son in the room. 

7. Hop around the room on one 
foot. 

8. Kiss your shadow. 

9. Answer " No " to a question 
from each one of the company. 



10. Answer five questions without 
saying " yes" or " no." 

11. Make a courtesy to each girl in 
the room, and a bow to each boy. 

12. Make a speech on any subject 
assigned by the judge. 

13. Repeat a sentence after the 
judge without making a mistake. 

Forfeits for boys only : 

1. Crawl under the table on all 
fours and bark like a dog. 

2. Stand on your head, or try to 
do so, in the middle of the room. 

3. Hold one foot in your hand, and 
hop on the other around the room. 

4. Join your hands and jump 
through your arms. 

5. Sit on the floor and rise without 
the aid of your hands. 

5, Pick three coins from the floor 
with your teeth. 

7. Jump up and catch in your 
teeth a piece of paper pinned on the 
wall just above your head. (Some- 
times called " browsing.'') 

8. Kiss the sole of each shoe. 

9. Balance a ruler on your chin or 
nose. 

Forfeits for two persons : 

1. Each holds a lighted candle, 
and they pass and repass each other, 
while they hold the following dia- 
logue, without smiling : 

" The King of Morocco is dead." 
" Sad news ! Sad news ! " 
" Alas ! " 
" Alas ! " 

2. Two or more boys are "trussed" 
(see Trussing game) and placed in 
a row. The end boy is pushed over, 
and they all go down like a row of 
building blocks. 

3. Hop on one foot from one end 
of the room to the other, and back. 
He who does this in the quickest 
time redeems his forfeit ; the other's 
is returned to the pile. 

4. Two are blindfolded, and re- 
quired to start from opposite corners 
of the room and shake hands. 

FORTUNE-TELLING, a sport m 
which one person pretends to fore- 
tell what is going to happen to 
another. If this is done merely as 



FORTUNE-TELLING 



349 



FORTUNE-TELLING 



game, it often furnishes much harm- 
less amusement. Games of Soli- 
taire are often played as fortune- 
telling games, and others are de- 
scribed in the articles on Hallow- 
e'en, and Sports with Flowers 
AND Fruit. 

A simple fortune-telling game is 
played with a disk of paper over 
which turns a pointer. The pointer 
may be cut out of wood, and 
fastened to the center of the 
disk with a pin, on which 
it can turn easily. The pin 
should be bent as in the 
cut so that the pointer will 
not rub against the paper. 
Around the edge of the disk 
are numbers in regular order, 
and on a separate piece of paper 
are written sentences predicting good 
or evil fortune. For instance ; 

" You will inherit a large sum of 
money." 

" You will marry a widow 60 years 
old." 

" You will move to California with- 
in a year." 

Some of the sentences may also be 
warnings. For instance : 

" Beware of a red-haired boy." 

" Keep away from Twenty-third 
street." 

Indeed.the sentences maybe varied 
almost infinitely to suit the writer. 
They must be numbered in order to 
correspond with the numbers on the 
disk. The players, one by one, set 
the pointer in motion, and each, not- 
ing the number opposite which it 
stops, seeks his fortune in the sen- 
tence opposite the corresponding 
number. Sometimes the sentences 
are written directly on the disk, but 
i it is not possible to have much variety 
j in this way. A numbered disk can 
I be used with various sets of sen- 
i tences. 

Fortune-telling with Cards. L A 
method which, like the one above, 
requires no skill is to place face up- 
ward, in a row, four Kings, if the 
person whose fortune is told be a 
girl, or four Queens, if it be a boy. 



The boy or girl gives to each card the 
name of an acquaintance, calling 
them after boys, if they are Kings, 
and girls, if Queens. The names 
are usually kept secret till the close 
of the game. The fortune-teller now 
takes the cards one by one as they 
come from the pack, and lays one 
beneath each of the four Kings or 
Queens, then four others on these, 
and so on. Whenever he deals an 
Ace or face card (called a " turning 
card ") he turns the King or Queen 
above it a quarter-way around, so 
that when four turning cards have 
fallen on the pile below any King or 
Queen it will be turned completely 
around. When one has been thus 
turned quite around, the fortune- 
teller announces that the person 
whose name it bears is the "best 
friend " of the one whose fortune is 
told. He then continues, in the same 
way, till the other three complete 
their turns. The one whose fortune 
is being told is informed, in order, 
that these are : 

The one whose best friend he is ; 

The one he loves best ; and. 

The one he is to marry. 

Sometimes when one card has 
made a complete turn, the pack is 
gathered up, the Kings replaced, and 
the operation begun anew. Thus it 
may happen that the same card 
turns first twice, thrice, or even four 
times. The Kings or Queens must 
all be turned in the same direction, 
so that one which has turned a 
quarter-way around can be told from 
one three-quarters around. The 
best direction is that in which the 
hands of a watch move. Double- 
headed cards must of course be 
marked to distinguish one end from 
the other. 

II. Another method, which re- 
quires quickness and skill in the for- 
tune-teller, is to deal the cards slowly 
face upward on the table just as they 
come from the pack, and by attaching 
some meaning to each one to pretend 
to predict the future. This shouM 
be done as quickly as possible and 



FORTUNE-TELLING 



350 



FORTUNE-TELLING 



can be made very amusing-. Each 
fortune-teller should decide on a 
system of his own ; but some of the 
usual meanings attached to cards 
are as follows : 

King or Queen — man or woman. 

Knave — boy or villain. 

Red face-cards — blondes. 

Black face-cards — brunettes. 

Diamonds — wealth. 

Hearts — love. 

Clubs — violence, war, or force. 

Spades — hard work. 

Thus, suppose the cards to fall as 
indicated below, the fortune-teller 
might talk somewhat in this way. 



4» 


L*'& 




oooo 


oooo 









The words suggested by the cards 
are in italics. " You will have a 
slight quarrel (i) with a dark man, 
(2) and will have to spend a great 
deal of money (3) to get out of your 
trouble, but a light woman (4) will 
fall deeply in love (5) with you, and 
give you all you want. But her love 
will grow less (6) and less (7), until 
finally she will run off with a dark 
haired villain (8), and leave you to 
work for your living." 

Fortune-Telling by Dots. The 
person whose fortune is to be told is 
directed to make four horizontal 
rows of pencil dots, without count- 
ing the number in each. The for- 
tune-teller now counts them, and 
makes opposite each row a single 
spot if its number is odd, or two 



spots, if even. Thus, if the rows ol 
dots are as follows : 



99«9«««9 
• •••• 



• • 



• • 



the fortune-teller would place his 
spots as shown at the right, forming 
a sort of figure. There are sixteen 
possible kinds of these figures and 
each is given a name, as shown 
below. 

The usual method is for the in- 
quirer to ask a question, which is 
answered by the fortune-teller in 
accordance with the figure resulting 
from the dots. The meaning of the 
figures is further explained below. 

1. Gain : A distinguished suitor, 
riches, a wish fulfilled, a happy re- 
sult, regaining lost property, many 
friends, new clothes, sickness cured, 
etc. 

2. Loss : Extravagance, dancing, 
music, unfaithfulness, deceit, false 
friends, bitter enemies, thieves, etc. 

3. Joy : A betrothal, a pleasant 
change, victory, advancement, and 
honor, etc. 

4. Sorrow : Quarrels with friends, 
an unfortunate speculation, anj 
anonymous letter, shipwreck, anj 
accident, sickness, etc, 

5. Union, or Harmony : Hopes] 
fulfilled, the discovery of treasure, 
advancement, plots, conspiracy. 

6. Captivity : Something caught] 
or reached, an interrupted journey, 
buried goods, a mine, treacherous^ 
love, death, honor attained, etc. 

7. White : Good fortune, a short 
Hfe, a happy marriage, increase of 
wealth by silver, certainty. 

8. Red : Wounds, death in a 
foreign land, bad fortune, fire. 

9. The Public : Mingled good and 
bad luck, enemies and friends, much 
work, tears, and journeys. 

10. The Road : also both good 
and bad. In case of right manage- 
ment all will turn out well, otherwise 
badly. 



FORTUNE-TELLING 



351 



FORTUNE-TELLING 



11. The Dragon's Head : A good 
sign, though what is wished for will 
meet many obstacles. 

12. The Dragon's Tail : A bad 
sign, desolation, bereavement. 

13. Great Luck : The full attain- 
ment of all wishes, wealth, honor, 
love, etc. 

14. Little Luck : Good fortune, 



though not as great as the above, a 
moderate amount of success, etc. 

15. The Maiden : Success in even 
a less degree than the last. 

16. The Youth : Bad luck in a less 
degree than Number 12. 

From what has been given above, 
the skillful fortune-teller will be able 
to return an elaborate answer to any 



1 


2 


3 


4 


• • 


• 


• 


• • 


• 


• • 


• • 


• • 


• • 


• 


• • 


• • 


• 


• • 


• • 


• 


Gain. 


Loss, 


Joy. 


Sorrow. 


5 


6 


7 


8 


• • 


• 


• • 


• • 


• 


• • 


• • 


• 


• 


• • 


• 


• • 


• • 


• 


• • 


• • 


Union. 


Captivity. 


White. 


Red. 


9 


10 


11 


12 


• • 


• 


• • 


• 


• • 


• 


• 


• 


• • 


• 


• 


• 


• • 


• 


• 


• • 


The Public. 


The Road. 


The Dragon's Head. 


The Dragon's Tail 


13 


14 


IS 


16 


• • 


• 


• 


• 


• • 


• 


• • 


• 


• 


• • 


• 


• • 


• 


• • 


• 


• 


Great Luck. 


Little Luck. 


The Maiden. 


The Youth. 



question. It is a good plan, espe- 
cially if the result shows nothing but 
evil, to try again, and combine the 
two results in one prediction. 

Palmistry, fortune telling by 
means of the palm of the hand. 
Different parts of the hand are 
called "mountains" and named 
after the seven planets known to the 
ancients, including the sun and 
moon. The lines on the palm also 
are given names. Both " moun- 



tains " and lines are shown in the 
cut. 

The mountains have different 
meanings according as they are 
high or low ; the lines according 
as they are complete or broken, as 
shown in the following table : 

THE LINE OF COMPLETE. BROKEN. 

Life Long Life Short Life 

The Liver Health Sickness 

The Brain Wisdom Stupidity 

The Table Evil Good 



FORTUNE-TELLING 



352 



FOURTEEN 



THE MOUNT 

Venus 
Jupiter 
Saturn 
The Sun 

The Moon 
Mercury- 
Mars - - 



OF HIGH. 

Love 
Honor and 

Rank 
Riches 
Good for- 
tune 
Luck on a 
journey- 
Adroitness 
Bad for- 
tune in 
war 



LOW. 

Hate 
Humble 
condition 
Poverty- 
Bad fortune 

111 fortune 
on a jour- 
ney 
Blundering 
Good for- 
t u n e in 
war 



History. In ancient times most 
people believed that certain persons 
could predict the future. Fortune- 




I. Mount of Venus. 2. Mount of Ju- 
piter. 3. Mount of Saturn. 4. Mount of 
the Sun. 5. Mount of Mercury. 6. Mount 
of the Moon, 7. Mount of Mars. 

A. Line of Life. B. Line of the Liver. 
C. Line of the Brain. D. Line of the 
Table. 



telling w^as carried on regularly at 
the temples of some of the Greek 
gods, the most celebrated of which 
was that of Apollo at Delphi (see C. 
P. P.). The Roman fortune-tellers, 
called haruspiceSy were consulted be- 



fore undertaking any public enter- 
prise. They pretended to tell for- 
tunes by examining the bodies of 
slaughtered animals or fowls, by the 
flight of birds, by the appearance of 
the heavens, and by all sorts of signs 
and omens. In the Middle Ages the 
favorite method of fortune-telling 
was by Astrology (science of the 
stars, from Greek aster, star, and 
logos, a word), a pretended science 
by which events were foretold from 
the appearance and positions of the 
planets. The people called Gipsies 
often tell fortunes for money, gener- 
ally by means of palmistry. With 
the increase of education belief in 
real fortune-telling has disappeared, 
though ignorant or foolish people 
are now and then deceived by some 
rogue, who pretends to be able to 
tell them about the future. Fortune- 
telling is now used by sensible people 
merely as a game. At fairs, a girl, 
dressed usually as a Gipsy, often 
tells fortunes for money, and, if she is 
clever, is sometimes very successful. 

FOUNTAIN, To make a. In the 
side of an ordinary wooden pail, 
close to the bottom, bore an auger 
hole, and plug it with a cork or rub- 
ber stopper through which passes a 
glass tube about two inches long 
(see Chemical Experiments). 
Put the pail on a high shelf, and at- 
tach to the glass tube enough rubber 
tubing to reach to the nearest sink, 
or out of doors. At the end of the 
rubber tube fasten a glass jet. If 
the pail be filled with water and the 
rubber tube closed with a pinch-cock, 
the fountain will play when the cock 
is opened. 

FOURTEEN, a solitaire game 
of CARDS, played with two full packs. 
Five rows of five cards each are first 
laid out at random to form a square. 
If in any row, either crosswise or up 
and down, there are two cards thcj 
sum of whose pips is 14, they mustj 
be taken out, and their places filled 
with the next two in the pack, in the] 
same order in which the cards were! 
first laid down. The Knave, Queen, 



FOURTH OF JULY 



353 



FOURTH OF JULY 



and King count respectively as ii, 
12, and 13. If no cards can tiius be 
removed, two may excliange places, 
but this cannot be done twice in 
succession and is allowed only before 
the pack has all been used. When 
the pack is exhausted, the lower row 
is taken up, shuffled, and used to fill 
the spaces in what remains of the 
square. Then the next row is 
treated in like manner. If this can 
be continued till all the cards are 
gone, the game is won. 

FOURTH OF JULY, or Indepen- 
dence Day, the anniversary of the 
signing of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence. It is a National holiday, 
and is made the occasion of many 
sports, chief among which, for boys, 
are the discharge of fire-crackers and 
fire-works. 

Decoration. The colors for Fourth 
of July decorations are of course the 
National colors, red, white, and blue. 
Foremost among the decorations 
should be a large United States flag 
(C. C. T.), to be raised on a staff on 
or near the house. The flag has a 
piece of rope sewed along the edge 
next the Union, the ends of which 
project a little and are made into 
loops. When the flag is to be raised, 
the ends of the halliards are fastened 
to these loops, and the flag is then 
pulled to the top of the pole, when 
the halliards are fastened below 
around a cleat near the bottom. 
The illustrations show the process of 
raising (Fig. i), and the appearance 
of the flag when raised (Fig. 2). 

The proper time to raise the flag 
is at sunrise, when it should be given 
a national salute; as many guns as 
there are States in the Union. Fire- 
crackers, or even torpedoes, will do for 
this, if you have no cannon. Other 
flags, of all sizes, may be draped about 
a house in many ways. A rosette may 
be made of a flag l?y laying it flat on 
the floor (Fig. 3), pulling the middle 
of one edge down (Fig. 4), and then 
pinning together the halves of that 
edge (Fig. 5). The flag is then 
arranged in rough folds from the 



center to the outside of the rosette, 
and projecting corners are pinned 
under, so as to make the edge cir- 
cular (Fig. 6). The whole must be 
pinned together firmly as it lies on 
on the floor, and then it can be fast- 
ened with tacks to the wall of the 




Fig. I. 

house. If, instead of one flag, two 
be pinned together lengthwise, so 
that the unions adjoin, the stars will 
be at the center of the rosette. Many 
other designs can thus be formed of 
one or more flags, by any one with 



FOURTH OF JULY 



354 



FOURTH OF JULY 



ingenuity. Strips of colored bunting 
may be arranged in festoons, or 
wound spirally about the posts of 
verandas. Little flags, about six 
inches long, can be utilized by fast- 
ening then in rows, or arranging them 
to form figures or letters. Patriotic 




mottoes may be made of letters cut 
out of red and blue paper, and framed 
in flags. For the interior of the 
house, red, white, and blue flowers 
are the best decoration. Portraits of 
eminent Americans, draped in flags. 



may be displayed on the walls, and if 
there is in the house some relic of the 
Revolution, an old sword or musket, 





'''*i*:-^ 


^1 




^^»i 






m 




^ AV. — ~ " . lit 


't^i\ 




i AfT— * -m 


Ik''*. * 


%M 




•^:^~^-m 


^ 


N^ 




fcW 'V-Nv A "' 


^ 




^j 




^. -,.^ ?M^ 




.^^- ^ 


^y 




^^^^^ 



Fig. 3. 

for instance, it should be brought out 
and similarly draped. 

Evening Decorations. In the even- 
ing the house and yard may be illumi- 




nated; that is, brilliantly lighted. 
The simplest way to illuminate a 




Fig. 5. 

house is to open wide all the blinds 
and curtains and place one or more 



FOURTH OF JULY 



355 



FOURTH OF JULY 



The house 
iant by plac- 



lights in each room, 
may be made more bri 
ing candles in the windows. Cross 
bars are often made to fit on the in- 
side of the sash, and on these, bits of 
candle about three inches long are 
fastened in rows. Colored designs 




Fig. 6. 

may be cut from tissue paper and 
hung in the window, with lights 
directly behind them. Designs made 
thus can be pasted on the panes and 
will give the effect of stained glass at 
a distance. They can be washed off 
afterwards with hot water. Chinese 
or Japanese lanterns are very effec- 
tive. The usual way of arranging 
them is on strings^ or wires, which 
are festooned from one tree or post 
to another. 

Fire-crackers and Fire-works. 
These are described in C. C. T. 
The noise of fire-crackers, when 
set off in packs, is much increased 
by placing them under a box or bar- 
rel. . When fired singly, the knot 
at one end of the pack must be 
untied, and the crackers can be then 
easily pulled out, one by one. It is 
usually better to break off part of the 
fuse before lighting, as the end 
burns slowly and is apt to go out. 
If the cracker is to be exploded in 
the air, it should be held in the hand, 
and thrown just as the fuse has 
burned down to the end. Many 
fuses burn by fits and starts, so one 



should never bend down close to a 
cracker to see whether or not the 
fuse has gone out. Persons have 
been seriously injured by the explo- 
sion in their faces of crackers, 
especially of cannon-crackers, an 
accident with which might be 
serious. Poor crackers may be 




Fig. 7. — Fizzer. 

made into " fizzers " by breaking 
them in two, placing on the ground, 
and applying a piece of punk to the 
broken place, taking care that the 
fingers are not in the way of the 
flame which shoots out. A fizzer 
may be held in the thumb and finger, 
in such a way that the flame cannot 
reach the hand, from whichever 
end of the cracker it may issue. 
Fire-crackers may be fired by elec- 
tricity, by winding around the fuse, 
close to the cracker, a piece of plati- 
num wire connected with an ELEC- 
TRIC BATTERY. When the circuit 
is closed the wire will be heated red- 
hot, lighting the fuse and exploding 
the cracker. The wire should be 
connected with the battery before 
trying to fire the cracker, to see 
whether it will heat it red-hot. If 
not, either the wire is too large or 
the battery not strong enough. 
Very fine iron wire will do as well as 
platinum if it can be obtained, and 
is not so expensive. To explode 
the cracker instantaneously, which 
is not done by the above method, a 
needle must be passed through it, 
and the wire threaded through the 
hole thus inade, instead of being 
wound around the fuse. For an 



FOURTH OF JULY 



356 



FOURTH OF JULY 



ordinary exhibition of fire-works, a 
post must be prepared for fire-wheels, 
and a trough for rockets. It is a 
good plan to have the wheels fastened 
to the post all ready to light, and to 
see that they revolve easily, so that 




Fig. 8. 

there will be no trouble when even- 
ing comes. If it should be necessary 
to start the wheels, as it often is, it 
should be remembered that they turn 
in the opposite direction from that 
of the sparks. The rocket trough 
can be made of two boards, each 




Fig. 9. 

above five feet long and four inches 
wide, nailed together at right angles 
along the edges. It is leaned against 
a fence, and the rockets are placed 
in it, one by one, just before firing 
(Fig. 8). Tripod rockets require no 



trough but stand alone, the stick 
being made in three pieces, which 
open out to form legs like those of a 
three-legged table (see Fig. 9). 

Fire-crackersandfire-worksareusu- 
ally lighted by punk, which is made 
of any substance which will smolder 
slowly without flaming. One kind 
may be made at home by soaking 
strips of ordinary thick pasteboard 
in salt and water, and other kinds 
may be bought. Instead of punk, 
pieces of exploded fire-crackers may 
be used. It can be put out by rub- 
bing the lighted part off on a stone. 

Chromotropesj revolving colored 
designs, lighted from behind. 
They consist of two parts, a fixed 
and a moving part. The fixed part 
(Fig. 10) may be almost any design, 




cut out of thick paper ; the moving 
one (Fig. 11), which revolves behind 




it, is painted with transparent colors 
on oiled paper in a spiral pattern. 



FOURTH OF JULY 



357 



FOURTH OF JULY 



Or it may be composed of strips of 
colored tissue paper pasted on a 
background of white tissue paper. 
The moving part is stretched on a 
barrel hoop, across which a lath is 
nailed (Fig. 12). A hole is bored 




Fig. 12. 

through the center of the lath so 
that the whole can be made to re- 
volve on a nail in an upright post, 
close behind the fixed design. One 
or more lamps are held just behind 
theChromotrope, and then the barrel 
hoop is spun around by a person 
standing at one side. The effect is 
very pretty, as the changing colors 
are seen through the holes in the 
fixed piece, and forms a good sub- 
stitute for fire-works. Chromotropes 
made of glass are often shown on 
screens by means of the MAGIC lan- 
tern. The word Chromotrope is 
from two Greek words, chroma, 
color, and irepein, to turn. It is 
sometimes called, also, " Chinese fire- 
works." The inventor, Mr. Allen, an 
Englishman, called it " pyreido- 
trope," from the Greek pur, fire, 
idem, to see, and trepein, to turn. 

Another kind of Chromotrope con- 
sists of three disks which partially 
overlap, as shown in Figs. 13 and 14. 
Each disk has several different colors, 
and as the disks revolve the colors 
appear to change. These can be 
made on a large scale for exhibition 



on the Fourth of July in the same 
way as those described above, by 




Fig. 13. — Front View. 

stretching oiled paper or tissue paper 
over barrel hoops. 




Fig. 14. — Rear View. 

Day Fire-works, colored paper cut 
into different shapes and scattered 
through the air in various ways. 
The simplest way is to throw therr. 
from a window. Descriptions of 
some kinds are given below, and 
others can easily be devised. 

I. The Whirligig. A square 
piece of paper is cut and folded to 



FOURTH OF JULY 



358 



FOURTH OF JULY 



make a windmill as shown in Fig. 15. 
A pin is passed through the mid- 




Fig. 15. 

die, the point is bent into a hook, 
and to it is fastened a slight weight, 
like a very small pebble, or a shot, 
wrapped in tissue paper and hooked 
to the pin. When such a whirligig 
is thrown from a window it will spin 
rapidly as it falls, and a number of 
them of various colors, falling at once, 
make a pretty sight. 

2. Spirals. These can be cut 




Fig. 16. 

from circular pieces of paper as 
shown in Fig. 16, and then pulled 




. ig. 17. 

out, as m Fig. 17. When dropped, 
they too will spin around. 



3. Shreds of gilt or silvered paper : 
and stars, circles, or other figures of 
the same material may be thrown 
into the air in great numbers. 

4. Bombs. Another way of dis- 
charging Day Fire-works is by means 
of a bomb, which consists of from 
four to eight whalebones fastened 
to two curtain rings. The rings are 
tied together with three strings. The 
whalebones are fastened tightly to 
the lower ring but the ends are 
merely caught under the upper one, 
so that a slight knock will dislodge 
them (see Fig. 18). 

Quantities of paper fire-works are 
secured very loosely around the top 




Fig. 18. 

ring, so that when the whalebones 
are released they will be thrown in 
all directions. There are several 
ways of setting the bombs off. One 
is to fasten a string to the lower ring, 
pass it through the upper, and then, 
holding the end, drop the bomb, giv- 
ing the string an upward jerk just as 
it reaches its full length. Another 
is to pass it over an upright fixed 
pole, arrange the string as before, 
pass it over a pulley at the top, and 
haul up the bomb. When the top 
ring hits the pulley, the whalebones 




will be dislodged and the fireworks 
will fly (see Fig. 19). 

Balloons. Large balloons are de- 
scribed in C. C. T. Toy balloons, 






FOURTH OF JULY 



359 



FOURTH OF JULY 



made of tissue paper, which can be 
bought at toy stores or made at 
home,are often sent up on the Fourth. 
Home-made balloons are constructed 
by pasting together gores cut out of 
tissue paper and shaped as in Fig. 20. 




Fig. 20. 

One of these is folded lengthwise 
down the middle and a second placed 
on it so that only a little margin of 
the first shows ; this margin is lapped 
over and pasted to the second, which 
is then folded lengthwise like the 
first. The desired number of gores 
is pasted together thus, and then the 
free edges of the first and last are 
pasted, thus forming the complete 
balloon. The shape of the balloon 
depends on the shape and number of 
the gores. Different shapes are shown 
in Figs. 21, 22, and 23. The length of 




the line A B, allowing for pasting, 
multiplied by the number of gores, is 
the circumference at the neck, and 



that at the largest part may be found 
in like manner. The length of the 
balloon will be somewhat less than 
that of the gores. The best shape 
for a balloon is as nearly spherical as 
possible. A narrow balloon, or one 




with a neck, takes fire easily. When 
the tissue paper has been pasted, a 
circle of wire the size of the opening 
at the neck, is made, with two cross 
pieces at right angles, and fastened 
by lapping the paper over it and 
pasting. A paper loop is pasted at 




Fig. 23, 

the top of the balloon, and a small 
ball of lamp-wick, about an inch 
thick, is rolled together and fastened 
by passing wire through it (Fig, 24). 
The ends of the wire are hooked so 
that the wick can quickly be fastened 



FOURTH OF JULY 



360 



FOURTH OF JULY 




Fig. 24. 



to the wire cross at the neck of the 
balloon. A plan of the arrangement 
is shown in Fig. 25, and 
a perspective view in 
Fig. 26. To send up 
the balloon the best 
plan is to make a fire 
of sticks or shavings 
on the ground, and put 
above it a piece of stove pipe to 
conduct a current of the heated air 
upward. The neck of the balloon 
is held over this by one person, while 
another holds the top up by a stick 
passed through the paper loop. 
Where the balloon is full of hot air, 
the wick is saturated with alcohol, 




Fig. 25. 

hooked to the wire cross pieces, and 
lighted, and the balloon, being re- 
leased, rises in the air. Care must 
be taken to hold it so far above the 
fire that there is no danger of its 
burning. The balloon would rise a 
little way without any lighted wick, 
but the latter is necessary to keep 
the air within it heated. For a small 
balloon it is not necessary to build a 




Fig. 26. 

fire, but simply to light the wick, and 
hold the balloon till the air is heated 
enough ; but a large balloon needs a 
better and quicker mode of filling it 
with hot air. If a wind is blowing, 



the balloon should be sent up from 
the sheltered side of a building, and 
care must also be taken that no tree 
or building is near enough to its path 
to obstruct it as it rises. 

Toy balloons are sometimes ar- 
ranged to carry up fire-works which 
are set off in the air. Any fire-work 
not too heavy may be fastened by a 
string to the middle of the cross 
pieces, a piece of slow-burning fuse 
being attached and lighted just be- 
fore the balloon is sent off. In the 
case of most fire-works the explosion ■ 
would destroy the balloon. A small m 
rocket may be thus taken up, being 
suspended by two strings, so that it 
will point horizontally, or slightly up- 
ward. A good plan is to open a 
roman candle, take out the stars, 
and wrap each in tissue paper with 
a little powder. The stars are then 
arranged at intervals on a string and 
a fuse running through them all is 
lighted at the lower end as the bal- 
loon is set off. The stars explode 
one by one in the air. 

Parachutes, (C. C. T.). Toy para- 
chutes can be made by crossing two 
long pieces of string cornerwise on a 
square piece of tissue paper, and 
then pasting another piece to it, so 
that the string is thus fastened be- 
tween. The ends of the string are 
then tied together and fastened to a 
small weight, for instance, a lead 
fish-line sinker. The parachute may 
be attached to a fuse, like the fire- 
works, so that when the fuse burns 
up to it, it will fall. It should be 
fastened to the balloon at the mid- 
dle of the paper, where the strings 
cross, and will hang down like a 
closed umbrella ; but when it falls it 
will open and then drop very slowly. 
Fire-works may be fastened to a 
parachute instead of to the balloon. 

Fourth of July Parties. Public 
celebration of the Fourth used 
always to include the reading of the 
Declaration of Independence, a 
patriotic oration, and a parade. 
Fifty years ago such celebrations 
were held in almost every town ; 



FOX AND GEESE 



361 



FOX AND GEESE 



The orations were often very flowery 
and boastful, a style of talking now 
often called " Fourth of July oratory." 
These public celebrations are less 
frequently held than formerly, but 
friends now often meet at a party or 
a picnic, and indulge in amusements 
appropriate to the day. An excur- 
sion to some place of historical 
interest may be made, especially if 
it be connected with Revolutionary 
history. 

FOX AND GEESE, a name 
given to several different games. I. 
A game played by two persons, one 
of whom has one piece, or man, 
called the Fox, and the other 17 men, 
called Geese, on a board like that in 
Fig. I. The Fox is usually larger 







' 


/ 1 \ 


* 






^N. 






/1\ 





Fig. I. — Fox and Geese. 

than the Geese, and of a different 
color. At the beginning of the 
game the pieces are placed as shown 
in the illustration, the Fox being in 
the middle of the board. The play- 
ers take turns, the Fox moving first. 
The pieces may move from one dot 
to the next along any line. The 
object of the Geese is to pen up the 
Fox so that he cannot move, and that 
of the Fox is to capture so many of 
them that they cannot do this. The 
Fox may capture a Goose by leaping 
over it, if the space next beyond it 
be unoccupied, as in CHECKERS, and 
the Goose so leaped is removed from 
the board. The Fox is not obliged 
to leap when he has a chance, but 



may move instead, if he wishes. 
The Fox cannot be penned anywhere 
by less than six Geese, as will be 
seen by looking at the board, and 
therefore when only five Geese are 
left, the Fox has won. If the Geese 
are played skillfully, it is said that 
they must always win, and the game 
is therefore sometimes played with 
two Foxes, Holes may take the place 
of the dots on the board and the 
game is then played with pegs or 
marbles instead of men. It may be 
so played on a Solitaire board. 

The Battle Game, or Siege, a 
kind of Fox and Geese in which part 
of the board is separated from the 
rest, as shown in Fig. 2. 

This is called the Fortress, and is 
occupied at the opening of the game 
by two Sharpshooters, who corre- 
spond to the two Foxes in the older 
game. The rest of the board is called 
the Battlefield, and is occupied by 
24 common Soldiers, who are like 
the Geese, The Sharpshooters may 
stand anywhere within the For- 
tress at the beginning of the game, 
and they can move from one spot to 
the next, in any direction, to any part 
of the board, A Sharpshooter can 
take any Soldier by leaping over him 
to the next spot beyond, if it is vacant, 
as in Checkers, The Soldiers can 
move forward (either straight or diag- 
onally), or sidewise, if in so doing 
they approach the Fortress, but never 
backward, and they cannot take the 
Sharpshooters by leaping. The 
player who moves the Soldiers wins 
if he can place his men so that the 
Sharpshooters cannot leave the For- 
tress, or if he can pen them up in 
any part of the Battlefield, so that 
they cannot move at all. The one 
who has the Sharpshooters wins if 
he can take so many of the Soldiers 
that not enough are left to pen him 
up. This is done when he has cap- 
tured all but nine. As a Sharp- 
shooter, when in the middle of the 
board, can move in any one of eight 
different directions, he has great 
power. The same Sharpshooter is 



FOX AND GEESE 



362 



FOX AND GEESE 



allowed to make as many leaps as 
he can in one turn, as in Checkers. 



History. This variation of Fox 
and Geese is called in Germany 




Battle Game, or Siege. 



" Belagerung Spiel " (The Beleaguer- 
ing Game). Though it is an old 
game, a description of it was recently 
published in a New York paper as if 
it were a new invention. 

Chinese Fox and Geese. This is 
played on a board like that in Fig. 3, 
which also shows the arrangement of 
the men. The Commander (corre- 
sponding to the Fox) is placed in the 
middle and surrounded by 26 sol- 
diers (corresponding to the Geese). 
The Commander may take a soldier 
by leaping, as in Checkers, and all 
the pieces may move forward, back- 
ward, or sidewise. The object of 
the soldiers is to pen up the Com- 
mander in the triangular space a, c, b. 
As in ordinary Fox and Geese, the 
soldiers will always win in this game, 
if it is played well. It is sometimes 
called the " Chinese Rebel Game," 



and the Chinese call it Yang Lo See, 
after the leader of a famous rebellion. 



i\ 


\\ 


-^ 


>>-- 







Fig. 3. — Chinese Fox and Geese. 

French Military Game. This re 
sembles Chinese Fox and Geese. 



FOX AND GEESE 



363 



FOX AND GEESE 



black piece, called an Army Corps, 
corresponds to the Fox, and the three 
pieces of a different color called 
Brigades of Cavalry, to the Geese. 
The object of the Cavalry, as in the 
other forms of the game, is to pen up 
the Army Corps so that it cannot 
move. The Army Corps is allowed 
to move in any direction along a 
line, but each Brigade of Cavalry can 
move backward only once during the 
game, all other moves being forward 
or sidewise. The Army Corps is 
given the first move. This game is 
said to have been devised by Louis 
Dyen, a French army officer, in 
1886. It has been shown in a French 
scientific paper that, as in other 
forms of the game where there is one 
Fox, the Geese (in this case the Bri- 
gades of Cavalry) must win, if played 
properly. 

II. A game played by any number 
of persons, one of whom takes the 
part of the Fox and the others stand 
in a double circle, facing inward. 
At one place in the circle there are 
three players instead of two as shown 
in Fig, 4. The object of the Fox is to 

o o 
^ o o o^ 



o 
o o o 



Fig. 4. — Fox and Geese, or Tierce. 

touch the outside one of three, who 
tries to escape by running into the 
circle and standing inside two of 
the others, thus exposing the outside 
player to the Fox. If any one is 
caught he must take the Fox's place. 
When the number of players is large 
there may be two or more groups of 



three. The Fox may not enter the 
circle, and there should be plenty of 
room left between the groups of 
players, so that the Geese may run in 
easily. 

In England this game is some- 
times called Round Tag and Tierce. 
Its ancient name was The Faggots, 
the pairs of players, one in front of 
the other, being called Faggots, and 
the Fox and Goose the Hound and 
Hare. A similar game was played 
there in ancient times, called Trick 
the Rabbit. 

In France it is called Deux c'est 
assez, trots cest trop (Two is Com- 
pany, Three is a Crowd), and in 
Germany, Den Dritten Jagen (Hunt 
the Third). 

III. An outdoor game played by 
any number of persons on a figure 
marked on the ground or in the snow, 
like that in Fig. 5, There may be any 




Fig. 5.— Fox and Geese. 

number of circles and lines accord- 
ing to the number of players and 
the size of the ground. One of the 
players is selected as Fox, and the 
others represent Geese. The Geese 
may run on any of the paths, but 
the Fox must keep on the straight 
ones. If he touch any one of the 
Geese, that one must take his place 
as Fox. In some parts of New Eng- 
land this game is called Pickadill. 

FRENCH AND ENGLISH. See 
Tug of War. 



FRENCH SOLITAIRE 



3^4 



FUSIBLE METALS 



FRENCH BLIND MAN'S BUFF, 

See Blind man's buff. 

FRENCH SOLITAIRE, a SOLI- 
TAIRE game of cards, played with 
one full pack. The four Aces are 
placed in a row, as they appear, and 
the other cards on these, in order, 
without following suit. Cards that 
cannot be so placed must be ar- 
ranged in four piles beneath the 
others, without regard to suit or 
rank. The top card of a lower pile 
must be placed on one of the upper 
piles whenever possible. It requires 
skill so to place the cards in the 
lower piles that they will be available 
in making the upper piles. No cards 
in any of the lower piles must be 
looked at, except the top card. 

This is one of the simplest Soli- 
taire card-games. It is made more 
difficult by requiring the upper piles 
to be made in suits, and still easier 
by permitting the player to examine 
the lower piles. 

FUN ALIVE, a game played by 
any number of persons with 8 large 
cards called " Game Cards," and 
40 smaller " Forfeit Cards." The 
Game Cards are all blank except one, 
called the " Catch Card," on which 
the words " Fun Alive " are printed 
in large letters. On each of the For- 
feit Cards a FORFEIT is printed. 
The Forfeit Cards are spread, face 
downward, in the middle of the table, 
and the same is begun by one player's 
taking the Game Cards, shuffling 
them, and presenting them to his 
left-hand neighbor, who draws one. 
If it be the Catch Card, he must at 
once draw a Forfeit Card, and do as 
it directs. Then the player who 
draws, shuffles the Game Cards and 
presents them to his left-hand neigh- 
bor, and so on. When a player 
draws a blank card he takes no For- 
feit Card, and the next one draws at 
once. The game continues thus as 
long as the players choose. 

FUNGO, a game of ball played 



by any number of persons with a 
base-ball and bat. One player 
takes the bat, and tossing the ball 
into the air strikes it before it 
falls. The other players, who stand 
from 50 to 200 feet from the batter, 
try to catch the ball. The batter 
usually holds the bat in his right 
hand, tosses the ball into the air with 
his left, at the same time raising the 
bat, and then, seizing the bat with 
both hands, strikes the ball before it 
falls. Fungo is generally played to 
give the fielders in base-ball prac- 
tice in " fly-catching " or catching 
the batted ball before it bounds, but 
it is often played merely for amuse- 
ment. In the latter case it may 
be agreed that when a catch is made, 
the catcher shall take the batter's 
place. 

FUSIBLE METALS, To make. 
Fusible metals are alloys (see C. C. 
T.) which will melt at a very low 
temperature. Many of them are 
made of bismuth, lead, and tin. The 
fusible metal called Rose's Metal is 
made by melting in an iron spoon 
some bismuth with half its weight 
of lead and half its weight of 
tin. The resulting alloy will melt 
in boiling water. If the melted 
metal be poured into a test tube it 
will expand on cooling, and break 
the tube. 

These fusible metals are made use 
of in many ways. For instance, 
many factories are now fitted with 
water pipes running over the ceil- 
ings of all the rooms. These are 
fitted at intervals with nozzles closed 
with plugs of fusible metal. If a 
fire should start in any room the 
heat would melt out the plugs near 
it at once, and the water, rushing 
through the nozzle, would put it out. 
Common solder is another example 
of a fusible metal, though this must 
melt at a higher heat, so that it^ 
will bear that of a ordinary cool 
stove. 



GALLANTY SHOW 



365 



GALLANTY SHOW 



G 



GALLANTY SHOW, a kind of 
shadow pantomime, in which the 
characters are represented by figures 
cut from cardboard. A frame about 
three feet high by four wide is fixed 
in a doorway, and covered with white 
cloth tightly stretched, tacked on 
the side toward the spectators. The 
rest of the doorway is screened by 
curtains, and the exhibitor stands on 
the opposite side. A piece of tape, 
stretched close to the frame along 
its bottom, holds the figures by 
means of cardboard continuations 
of their legs. The exhibitor, by 
means of these continuations, which 
project below the tape, can slide the 
figures along, make them rock 
backward and forward, or cause 
them suddenly to disappear by pull- 
ing them downward. Scenery of 
various kinds may be fastened to 
the sides or top of the frame, and if 
a scene is desired which will fill the 
whole frame, the cloth may be re- 
placed by a sheet of paper on which 
such a scene, cut out of thin paper, 
is pasted. A forest or the interior 
of a building may thus be repre- 
sented. With some practice, scen- 
ery can be built up of different thick- 
nesses of paper, so as to show any 
number of degrees of light and 
shade, after the manner of the porce- 
lain transparencies often hung in 
windows. The " high lights " of the 
scene have no paper pasted on them 
at all. The deep shadows should 
have several thicknesses, and the 
shades between these extremes 
more or less according to the de- 
sired tone. For the stained glass 
windows of a church, colored tissue 
paper may be used, and the sun, 
moon, or flowers may also be repre- 
sented in color in the same way. 
If desired, the arms or heads 
of the figures may be made to 
work on pivots, and moved by 



thread so fine that its shadow is not 
noticed by the spectators. The 
performance may be a pantomime, 
or the exhibitor may talk for the 
various characters. The figures 
not used should be placed on a 
chair or shelf within easy reach of 
the exhibitor, or held by an assist- 
ant. A procession can be repre- 
sented by gluing figures upright on 
a piece of tape stretched around 
two wooden wheels, or large spools. 
One of these is fitted with a crank, 
by turning which the tape is moved 




Gallanty Show. 

Steadily. Only the upper part of 
the tape must be thrown on the 
screen, as the figures on the lower 
half are heads downward. The 
shadows must pass out of sight be- 
fore they begin to turn downward, 
and must not come into view again 
till they have ceased to rise. A 
continual procession thus passes 



GALVANIC TASTE 



366 



GALVANOMETER 



across the screen as long as the 
crank is turned. A great many 
curious effects can be produced, as 
in SHADOW PLAYS. Thus, a man 
can be shown climbing out of a 
chimney or jumping into a croco- 
dile's mouth. These effects are even 
more simple in a gallanty show, for 
the figures and scenery are both 
smaller and easier to manage. Care 
should be taken to make all the 
movements as naturally as possible. 

History. A gallanty show is called 
in France Les Ombres Chinoises 
(Chinese Shadows). This form of 
entertainment is said to have orig- 
inated in China ; at any rate, it has 
long been a favorite there. It was 
brought thence to Germany, and in 
1770 a theatre specially devoted to 
it was established in Versailles, 
France, by Seraphin, who conduct- 
ed it for many years and was suc- 
ceeded in its management by his 
nephew of the same name. 

GALVANIC TASTE, Experi- 
ment on. Place a piece of zinc 
above the tongue and a silver coin 
below it, or vice versa, and after 
leaving them there a few seconds, 
to get used to the taste of the 
metals, touch the edges over the 
tip of the tongue. A singular taste, 
or sensation, will be at once felt in 
the tongue. The reason of this is 
that the metals, with the tongue be- 
tween them, form a little Electric 
Battery, and when the circuit is 
closed, by touching the metals a 
very slight current flows through 
the tongue. 

The taste is slightly different, ac- 
cording to which metal is above 
and which below, being slightly 
acid in one case and alkaline in 
another. Some people think this 
is because the salt fluids in the 
tongue are decomposed by the 
current into an acid and an alkali 
(see Electrical Decomposition). 

A similar experiment may be per- 
formed with a strip of zinc and a 
silver spoon, by putting one as far 
as possible between the lower lip 



and gum, and the other between 
the upper lip and gum, and then 
touching the ends. Just as they 
touch, a flash of light will appear to 
pass before the eyes. 

GALVANOMETER, an instrument 
for showing the direction and force 
of electric currents. Some kind of 
galvanometer is needed for many of 
the electric experiments described 
in this book. The simplest kind 
consists merely of a magnetized 
sewing-needle, hung horizontally by 
a thread ; or a pocket compass may 
be used. The following experi- 
ments may be tried with such a 
galvanometer. : 

1. Allow the needle to come toi 
rest, when it will point north and 
south. Hold a wire, whose ends 
are connected with an Electric 
Battery, over it lengthwise. The 
needle will turn, and if the current 
in the wire is strong enough, will 
come to rest nearly at right angles 
to the wire. 

2. Reverse the current in the 
wire by exchanging the ends which 
are connected with the battery. 
The needle will turn in the opposite 
direction. 

3. Hold the wire just under, in- 
stead of just over, the needle. It 
will turn in the opposite direction. 

4. Make a loop of the wire so that 
the current will flow in one direc- 
tion above the needle and in the 
opposite direction below it. The 
needle will turn farther than before. 

These experiments, which were 
discovered by Oersted, a Danish 
physicist, first showed scientists that 
there was a connection between elec- 
tricity and magnetism, and they were 
therefore the beginning of the tele- 
graph, the dynamo, and many of the 
wonderful inventions of our day. 

To detect very slight currents it 
is necessary to surround the needle 
with many coils of wire. Thus very 
expensive and delicate galvanom- 
eters are constructed, but a simple 
one can be made by any one, as fol- 
lows : 



GALVANOMETER 



367 



GENTEEL LADY 



Make a wooden frame, A, about 
four inches square and about an 
inch thick, either glued together or 
fastened with brass or wooden pins. 
No iron or steel must be used. 
Wind on it about 60 turns of insu- 
lated number 16 wire, in three layers, 
leaving a space in the centre, as 
shown in tlie nict'ire. Insert the 




H K 

Home-made Galvanometer. 

ends of the wire in the brass bind- 
ing-screws H and K. Fix an arch 
of copper wire, D, in the frame, on 
which is a cork, E. From the cork 
is suspended a narrow strip of paper- 
G, by a silk fibre or a hair, F. No 
twisted thread must be used. The 
hair is best fastened to the paper by 
wax. Through the lower part of 
the paper thrust a magnetized sew- 
ing-needle, H, and through the up- 
per part a copper wire, I, about 2^ 
inches long, for a pointer. The 
paper must be so suspended that 
the needle will turn freely between 
the upper and lower windings of 
wire, and the pointer above the 
wire, where it will be easily seen. If 
desired, a dial or' disk of paper, M, 
may be laid over the wire just under 
the pointer. A hole must be cut in 
the centre, to allow the suspended 



strip of paper to turn. This gal- 
vanometer must be kept out of the 
least draught of wind, and it is best 
to cover it with a glass globe, or with 
a box, N, having a glass top, O. 
When it is to be used with weak 
currents, it must be turned so 
that the coils of wire are parallel 
with the needle, that is, north 
and so-uth. When 
the instrument is used 
with stronger currents 
it must be placed at 
first so that the coils 
will point across the 
needle. When the 
current passes turn the 
instrument back slow- 
ly till the coils are 
north and south. A 
strong current must 
not be passed through 
it when the coils are 
parallel with the 
needle, or the needle 
will spin around, 
twisting the hair and 
making it necessary to 
hang it over again. 

GAS BURNED 
THROUGH A HAND- 
KERCHIEF. Tie an or- 
dinary handkerchief tightly over a 
gas-burner with metal tip, as shown 
in the illustration on next page. 
Unless the tip be metal, the experi- 
ment will not succeed. Turn on the 
gas and light it, and it will burn with- 
out even scorching the handkerchief, 
which may be removed uninjured 
when the gas has been turned off. 
The reason the handkerchief is not 
burned is that there is not great 
heat in the lower part of a gas- 
flame, and what there is, is con- 
ducted away rapidly by the metal 
tip of the burner. If the tip be 
not metallic the heat will not be 
conducted away, and the handker- 
chief will be scorched. 

GENTEEL LADY, a game played 
by any number of persons. The 
leader of the game says to the player 
on his right," Good morning, genteel 



GENTEEL LADY 



368 



GEOGRAPHY 



lady,always genteel; I, a genteel lady, 
always genteel, come from yonder 




Gas burned through a Handkerchief. 
(See page 367.) 

genteel lady, always genteel, to tell 
you that she has an eagle with a 
golden beak." This sentence is re- 
peated by each in turn to his right- 
hand neighbor, and then goes the 
rounds again as many times as the 
leader chooses, each time with an 
addition to the description of the 
eagle. Thus, in the second round, 
it may be "with a golden beak and 
silver feathers ;" in the third, " with 
a golden beak, and silver feathers, 
and steel claws," and so on. Every 
time that any player makes a mis- 
take, a piece of paper is twisted in 
his hair to resemble a horn, and he 
is then called "one-horned," "two- 
horned," etc.. as the case may be, 
instead of "genteel." Thus, if a 
player have no horns, while his 
left-hand neighbor has two, and his 
right-hand neighbor one, he should 
address the latter with the words, 
"Good morning, one-horned lady, 
always one-horned ; I, a genteel 
lady, always genteel, come from 
yonder two-horned lady, always 



two-horned, to tell you," etc. An 
extra horn is given for every mis- 
take, and the number generally in- 
creases rapidly. The game lasts as 
long as the players desire, or it 
may cease when one of them has 
a number of horns that is agreed 
upon beforehand. Sometimes, at 
the close of the game, each player 
pays as many forfeits as he has 
" horns" on his head. In beginning 
the game, the leader may substitute 
anything he chooses for the " eagle;" 
thus, he may speak of a house with 
a gold chimney, diamond windows, 
and iron roof; or a locomotive with 
a paper smoke-stack and India-rub- 
ber wheels. 

Sometimes the first player in- 
forms the second that his " ship has 
just come from China, laden with 
apricots" (or anything beginning 
with A). The next adds an article 
beginning with B. and so on through 
the alphabet. The " horns " are 
sometimes lighted paper lamp- 
lighters, but their use is dangerous. 

This game had its origm in France, 
where it is called " Le Chevalier 
Gentil" (The Gentle Knight). 

GEOGRAPHY, the name of sev- 
eral games, all of which require a 
knowledge of geography. 

I. The players choose sides, and 
the leader of one side commences by 
calling out the name of a city or town 
beginning with A, and then count- 
ing ten distinctly. Before he fin- 
ishes counting the leader of the 
other side must call out the name 
of another city beginning with 
A, and then count in like man- 
ner. This goes on till the leader 
of one side is able to count ten 
before his opponent can think of a 
city that has not been named. The 
winner chooses as his follower one 
of the opposite side, and then begins 
the game anew, this time using 
names of towns that begin with B. 
The leader can be chosen only when 
he is left alone on his side. When 
either side has chosen all the players 
on the other, it wins, and the game 



GEOGRAPHY 



369 



GEOGRAPHY 



ends; but if all the letters of the 
alphabet have been used, and players 
remain on each side, the larger party 
is declared the winner. No one but 
the leader may call out the names, 
but the other players on his side 
think of new ones and whisper them 
to him one by one as he needs them. 
At first the names usually follow 
one another as quickly as they can 
be spoken, but when the memory 
of the players is almost exhausted, 
they come slowly. A longer time 
for thought may be given by count- 
ing 25, or even 50, instead of ten, 
and the game may also be varied by 
using names of rivers or mountains, 
or those of historical characters. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. No city may be named more 
than once, but different places of 
the same name may be used, if their 
situation is clearly defined, either by 
giving the State or country where 
they are, or in any other way; 
as, " Stratford, Connecticut," and 
" Stratford-on-Avon," or " Phila- 
delphia, where one of the seven 
churches was situated." In such a 
case only the name, not the ex 
planation, must be spoken before 
the word " ten." 

2. In case an unfamiliar place is 
named, the side that used it may 
be required to tell where it is. If 
they cannot do so, or do so incor- 
rectly, the opposite side may choose 
one of their players and proceed to 
the next letter. 

II. The leader on one side calls 
out any letter, and says, " Sea," 
'* Bay," " Mountain," " City," or 
some other division of water or 
land. The leader on the other side 
names one beginning with the letter 
mentioned, and is followed bv all 
on his side in regular order. If any 
one pause, the leader of the first 
side counts ten, and says, " Next !" 
and the pausing player takes his 
seat unless he can answer while 
the leader is counting. The leader 
of the second side now calls out a 



letter and a division of land or 
water, which the players on the first 
side must give in like manner, and 
the sides continue to alternate thus. 
If any one make a mistake, such as 
giving to a river the name of a 
mountain, or using the wrong initial 
letter, it must be corrected by some 
one on the same side before the 
opposite leader says " Miss," other- 
wise the opposite side scores 2, and 
the turn comes to an end. If no 
one on a side makes a mistake or 
is obliged to take his seat, that side 
scores 3. A side wins when it has 
scored 10, or when all on the other 
side have taken their seats. 

III. Another game of geography 
is played with pencils and paper, 
every one writing all the geographi- 
cal names he can think of, begin- 
ning first with A, then with B, and so 
on through the alphabet, a minute 
or more being allotted to each let- 
ter. If all have the same name on 
their lists, it scores nothing, but 
others score as many points as the 
number of players who have omitted 
it, as in the game of Dictionary. 

IV. Another geographical game 
is played with a board on which is a 
map, having holes in place of spots 
to represent cities. Each hole has 
its corresponding peg with the name 
of the city on it, and the object 
of the game is to place the pegs 
aright. The game may be played 
in various ways. A single player 
may treat it as a game of Patience, 
placing all the pegs and then com- 
paring an ordinary map with the 
board, to see whether he has suc- 
ceeded or not. When there are 
several players the pegs may be dis- 
tributed equally, and then each in 
turn places one of them in a hole. 
After each play the other players 
examine the peg, and in turn have 
a chance to say whether or not they 
think it is rightly placed. If all 
agree that it is right, the player 
scores one point ; if one or more 
think it is wrong, a map is consulted, 
and if the objectors are right they 



GIVE-AWAY 



370 



GOLF 



each score one, while if they are 
wrong one point is subtracted from 
the score of each. The number of 
points necessary to win should be 
agreed upon beforehand. 

A board for playing the game can 
be made by pasting an ordinary map 
on a smooth piece of wood, and bor- 
ing gimlet holes through the dots 
representing the cities. The name 
of each city must be carefully erased 
with pen and ink, and then little 
wooden pegs must be provided, 
which may be made of matches. 
The names may be written on the 
side of the pegs, on a place shaved 
flat with a knife, or on bits of paper 
glued to the top of the pegs. 

GIVE-AWAY. See Checkers. 

GLASS OF WATER, Experiment 
with. See Coins, Experiment 7. 

GO'BANG, a game played by two 
to five persons, each of whom has 
usually 50 pieces or men, on a board 
divided into 256 squares colored al- 
ternately dark and light. The pieces 
are of different colors, and each 
player has one color, that one set 
may be distinguished from the others. 
The players take turns, each in order 
placing on the board one of his 
pieces, on any unoccupied squares, 
dark or light. The object is to get 
five in a row, either diagonally or 
from side to side of the board, and 
he who succeeds in doing this wins 
the game. When the players have 
put all their pieces on the board, 
they may move them one at a time 
to any unoccupied adjacent square, 
in any direction. 

Go-Bang may be played on an 
ordinary checker-board, each player 
having twelve pieces. Sometimes 
the total number of pieces is made 
equal to the number of squares, in 
which case there can be no moving 
of pieces, and the game ends when 
all are placed on the board, if no one 
has made a row of five before that 
time. 

Go-Bang is a Japanese game, and 
means in the Japanese language 
"Five-Board." "Go" (Five) is the 



Japanese name of the game. It is 
said to have been played in China 
(where it is called Kee) 2000 years 
before Christ, and to have been car- 
ried about the 8th century A.D. to 
Japan, where it is a great favorite. 
The Japanese have schools for the 
study of the game, and a periodical 
is published in their country devoted 
entirely to it, just as we have papers 
devoted to Chess, The Japanese 
play it on a board of more than 300 
squares= 

GOLF, a game played by any 
number of persons with sticks or 
clubs like Shinny sticks, and small 
balls about an inch and a half in 
diameter. The ball, formerly of 
leather stuffed with feathers, is now 
usually made of gutta-percha, 
" nicked " or cut in crossed lines on 
the surface, to roughen it. 

The course, usually circular and 
properly between three and five 
miles long, is marked out on a piece 
of open ground, and at intervals on 
it are cut holes four inches in di- 
ameter and from 100 to 500 yards 
apart. The golf grounds are usually 
called " links," because the sandy 
stretches by the seashore, known in 
Scotland by this name, are there re- 
garded as best adapted to it. The 
I links should contain " hazards " — a 
I general term for obstacles of any 
j sort (see Rule 15, below). Two 
j players, starting from the first hole, 
I take turns in striking their balls into 
the next, and he who does so in the 
' fewest strokes scores a point or " a 
hole," as it is called. They then 
play for the next hole in like manner, 
and so on till they have gone around 
the course (usually eighteen holes). 
If they make any hole in the same 
number of strokes, that hole is scored 
by neither. He who scores the 
greatest number of holes with the 
fewest strokes wins. The reckoning 
of the strokes is made technically 
thus: If a player's opponent has 
played one more stroke than he, the 
player's next stroke is called " the 
like "; if two more, " the one ofi 



GOLF 



371 



GOLF 



two," if three more, " the one off 
three," etc. 

Each player has his own ball, and 
clubs of various shapes and sizes. 
He selects the one he needs at any 
particular time, according to the 
nature of the ground, and the others 
are carried by an attendant called 
a " caddie." Each club has its 
peculiar name. All have v^^ooden 
handles, but are called " wood- 
clubs" or "irons," according to the 
material of the head. A wood club 
shod or soled with brass is called a 
" brassie." The following is a com- 
plete list of golf clubs : Wood 
Clubs — Drivers, Long Spoons, Mid 
Spoons, Short Spoons, Baffy, Bras- 
sie NibHcks, Bulger Drivers, Bulger 
Brassies, Brassies, Putters, h'oiis — 
Cleeks, Iron Niblicks, Putting Cleeks, 
Driving Cleeks, Lofting Irons, Driv- 
ing Irons, Mashies, Gun Metal Put- 
ters, Medium Irons. The Driver or 
Play Club is generally used if the 
distance from the hole is too great to 
be covered in a single stroke ; the 
Putter for striking the ball into a 
hole ; the Spoon (now generally 
superseded by the iron clubs) for 
getting the ball out of a depres- 
sion in the turf, called a "cup"; 
the Sand Iron for driving the ball 
out of a sand-pit or " bunker." 
Should the ball lie deep in the 
sand, or beside a stone, the Cleek 
or the Niblick may be used. Some 
golfers use the iron-headed clubs as 
" Putters," Besides these there are 
the Driving Iron (not so long a 
driver as the Cleek, but able to pitch 
the ball higher); the Lofting Iron, for 
lifting the ball very high ; and the 
Mashie, a compromise between Loft- 
ing Iron and Niblick, used for short 
approaches. A set of six clubs is 
considered enough for an expert, and 
the beginner can get along with two 
or three. In striking the ball, the 
club must be held with both hands 
as close together as possible, the left 
being about two inches from the end. 
The club, grasped firmly with the 
left and guided with the right, is 



lifted over the shoulder, and brought 
down sharply on the ball, letting the 
lower end just scrape the ground. 




Driving. 

The club should follow the ball in 
the stroke. The distance to which 
the ball can be sent depends more 




Putting. 

on the manner of hitting than the 
actual strength used. The exact 
manner of standing, called the 



GOLF 



372 



GOLF 



" stance," is a matter about which 
there is a great difference of opinion 
among good golf players. The ob- 
ject is to stand so and at such a dis- 
tance that the ball will be struck 
squarely behind and exactly in the 
middle of the club-head. If it 
strikes too near the end of the head 
(called the " toe ") or too near the 
bend (called the " heel ") it is said to 
he " toed " or " heeled " and will 
swerve to one side or the other. 
The majority of players place the 
right foot a little in advance. When 
thus standing, ready to strike, the 
player is said to " address " the ball. 
Before striking the ball it is custom- 
ary to sway the club gently over it 
to measure its position. This move- 
ment is called the " waggle "and is 
done with the wrists only. 

The last stroke between any two 
holes, by which the player tries to 
place the ball in the hole, is called 
putting (pronounced to rhyme with 
cutting), and is the most difficult 
part of the game, the preliminary 
strokes, called driving, being much 
more simple. The ground for some 
distance around each hole is usually 
covered with smooth turf and called 
the " putting green " (see Rule 30, 
below). In putting, the nature and 
condition of the ground, the position 
of the playing ball, and that of his 
adversary's must all be taken into 
consideration, as well as the state of 
the score, on which it sometimes de- 
pends whether the player will risk a 
difficult " put " or not. The stroke 
that drives the ball on the putting 
green is called the " approach shot." 
In putting, a rapid straight stroke is 
called a " gobble," and a successful 
long stroke a "steal." When the 
opponent's ball lies directly between 
the player's and his hole it is called 
a " stimy," and when the player 
sends his ball over the obstacles he 
is said to " loft over the stimy." 
When the player strikes the ground 
as well as the ball, he is said to 
" baff," and when his club razes the 
grass slightly he is said to " scruff." 



When a hole has been gained the 
player lifts his ball and places it on 
a little heap of sand called a " tee," 
from which he plays it toward the 
next hole. When a ball is thus 
placed it is said to be " teed." 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

The following rules are substanti- 
ally those of the St. Andrew's Royal 
and Ancient Golf Club, as modified 
in 1897 by the United States Golf 
Association : 

1. The game of golf is played by 
two or more sides, each playing its 
own ball. Two sides of single play- 
ers constitute a match called a " sin- 
gle." Two sides of two players each 
constitute a " Foursome." 

2. The game consists in each side 
playing a ball from a tee into a hole 
by successive strokes, and the hole is 
won by the side holing its ball in the 
fewest strokes, except as otherwise 
provided in the Rules. If two sides 
hole out in the same number of 
strokes, the hole is halved. 

" Match Play," in which the player 
has an opponent, is decided by the 
number of holes won. 

" Medal Play," in which all the 
players are called "competitors," is 
decided by the aggregate number of 
strokes. 

Unless otherwise agreed, a match 
shall consist of the play of the game 
over eighteen holes of the links. 

3. The teeing ground shall be in- 
dicated by two marks placed in a 
line at right angles to the course, and 
the players shall not tee in front of, 
nor on either side of these marks, 
nor more than two club lengths be- 
hind them. A ball played from out- 
side the limits of the teeing ground, 
as thus defined, may be recalled by 
the opposite side. 

The option of recalling a ball is in 
all cases forfeited unless exercised at 
once before another stroke has been 
played. 

The hole shall be four and one- 
quarter inches in diameter, and at 
least four inches deep. 



GOLF 



373 



GOLF 



4. The ball must be fairly struck 
at and not pushed, scraped, nor 
spooned, under penalty of the loss of 
the hole. 

Any movement of the club in- 
tended to strike the ball is a 
stroke. 

5. The game commences by each 
side playing a ball from the first tee- 
ing ground. In a match with two or 
more on a side, the partners shall 
strike off alternately from the tees, 
and shall strike off alternately during 
the play of the hole. 

The players who are to strike 
against each other shall be named at 
starting, and shall continue in the 
same order during the match. 

The player who shall play first on 
each side shall be named by his own 
side. 

6. If a player shall play when his 
partner should have done so, his 
side shall lose the hole, except in 
case of the tee shot, when the stroke 
shall be recalled at the option of the 
opponents. 

7. The side winning a hole shall 
lead in starting for the next hole, 
and may recall the opponent's stroke 
should he play out of order. This 
privilege is called the " honor." 

8. One round of the links, gener- 
ally eighteen holes, is a match, unless 
otherwise agreed upon. The match 
is won by the side which gets more 
holes ahead than there remain holes 
to be played, or by the side winning 
the last hole when the match was all 
even at the second last hole. 

9. After the balls are struck from 
the tee, the ball furthest from the 
hole to which the parties are playing 
shall be played first, except as other- 
wise provided for in the Rules. 

10. Unless with the opponent's 
consent, a ball struck from the tee 
shall not be changed, touched, nor 
moved before the hole is played out, 
except as otherwise provided for in 
the Rules. 

11. In playing through the green, 
all loose impediments within a club 
length of a ball, which is not lying in 



or touching a hazard, may be re- 
moved. 

Ice, snow, and hail within a club 
length of the ball through the green 
may be removed ; but on the putting 
green it may only be removed as 
provided in Rule 34. 

12. Before striking at the ball the 
player shall not move, bend, nor 
break anything fixed or growing near 
the ball, except in the act of placing 
his feet on the ground and in soling 
his club. 

13. A ball stuck fast in wet ground 
or sand may be taken out and re- 
placed loosely in the hole which it 
has made. 

14. When a ball lies in or touches 
a hazard, the club shall not touch 
the ground, nor shall anything be 
touched or moved before the player 
strikes at the ball. 

The club shall not be soled, nor 
the surface of the ground be touched 
within a radius of a club length from 
the ball. 

When a ball lies on turf in a hazard 
or surrounded by a hazard, it shall 
be considered as being on the fair 
green ; z. <?., the club may be soled. 

15. A hazard shall be any bunker 
of whatever nature — water, sand, 
loose earth, mole-hills, paths, roads 
of railways, whins, bushes, rushes, 
rabbit scrapes, fences, ditches, or 
anything which is not the ordinary 
green of the course, except sand 
blown onto the grass by wind or 
sprinkled on the grass for the pres- 
ervation of the links, or snow or ice 
or bare patches on the course. 

16. A player, or a player's caddie, 
shall not press down nor remove any 
irregularities of surface near the ball, 
except at the teeing ground, under 
the penalty of the loss of the hole, 

" Near the ball " shall be consid- 
ered within a club length. 

17. If any vessel, wheelbarrow, 
tool, roller, grass-cutter, box, or other 
similar obstruction has been placed 
upon the course, such obstruction 
may be removed. 

18. When a ball is completely cov- 



GOLF 



374 



GOLF 



ered with fog, bent, whins, etc., only 
so much shall be set aside as that 
the player may have a view of his 
ball before he plays, whether in a 
line with the hole or otherwise. 

19. When the ball is to be dropped, 
the player shall drop it. He shall 
front the hole, stand erect behind the 
hazard, keep the spot from which the 
ball was lifted, or in the case of run- 
ning water, the spot at which it en- 
tered, in a line between him and the 
hole, and drop the ball behind him 
from his head, standing as far be- 
hind the hazard as he may please. 

The player must drop the ball 
himself, not his caddie nor his part- 
ner. A dropped ball shall not be 
considered in play until at rest. 

20. When the balls in play lie 
within six inches of each other, 
the ball nearer the hole shall be 
lifted until the other is played, and 
shall then be placed as nearly as 
possible into its original position. 

21. If a ball lie or be lost in water, 
the player may drop a ball under 
the penalty of one stroke. 

22. Whatever happens by accident 
to a ball in motion, such as its being 
deflected or stopped by any agency 
outside of the match, or by the fore- 
caddie, is a " rub of the green," and 
the ball shall be played from where 
it lies. Should a ball lodge in any- 
thing moving, such ball, or if it can- 
not be recovered, another ball, shall 
be dropped as nearly as possible at 
the spot where the object was when 
the ball lodged in it. But if a ball 
at rest be displaced by any agency 
outside of the match, the player shall 
drop it, or another ball, as nearly as 
possible at the spot where it lay. 
On the putting green the ball may be 
replaced by hand. 

23. If a player's ball strike, or be 
accidentally moved by an opponent 
or an opponent's caddie or clubs, the 
opponent loses the hole. 

If the player's ball strike the other 
competitor or his caddie or clubs, it 
is a " rub of the green," and the ball 
shall be played from where it lies. 



If a player's ball at rest be accident- 
ally or intentionally moved by the 
other competitor or his caddie, the 
ball must be replaced. 

24. If the player's ball strike or be 
stopped by himself or his partner 
or either of their caddies or clubs, or 
if, while in the act of playing, the 
player shall strike the ball twice, his 
side loses the hole. 

25. If the player, when not making 
a stroke, or his partner or either of 
their caddies, touch their side's ball, 
except at the tee, so as to move it, or 
by touching anything cause it to 
move, the penalty is one stroke. 

Except at the tee, if the ball move 
while the player is addressing it, the 
player loses one stroke. 

Except at the tee, if the ball be 
struck while moving, the penalty is 
one stroke ; /. e., one stroke for the 
moving and one stroke for the play. 

Except at the tee, if struck at 
while moving and missed, one stroke 
shall be counted for the moving and 
another for the miss. 

26. A ball is considered to have 
been moved if it leaves its original 
position in the least degree and stops 
in another. 

27. A player's side loses a stroke 
if he play the opponent's ball, unless : 
(i) the opponent then play the 
player's ball, whereby the penalty is 
canceled, and the hole must be 
played out with the balls thus ex- 
changed ; or (2) the mistake occur 
through wrong information given 
by the opponent, in which case, the 
mistake, if discovered before the op- 
ponent has played, must be rectified 
by placing a ball as nearly as pos- 
sible where the opponent's ball lay. 

28. If a ball be lost, and be not 
found within five minutes, the player's 
side loses the hole. 

Where both balls are lost at the 
same time, neither side wins the 
hole, which should be called halved, 
irrespective of the number of strokes 
that either side may have played. 

29. A ball must be played wher- 
ever it lies, or the hole given up, 



GOLF 



375 



GOING TO JERUSALEM 



except as otherwise provided for in 
the Rules. 

30. The term " putting green " 
shall mean the ground within twenty 
yards of the hole, excepting hazards. 

31. All loose impediments may be 
removed from the putting green, 
except the opponent's ball, when at 
a greater distance from the player's 
than six inches. 

32. In a match of three or more 
sides, a ball in any degree lying be- 
tween the player and the hole must 
be lifted, or, if on the putting green, 
holed out. 

33. When the ball is on the put- 
ting green, no mark shall be placed 
nor line drawn as a guide. 

The player may have his own or his 
partner's caddie to stand at the hole, 
but none of the players, nor their cad- 
dies, may move so as to shield the 
ball from or expose it to the wind. 

34. The player or his caddie may 
remove (but not press down) sand, 
worm casts, or snow lying around the 
hole or on the line of his put. This 
shall be done by brushing lightly 
with the hand only across the put 
and not along it. Dung may be re- 
moved to a side by an iron club, but 
the club must not be laid down with 
more than its own weight. 

35. Either side is entitled to have 
the flag stick removed, when ap- 
proaching the hole. If a ball rest 
against the flag stick when in the 
hole, the player shall be entitled to 
remove the stick, and if the ball fall 
in, it shall be considered as holed 
out in the previous stroke. 

36. A player shall not play until 
the opponent's ball shall have ceased 
to roll, under the penalty of one 
stroke. Should the player's ball 
knock in the opponent's ball, the 
latter shall be counted as holed out 
in the previous stroke. If, in play- 
ing, the player's ball displace the 
opponent's ball, the opponent shall 
have the option of replacing it. 

A player having holed out his ball 
in the like or the odd, may knock 
away the opponent's ball from the 



lip of the hole, and claim the hole, 
if he had holed in the like, or a half 
if he had holed in the odd. 

37. A player shall not ask for 
advice, nor be knowingly advised 
about the game by word, look, or 
gesture from anyone except his own 
caddie or his partner or partner's 
caddie, under the penalty of the loss 
of the hole. 

38. If a ball split into separate 
pieces, another ball may be put down 
where the largest portion lies ; or if 
two pieces are apparently of equal 
size, it may be put where either piece 
lies, at the option of the player. If 
a ball crack, or become unplayable, 
the player may change it on intimat- 
ing his intention to his opponent. 

39. A penalty stroke (a stroke 
added to the score of a side for in- 
fringing rules) shall not be counted 
the stroke of a player, and shall not 
affect the rotation of the play. 

History. Golf is a Scotch game, 
and is derived from the same sources 
as Shinny and Polo. It is a great 
favorite in Scotland, and has been 
called the national game of that 
country. It became popular in Eng- 
land and her colonies long ago, but it 
was almost unknown in this country, 
except among natives of Scotland, 
till about 1890, after which it gained 
rapidly in favor, and about 1895 be- 
came a very fashionable sport. The 
United States Golf Association now 
includes nearly one hundred clubs. 

As early as 1457 Golf was for- 
bidden by law, lest it should inter- 
fere with Archery, but in 1744 the 
city of Edinburgh voted a silver 
club to be played for every year. 
Charles I. of England was fond of 
the game, and James II. was expert 
at it. The word Golf is derived from 
the Dutch Kolf, a club. It is pro- 
nounced^^ and sometimes spelled 
that way. 

GOING TO JERUSALEM, agame 
in which the players sit at first in 
two rows of chairs placed closely 
back to back in the middle of a 
room. A march is played on the 



GOOD FAT HEN 



376 



GRACE HOOPS 



pianoforte, or some one not in the 
game may sing or whistle. As soon 
as the music begins, all rise and 
march in line around the chairs. 
While they are marching, some one 
who is not playing takes away one 
chair from the end of the line. The 
music stops suddenly, and all who 
can do so, sit down. Of course one 
player is left standing, as one chair 
has been taken away ; and that 
player is out of the game. The 
music begins again, and the game 
goes on, a new chair being taken 
away each time until only one play- 
er is left. He is said to " get to Je- 
rusalem." 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. No one must touch a chair 
while marching, on penalty of being 
put out of the game. 

2. If two players sit on the same 
chair at once, the umpire shall de- 
cide which has the right to it, and 
in case of doubt may order the play- 
ers to march again. 

3. The person who removes the 
chair shall act as umpire. 

History. This game is known also 
as " Musical Fright." 

In England it is sometimes called 
"The Watchman," but instead of 
marching to music, and seating 
themselves when it stops, the play- 
ers choose a captain or " fugleman," 
and follow him about the room, re- 
peating the lines, 

" The Watchman comes, beware, beware ! 
He'll spy us, if we don't take care." 

The other players imitate the 
leader's movements and when he 
seats himself they all do likewise. 
Sometimes when only three players 
are left, the game is ended by hold- 
ing a mock trial in which they are 
the accused. 

GOOD FAT HEN, A. See Re- 
peating Games. 

CRABOUQE, a game of CARDS 
played by four persons, two against 
two, with 12 full packs. The dealer 
deals to each player 21 cards, one at 
a time, which are piled face upward 



at each player's right, to form what 
are called "Desperation Piles." 
The rest of the cards are divided 
equally among the players, and are 
placed in piles, face downward. 
The one who has the lowest 
card on the top of his Desperation 
Pile begins to play, and the others 
I follow in regular order to the left. 
Each, in playing, turns up five cards, 
one by one, from those that are 
back upward, and lays them in four 
piles before him, face upward. As 
fast as the Aces appear they are 
laid in the centre of the table, and 
on them the Twos, Threes, and so 
on, are placed in order, without 
regard to suit. He who puts on the 
King takes the trick. Besides the 
five cards turned up by each, the 
top card of his Desperation Pile, or 
any exposed card of his four piles, 
may be used by any player, to put 
on the packs in the centre of the 
table, and his partner also may as- 
sist, where it can be done without 
turning up a card. Each trick 
counts one to the side taking it. If 
any Desperation Pile remain after 
all the others have been used; every 
card in it counts one to the oppo- 
site side. 

GRACE HOOPS, or GRACES, a 
game played by any number of per- 
sons (each of whom has two sticks 
about four feet long) with wooden 
rings or hoops from 12 to 18 inches 
in diameter. A player, holding a 
stick firmly in each hand, places 
the hoop over them, crosses them, 
and then draws them quickly apart, 
thus sending the hoop into the air 
towards another player, who catches 
it on his sticks ; and the sport thus 
goes on, each player receiving the 
hoop in turn. More than one hoop 
can be kept in the air if the players 
are expert. It may be agreed that 
when a miss is made it shall be 
scored against the person missing, 
and that at the end of a certain 
time the one having the fewest 
misses shall be winner of the game. 
Or, each player may have a hoop, 



GRAND MUFTI 



377 



GUESSING THE SIGN 



tossing it up and catching it again 
on his own sticks, in which case he 




Grace Hoops and Sticks. 

who can do so the longest time, 
without a miss, wins. 

The Grace Hoops sold at toy- 
stores are usually covered with vel- 
vet or colored cloth. The Germans 
call this game Reifenwerfen (Ring- 
throwing) and each player has but 
one stick. In France it is called 
Les Graces (The Graces), as with us, 
because when skilfully played it is 
a graceful sport. 

GRAND MUFTI, THE, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
all of whom form a ring, excepting 
the Grand Mufti, who stands in the 
middle. The Grand Mufti strikes 
an attitude or makes a ridiculous 
gesture, saying at the same time 
either," Thus says the Grand Mufti," 
or " So says the Grand Mufti." If 
the former, each of the other players 
must imitate him ; if the latter, no 
one must move. Any one that im- 
itates the Grand Mufti when he 
should not, or fails to do so when 
he should, must change places with 
him. If two or more thus break 
the rules the Grand Mufti selects 
one of them to take his place. 

GROMIVIETS, or RING TOSS, a 
game played by any number of per- 
sons, who try to throw rings over 
an upright peg. The rings, ten in 
number, may be made of wood or 
of tarred rope covered with cloth, 
and are usually about five mches m 
diameter. The peg, which is about 
12 inches long, may be driven into 
the ground, or fastened to a base- 



board. The players take turns, 
standing at whatever distance from 
the peg may be agreed 
on beforehand (usually 
about 15 feet), and 
each throws all the 
rings, one by one, be- 
fore the next one's 
turn. He who throws 
the greatest number 
of rings over the peg 
wins the game. The 
players may throw each 
for himself or may 
be divided into sides, 
and each may have two or more 
turns as agreed upon beforehand. 
Grommet is a word used by sailors 
to mean a ring of rope, and the 
game was first played on shipboard. 
When more than one stake is used, 
as is sometimes the case, they are 
given different values, and some- 
times they are fixed on a board 
which can be placed on the floor or 
raised at an angle. Several differ- 
ent forms of the game are to be 
bought at toy stores, some of which 
are called Pitchette. 

GUESSING THE SIGN, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
tv/o of whom are chosen to act as 
questioner and guesser. These two 
retire from the room and agree on 
a secret sign. The players select 
any object in the room and after 
telling the questioner what it is, call 
in the guesser. The questioner 
then names any number of objects, 
one at a time, and by giving the 
secret sign at the proper moment, 
enables the guesser to tell the one 
chosen. The company must guess 
what the sign is, and when that has 
been done, the player who guesses 
it takes the place of the one from 
whom he guessed it. The game 
must be repeated as often as the 
company desires, using the same 
sign, either till it is guessed or till 
the company gives up trying to do 
so, when the two that know it may 
tell it or not, as they please. 

The simolest sip^ns are motions of 



GUESSING THE SIGN 



37S 



GUESSING THE SIGN 



the hands or body, or changes In 
the tone of voice, made by the 
questioner as he names the object 
chosen ; but these are usually 
guessed in a few trials. An ingen- 
ious questioner and guesser will 
often invent a sign that can be 
guessed only after playing the game 
several evenings. Several signs are 
given below as examples : 

1. "The Black Art." The ques- 
tioner always mentions some black 
object just before that which the 
company has chosen. Although this 
sign is so simple, it is very puzzling 
to one who has never heard of it, 
nor any like it. It can be varied in 
many ways ; for instance, the object 
chosen may be the first, second, or 
third after something white, some- 
thing made of glass, or something 
worn by a particular person. 

2. The object chosen and several 
others, usually not more than five 
or six in all, are placed in a row, 
and the questioner and guesser 
agree that they shall be thought of 
as numbered, either from right to 
left or left to right. The questions 
are also numbered in order, and are 
so asked that the object chosen is 
mentioned in the question that has 
the same number. Thus, suppose 
five objects are arranged in the fol- 
lowing order : 

a hat, a book, a glove, a handkerchief, a pen, 
1234 5 

and that they are numbered as above 
in the minds of the questioner and 
guesser. The handkerchief is shown 
by the company. The questioner 
asks : 

(i) "Is it the glove?" "No." (2) 
"The hat.?" "No." (3) "The pen?" 
"No." (4) "The handkerchief?" 
"Yes." It will be seen that the 
guesser says " no " whenever the 
numbers of the question and object 
are different, and "yes " as soon as 
they coincide. The questioner 
must be careful, of course, not to 
make the numbers agree before he 
reaches the chosen object. It is still 



more puzzling if the questioner 
simply points to the objects, with- 
out speaking a word. This sign is 
guessed by hardly more than one 
out of a hundred persons. 

3. The questioner may say, " well " 
or "then" before one of his ques- 
tions, agreeing that the object 
chosen shall be mentioned in a 
given number of questions after 

j that. 

4. The question may mention an 
object made of the same material as 
the one chosen directly before it. 
In this case he must be careful not 
to have an object follow one of the 
same material anywhere else in his 
questions. 

5. " The Wizard of the East, or 
The Magic Stick." The questioner 
tells the company that the guesser 
will remain outside the room and yet 
tell the name of the person to whci 
he points his stick. This is done 
by always pointing to the person 
who spoke last just before the 
guesser left the room. The ques- 
tioner should encourage conversa- 
tion. When the " Wizard" is shown 
as a parlor trick, as it frequently 
is, the questioner may pretend to 
perform magic incantations, and 
point in turn to several players, say- 
ing as he does so: "The Wand 
passes !" When he points to the 
one that spoke last before the 
guesser went out, he says, " The 
Wand rests!" and the guesser, 
who must be within hearing, in- 
stantly names the player indicated. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. The sign must remain exactly 
the same till it has been guessed by 
the company. The slightest change, 
as altering the direction of number- 
ing in example 2, is forbidden by 
this rule. 

2. Any of the company may ask 
the questioner to put his questions 
undercertain conditions, for instance 
with his eyes shut, or his hands be- 
hind his back. He must comply, 
but if he knows that the condition 



GUITAR 



379 



GYMNASTICS 



would prevent giving the sign, he 
may simply say so without taking 
up time in the trial. 

3. Any player who thinks he has 
guessed the sign, may take the 
place of the guesser to test his 
knowledge, for one or more trials, 
as the questioner may agree. 

GUITAR, Experiments with. See 
Violin. 

GYIVINASTICS properly include 
those exercises that are taken in- 
doors for the purpose of developing 
the body. Outdoor exercises, such 
as walking, running, rowing, etc., are 
now called Athletics, and the 
prominent idea in them is sport or 
recreation. 

Gymnastic exercises are usually 
practised in specially arranged build- 
ings called gymnasiums, because 
the association of many people to- 
gether for exercise enables them to 
have more complete apparatus and 
the instruction of experts that could 
not otherwise be obtained. Gym- 
nastic exercises have been classified 
as Light and Heavy, without regard 
to the amount of exertion required. 
Those exercises are called Light 
where no apparatus is used (free 
gymnastics), and where the exercise 
is obtained by moving the apparatus 
(calisthenics) as dumb-bells, wands, 
etc. 

Heavy gymnastics are those exer- 
cises where the body is the resist- 
ance moved, the apparatus being 
fixed, as exercises on the horizontal 
and parallel bars, rowing, etc. 

The exercises described in this 
article come chiefly under the head 
of light gymnastics. The more vio- 
lent exercises are appropriate only 
for those who wish well developed 
muscles. 

The regular practice of some of 
the gentler forms of gymnastics 
should be begun early in life, and 
more difficult movements taught as 
the child acquires strength. 

The outdoor sports and games of 
children furnish enough exercise in 
Heavy isymnastics until the a£;e of 



twelve or fourteen years ; but after 
that age, and especially in the win- 
ter, when the weather forbids out- 
door sports, such as skating, some 
form of exercise that shall teach how 
to control and handle the body may 
well be undertaken. 

Some exercises develop particular 
muscles or groups of muscles, while 
others develop nearly every muscle. 
Some exercises make the joints 
supple, while others tend to make 
them stiff. Some exercises make 
the muscle act slowly and power- 
fully, while others give swiftness 
and deftness without great strength. 

Aside from the development of 
the muscles, gymnastic exercises 
are important to health, because 
they help the system to throw off 
waste material ; and by improving 
the circulation they bring new ma- 
terial to all parts, so that growth is 
promoted, and each organ is better 
supplied with what it needs. 

It is evident that the mind will 
get more recreation or rest from ex- 
ercise if it is pleased or amused. 

Therefore the gymnast must be 
interested in his work, and not 
merely exercise from a sense of 
duty. This is the reason why games 
like Base-ball or Tennis often do 
more good than a regular system of 
exercise. Gymnastics are made 
amusing in various ways. The feats 
on the horizontal bar and similar 
ones are entertaining in themselves, 
because they give an exhibition of 
both strength and skill that is re- 
assuring to the performer, and make 
him feel that he can do something 
that not many others can do, and we 
all like to excel in something. The 
more monotonous movements, like 
those with dumb-bells, etc., are often 
made interesting by being performed 
by a large number of persons at 
once accompanied by music. When 
performed by one person alone, it 
is a good plan to whistle or sing or 
count, making the motions in time. 
Where a motion is to be repeated 
over from ten to twenty times. 



GYMNASTICS 



380 



GYMNASTICS 



counting grows very tiresome ; but 
if the performer takes notice of the 
part of the tune where he must 
change from one motion to an- 
other, he need not count at all, so 
long as he keeps time. 

Gymnastic exercises, to be of 
benefit, should be performed regu- 
larly, the simpler kinds daily. 

A short rest should be taken after 
each group or series of movements, 
especially if the heart has been 
made to beat rapidly. Some slow 
exercises can be taken at the end of 
a series that will tend to make the 
heart beat more slowly before actual 
rest begins, as it is not a good plan 
to begin or stop violent exercise 
suddenly. The exercise should only 
be continued until the gymnast is 
slightly fatigued and never until he 
is tired. One set of muscles may 
be weaker than others and hence 
tire sooner; but this should never 
be an excuse for not giving the 
weak parts the most attention and 
exercise. The work should simply 
be made lighter. 

The best time for exercise de- 
pends on the occupation of the per- 
son. For children at school the 
best time is at an intermission, in 
order to give mental rest by the 
change. For those persons who 
can control their time as they wish, 
the morning hours from ten to 
twelve, if the midday meal is eaten 
at I o'clock, are best ; but for those 
who are obliged to keep still all day, 
the evening from eight to ten o'clock 
is preferable to any hour before 
seven in the morning. Gymnastic 
work should not be done just before 
or after meals, because then the 
blood is needed at the stomach, and 
the tendency of the system is to 
send it to the surface more freely 
during and after exercise. Sleep 
may be delayed by too vigorous ex- 
ercise immediately before retiring, 
so a short period of rest and amuse- 
ment should follow, so that the ex- 
citement of the heart will subside, 
and the gymnast will sleep soundly. 



Costume. The best dress for a 
gymnast is a pair of easy-fitting 
white flannel trousers, a gauze un- 
dershirt from which the sleeves havq 
been cut, and a pkir of canvas shoes 
without heels. He should also have 
a knit "sweater," or a blanket-coat 
reaching well down to the heels t( 
put on while resting, or after ex- 
ercise while waiting for a rub-down. 

A belt should not be worn, as it 
prevents free action of the abdomi- 
nal muscles and hinders digestion. 
The same may be said of corsets. 
The dress of girls should be loose 
enough to avoid any restraint of ac- 
tion. The divided skirt is preferable 
for heavy gymnastics. 

Free Exercises are movements 
without any apparatus. They are 
of many kinds, but only a few are 
described here. In addition to those 
given below, the ones given farther 
on as dumb-bell exercises may be 
made free by performing them 
without the dumb-bells. 

1. Turn the head slowly alter 
nately to the right and left, looking 
over each shoulder. 

2. Bend the head forward an( 
backward steadily, and then from 
side to side. 

3. Rotate the head, bending 
forward, to the left, back, and tc 
the right, 

4. The reverse of No. 3. (These 
four exercises strengthen the mus- 
cles of the throat and neck.) 

5. With the hands on the hips, or 
outstretched, and without moving 
the feet, twist the body as far as 
possible to the right and left, al- 
ternately. The head must move 
with the body, but not independent- 
ly of it. 

6. With the hands on the hips, 
bend the body forward and back, 
and from side to side, and then ro- 
tate it as the head was rotated in 
exercise 3. 

7. Raise and lower the shoulders. 

8. Bend the elbows and mov( 
them, together with the shoulders, 
forward and backward. 



GYMNASTICS 



381 



GYMNASTICS 



9. Raise the body up as far as 
possible by standing on tiptoe. 

10. Raise the toes high as pos- 
sible, standing on the heels. 

11. Raise the thigh up against the 
abdomen on alternate sides by bend- 
ing the leg. 

12. Raise the heel up to the 
buttock on alternate sides. 

13. Stretch the arms in front, 
palms together, and throw them as 
far back as possible, on the same 
level, keeping the body erect. 

14. Clenching the fists, as the 
arms are held at the sides, lift them 
suddenly till they are extended 
straight forward. Return them in 
like manner. 

15. Raising the fists to the shoul- 
ders, extend the arms quickly 
straight upwards. Return in the 
same manner. 

16. Extend the arms on each side, 
palms up, and bend the elbows till 
the tips of the fingers touch the 
shoulders. 

17. Standing with legs a little 
apart, and arms hanging in front, 
describe circles with the fists, using 
each arm in turn, and keeping them 
perfectly straight. First describe 
each circle to the right, then both to 
the left, then one to the right and 
the other to the left. 

18. With the hands on the hips, 
raise each leg in turn, so that it is 
at right angles with the body. 
Keep both legs straight. 

19. In addition to the preceding, 
swing the leg backward as far as 
possible, keeping the body upright. 

20. With the knee raised, throw 
the leg straight out in front, and 
then bring it to the ground. 

21. Sit down slowly till the 
thighs touch the calves. 

22. Lie on the back and raise the 
legs up to a perpendicular position. 

Each exercise should be repeated 
a stated number of times, beginning 
perhaps with 10 and increasing 
to 25, and as rapidly as the gymnast 
is able. Such exercise may be made 
entertaining if it is performed by 



several at once, keeping perfect time 
in their movements, with or with- 
out music. 

Other free exer- 
cises are named 
from actions which 
they imitate, such 
as hewing, mowing, 
hashing, and chop- 
ping (see illustra- 
tions). The free 
exercises described 
are suitable for 
both boys and girls, 
and most of the ex- 
ercises which fol- 
low under the 
heads of dumb- 
bells, wands, and 
Indian clubs are 
also appropriate 
for girls, except 





Mowing. 

that the apparatus used should 
be lighter. 

Wand Exercises. These require a 
straight smooth stick four feet long 
and three fourths of an inch in 
diameter. An ordinary broom- 
handle or cane can be used. 

1. The wand is held in both hands, 
palms downward. The arms are 
first extended straight down, and 
then raised above the head without 
bending the elbows. The body is 
held erect throughout the move- 
ment. 

2. The arms being held down as 
before, the wand is raised to the 



GYMNASTICS 



382 



GYMNASTICS 



chest by bending the elbows out- 
ward. 

3. The arms are extended straight 
forward, and returned to the chest. 

4. From the chest the arms are 
extended straight up and then 
brought down so that the wand rests 
on the shoulders behind the head. 

5. The wand is held at the ends 
as in exercise No. i, and then car- 
ried to the same position behind the 
back. 

6. With the wand held straight 
above the head, the body is bent 
backward and then forward, keeping 
the knees unbent, and bringing the 
cane as near the floor as possible. 

7. With the wand above the head 
as before, the body is bent as far as 
possible to the right and left. 

8. With the wand above the head, 
the right arm is advanced and the 
left moved back, and vice versa. 

9. With the arms extended for- 
ward, the body is turned to and fro 
from right to left, without moving 
the feet. 

10. The wand is rested on the 
floor, both hands grasping the top, 
and the heels are raised from the 
ground so as to stand on tiptoe. 

11. From the same position, keep- 
ing the heels above the floor, the 
gymnast sits so that his thighs rest 
on his calves, and then rises again. 

12. The wand extended down- 
ward is touched to the floor by 
stooping, and then raised above the 
head. 

The exercises just given call into 
play nearly all the muscles in the 
body. When they have been learned 
in proper order, each should be ex- 
ecuted four times, as rapidly as 
possible. The number of times 
should be gradually increased to 
twenty-five. 

Dumb-bell Exercises. A dumb-bell 
consists of two pieces of wood or 
metal nearly -ound like a ball con- 
nected by a bar long enough to form 
a good handle. The weight may 
vary from a few ounces up to a hun- 
dred pounds, but heavy dumb-bells 




Dumb-bells. 
Fig. I. 



are only used for trials of strength 
and not for developing muscle. 
The ordinary weight is from one to 
six pounds. 

The position for work with'dumb- 
bells (see Fig. i) is 
standing erect, with 
heels together and feet 
at an angle of about 
60°, arms at the sides 
and a dumb-bell 
grasped firmly in each 
hand. Each move- 
ment is usually per- 
formed eight times. 
There are many move- 
ments, of which only a 
few are given here. 

I. Move the bells 
out far enough to clear 
the thigh and twist the 
arms vigorously by 
turning the forward 
end of the bell out- 
ward, then inward as far as possible. 

2. Stand as before, and bend the 
arm from the elbow till the forearms 
are extended straight forward. Then 
twist the bells as before. 

3. Keeping the arms straight, 
raise them forward from the sides 
till they are on a level with the 
shoulders, and then twist as before. 

4. Draw the elbows to the sides, 
and double the arms so as to bring 
the bells to the shoulders. 

5. Bring up the bells as in the las 
exercise, and then carry them up 
until the arms are extended verti- 
cally. Then twist as in the first ex- 
ercise. 

6. Bring the bells to the shoulder, 
extend the arms to the right and 
left, and twist as before. 

7. Bring the bells up under the 
armpits as far as possible. 

8. Bring the bells to the armpit, 
and then thrust them out to sides. 

9. Bring the bells to the armpit, 
and then thrust the arms straight 
up. 

10. Repeat No. 8, bringing the 
bells down to the chest and then to 
the first position. 






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3S3 



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11. Repeat No. 9, carrying the 
bells down to the shoulders, then 
straight out to each side, back to 
the chest, and down. 

12. Repeat No. 9. and then bring 
them down together as near as possi- 
ble to the toes, with a sweep, bend- 
ing the body and keeping legs 
straight at knee. 

13. Repeat No. 12, stoop, and 
recover to first position. Then take 
a long step forward with the right 
foot, keeping the left leg straight 
and the left arm parallel with it, but 
extending the right arm so as to 
form nearly a straight line with the 
left. Then bend the extended arm, 
bringing the bell to the shoulder, 
and repeat. Practise the extension 
about ten times, stretching the arm 
well out and holding the trunk 
straight. The exercise is then re- 
peated with left leg and arm ad- 
vanced, and then both arms are ad- 




Dumb-bells. — Fig. 2. 

vanced (Fig. 2), first with the right 
leg and then with the left. 

14. Keeping the arms straight, 
bring them up to the horizontal 
position at the sides; then swing 
them around in front until they 
touch, then let them fall to sides. 
Then reverse the movement. 

15. Swing the bells up in front 
until the arms are horizontal, then 
sweep them apart and back as far as 
possible, then raise them up untill 



the bells strike overhead, then bring 
them to the chest, etc., bring the 
bells to the chest. This and the 
preceding exercise should be re- 
peated, first taking a step forward 
with the right foot and then one 
with the left foot. 

16. Bring the bells to the armpits, 
then carry them straight up, and 
twist the body to the left as far as 
possible without moving the legs. 
In this position bring the bells to 
the chest, and lift and lower them 
ten times or more. Repeat, twisted 
to the left. 

17. Raise the bells overhead and 
then sink till the calves touch the 
thighs (Fig. 3). In this position, go 

through as many 
hO 'xi/' ^^ '-^^ simple exer- 
)"T / i cises as desired, 

rising and falling 
again after each 
exercise. 

18. Sit as before, 
but as the body 
sinks, the bells 
must be brought 
to the chest. Then 
extend the arms 
horizontally to the 
sides, and sweep 
them around to 
the front till the 
bells strike. Re- 
cover to the chest. 
Apparatus for 
Heavy Gymnastics. 
Some of the more 
common and use- 
ful pieces of ap- 
paratus found in every gymnasium, 
with the exercises easily performed 
on each are as follows : 

I. The Horizontal Bar is a bar of 
hickory, or other hard and tough 
wood, about six feet long and one 
and three-quarter inches in diam- 
eter. 

It is usually strengthened by a 

steel cord and can be adjusted to 

any height by sliding up or down in 

I grooves in the upright posts to 

I which it is fastened at each end. 




Dumb-bells. 
Fig. 3. 



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384 



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Horizontal bars of this form are 
used for vaulting or jumping by- 
grasping the bar firmly with the 
hands and using the arms to assist 
in carrying the body up and over the 
bar. The modern method of sus- 
pending the bar is by iron posts rest- 
ing on the floor and held firm by 
guys of copper wire, or by hang- 
ing all from the ceiling. The ad- 
vantage of this form of support is 
that the bar can be easily removed 
and leave the floor free, and the bar 
is held much firmer when in place. 

The bar should be kept clean by 
wiping frequently with a dry cloth, 
especially when the hands are sweat- 
ing freely. Powdered rosin should 
never be used on the bar, as it makes 
the bar sticky, and blisters or pulls 
the skin from the palms in the diffi- 
cult movements. 

The first exercise on this bar may 
be to jump up to it, catching it with 
the hands so as to hang at full length. 
The bar should be placed at such a 
height that the feet will clear the 
ground. Some 
gymnasts hold the 
bar with the 
thumb on the op- 
posite side from 
the fingers, and 
some with it on 
the same side. 
While hanging at 
full length, draw 
the body steadily 
up till the chin is 
above the bar 
(Fig. i), and then 
lower it slowly un- 
Horizontal Bar. til it hangs again 
FJ&- I- at full length. 

This feat should be practised till 
it can be done several times in 
succession. The learner should 
now practise hanging by each hand 
alternately, then "walking" along 
the bar, hand over hand, and then 
swinging the body backward and 
forward till he can bring it up al- 
most into a horizontal position. 
To get on the bar (Fig. 2), the 




body is raised till the chin is above 
the bar, and then the right side is 
allowed to fall while the left leg 




Horizontal Bar. — Fig. 2. 
is raised, bending the knee, and 
thrown over the bar. The right 
leg is then swung back and forth 
till sufficient impetus is gained to 
aid the gymnast 
in bringing him- 
self uprightabove 
the bar which 
passes between 
his legs (Fig. 3). 
In this position 
he should prac- 
tise s w i n gi ng, 
first backward 
and t h e n f or- 
ward around the 
bar, ending each 
time in the up- 
Horizontal Bar. right position. 
Fig. 3. In the backward 

swing (Fig. 4), which is the easier, 
the hands should be in front, and 





Horizontal Bar. — Fig. 4. 
in the forward swing (Fig. 5), be- 
hind the bar. In each, the arms 



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385 



GYMNASTICS 



sliould be kept 




Horizontal Bar. 
Fig:. 5- 

various sitting 



straight and the 
body erect, and 
the swing should 
be begun with 
sufficient impe- 
tus to carry the 
body entirely 
around the bar. 
In this move- 
ment the left leg 
is kept well fixed 
and the bar rests 
at about the mid- 
dle of the thigh. 
The learner 
may now throw 
the right leg also 
over the bar, and 
learn to balance 
himself on it in 
positions without 



holding by his hands. The sitting 




Horizontal Bar. — Fig. 6. 
swings, backward (Figs. 6-y) and 
forward (Figs. 8-9), should now 
be tried. These 
are more difficult 
than the swings 
just described, 
because the 
weight is thrown 
entirely on the 
arms, except 
when the gym- 
nast is above the 
bar, whereas be- 
fore he hung on 
one leg. The sit- 
ting swings will 
Horizontal Bar. require much 
Fig. 7- pract i ce, the 

chief difficulty being in getting quite 




around into the sitting postureagain. 
If this cannot be done, the gymnast 
should drop to the ground and then 
get on the bar again. If, while sit- 




Horizontal Bar. — Fig. 8. 

ting on the bar, the learner throws 
himself backward as if to swing, but 
unclasps h i s 
hands and 
bends h is 
knees, he will 
hang by his 
legs, head 
downward. 
He may then 
swing back- 
ward and for- 
ward till he is 
high enough 
t o straighten 
his legs and 
come to the 
ground on his 
feet. 

Horizontal Bar. — Fig. 9. Hanging Or 
Trapese Bar, a bar similar to a 
horizontal bar, but hanging by two 
ropes like a swing. The same feats 
may be performed on it, but with 
more difficulty, since it is not fixed. 
Parallel Bars, two bars supported 
on posts side by side. They should 
be from four and a half to five feet 
high, from 16 to 19 inches apart, and 
more than two inches in diameter. 
The bars are sometimes oval and 
sometimes round. 




GYMNASTICS 



386 



GYMNASTICS 



The gymnast must first practise 
supporting the weight of his body 




Parallel Bars. — Fig. i. 

with a hand on each bar, the arms 
being held straight down, and he 




Parallel Bars.— Fig. 2. 

should then "walk " along the bars, 
taking a step alternately with each 




Parallel Bars,— Fig. 3. 



hand. Then the body is allowed to 
drop a little, the bent elbows point- 




Parallel Bars.— Fig. 4. 

ing backward on a level with the 
shoulders (Fig. i), and he should 




Parallel Bars.— Fig. 5. 

advance by jumps, both hands strik- 
ing the bars at once. This move- 




Parallei Bars.— Fig. 6. 



GYMNASTICS 



387 



GYMNASTICS 



ment is aided by drawing the feet 
up and kicking down with them at 
the instant of jumping. Then, sup- 
porting the body near the centre of 
the bars, as at first, the gymnast 
swings back and forth, and then 
throws his legs over one of the bars 
in front of him (Fig. 2). Return- 




Parallel Bars 



ing to his original position, he next 
throws them over the same bar be- 
hind him (Fig. 3), and repeats 
these exercises with the other bar. 
One leg is then thrown to each side 
in front, so that the learner is astride 




Parallel Bars.— Fig. 8. 

of both bars at once (Fig. 4). This 
is also done behind (Fig. 5). The 
last few exercises may be combined 
in various ways, and performed 
swiftly. 

The gymnast next stands between 
the bars, seizes them with his hands 
on the outside, and then raises his 



legs m front till the bodv is inverted 
the head hanging directly down and 
the legs projecting straight upward 
(Fig. 6) ; then the movement is, 
continued till the legs hang down 
on the other side, the hand still 
holding the bar behind the gym- 




Parallel Bars.— Fig. 9. 

nast's back (Fig 7). He should 
then return without touching the 
ground with his feet. 




Parallel Bars.— Fig. 10. 

Another exercise on the parallel 
bars is called Pumping or Dipping. 
The learner first swings back and 
forth, his arms being straight, till he 
can bring himself up into a horizon- 
tal position, facing downward (Fig. 
8). Then while in this position 



GYMNASTICS 



388 



GYMNASTICS 




Vaulting Horse. — Fig. i. 

he bends his elbows (Fig. 9), and 
thus swings for- 
ward. When he 
comes back again 
h e straighte n s 
out his arms and 
brings himself 
into a vertical 
position, his feet 
being high in the 
!ir(Fig. 10). As 
le swings for- 
vvard he bends 
his elbows again 
as he passes the 
horizontal posi- 
tion, and so he 
goes on as long 
as he wishes. 
Horse, a large 




Lulling Horse. 
Fig. 2. 

The Vaulting 



block of wood, rounded at the top 




Vaulting Horse. — Fig. 3. 
to resemble somewhat a horse's 



back, and covered with leather. 
Two pommels, fixed in the back to 





Vaulting Horse. 
Fig. 5. 



Vaulting Horse. — Fig. 4. 

represent those of a saddle, are so 
made that they can be removed if 
necessary. The 
first exercise on 
the " horse" is to 
place one hand on 
each pommel and 
jump astride it, 
but without touch- 
ing it, the weight 
being supported 
by the arms (Fig. 
i). The forward 
leg is now with- 
drawn over the 
horse, and then the rear one is ad- 
vanced, without touching the horse. 
Next the legs are changed in like 
manner, both at once, the body 
being still held up by the arms. 

The learner next kneels on the 
horse between the pommels (Fig. 2) 
and then 
springs o ff 

(Fig. 3). 
landing up- 
right with 
his feet on 
the ground. 
Next, b e- 
striding the 
horse behind 
Vaulting Horse.— Fig. 6. ^^^ ^f ^^e 

pommels, facing it, and with a hand 
on each pommel, the (Fig. 4) gym- 
nast throws his legs up and brings 




GYMNASTICS 



389 



GYMNASTICS 



his body around so as to bestride the 
horse behind the other pommel. 

The learner should next practise 
jumping over the horse with a hand 
on each pommel, starting with a 
run. First the legs should be 
brought between the hands (Fig. 
5), and then outside of them (Fig. 
6), letting go at the proper time. 

Hanging Rings, Swing Rings, or 
Travelling Rings, are iron rings 
covered with leather or rubber, and 
each suspended by a rope (See illus- 







f 








/ 


\ 




tf] 


/ 










» <: 


. < 


\ ^ 


\ 




-- - - ~^^^\^ 



Hanging Rings. 
tration). Sometimes several are 
hung in a row, and the gymnast be- 
ginning at one end, takes the first 
ring, swings himself to the second, 
grasps that, and lets go of the first, 
after drawing back with it, and so 
on down the whole line. 

Many feats may be performed 
with a pair of these rings. Taking 
one in each hand, the gymnast 
draws himself up till his chin is 
above them and then holds each 
alternately at arm's length, the other 
being close to the shoulder. Then 
both are held out together in the 
same manner and the body is al- 
lowed to sink slowly till it hangs at 
full length. 

Another exercise is to swing to 
and fro, drawing up the body while 
ascending and letting it down while 
descending. By this means the 
height of each swing is increased. 
There are many other positions in 
swinging, which are easily found out, 



such as with the elbows bent and 
the rings held close to the back. 
Many exercises similar to those on 
the horizontal and parallel bars can 
be performed on the rings also. 

Rope and Pole Climbing. A rope 
for climbing should be securely fast- 
ened to a beam, if indoors, or the 
limb of a tree out of doors. The 
climber grasps the rope with both 
hands, one above the other, and 
crosses his feet, having the rope be- 
tween them (Fig. i). While the 
hands pull the body up, the 
rope is allowed to slip be- 
tween the feet ; but the feet 
grasp it tightly, while the 
hands, one at a time, are 
raised to a new hold. The 
body is thus supported, first 
by both hands, then by the 
left hand and the feet, and 
lastly by the right hand and 
the feet. In descending, 
the feet are used as a brake 
to regulate the velocity, 
while the hands are lowered 
one past the other (Fig. 2). 
A pole is climbed in like 
manner, but the feat is 
more difficult, because the 
pole is thicker and rigid 
Rope- and therefore harder to 
Climbing, grasp, than the rope, espe- 
Fig. I. cially with the feet. 
Ladders. These may be fixed hor- 
izontally, seven or 
eight feet above 
the ground, ver- 
tically or inclined 
at an angle. 
Often two are in- 
clined together, 
forming ^m in- 
verted V {j\). 
These may be used 
both above and 
below, by ascend- 
ing and descend- 
ing with hands 
and feet, or hang- 
Rope-Climbing, ing from the liands 
Fig-. 2. alone. After ad- 

vancing one round at a time, the 




GYMNASTICS 



390 



GYMNASTICS 



learner should try to skip one or 
more rounds. 

Lifting. This exercise should 
only be practised under the direc- 
tion of an instructor, and then only 
by persons of mature age, with well 
developed muscles, especially the 
abdominal muscles, as rupture may 
be caused by the violent strain. 
Such violent exercises as lifting. 
Tug of War, etc., have a tendency 
to check the development of the 
bones, and hence leave the person 
smaller than he might be at matur- 
ity. 

By training the muscles carefully, 
and gradually increasing the 
amount lifted, athletes have been 
able to raise enormous weights. 
The greatest feats of lifting have 
been performed with a sort of har- 
ness passing over the shoulders. 
This was used by Dr. Winship, of 
Boston, who succeeded in liftmg 
from the ground with it 2600 
pounds. In lifting without a har- 
ness, the gymnast stands on a plat- 
form beneath which is the weight, 
furnished with two handles. The 
lifter grasps these, bends his legs 
slightly, straightens his back and 
arms, the shoulders being on a line 
with the feet and hips. The legs 
are then steadily straightened, the 
strain thus coming on every part. 
The weight is lifted but an inch or 
two. Sometimes the lifter is aided at 
first by a spring on which the 
weight rests. Some of the best lift- 
ing feats are recorded in the appen- 
dix. 

The chest weights, or " pulley 
weights," are held in place by two 
parallel guide rods and fastened to 
a rope passing over a hinged pulley 
at height of the shoulder to the hand. 
They are made double for the pur- 
pose of exercising both sides at the 
same time. 

This is the best single piece of 
apparatus that has yet been de 
vised for general exercise. The 
weight is easily adjusted to the 



strength of the person using it, and 
there is little danger of straining 
even a feeble person. 

Exercises, i. Standing facing the 
apparatus take a handle in each 
hand so that the hands will be about 
a foot from the pulleys when the 
arms are extended. ' 

(a) Raise the arms up to a perpen- 
dicular position and return, repeat- 
ing as many times as desirable. 

(6) Spread the arms apart, and re- 
turn as before. 

(c) Lower the arms to the sides 
and return. 

(d) Combine (a) and (c). 

(e) Combine (a) and (c), bending 
over so as to bring the hands as 
near the toes as possible without 
bending the knees. 

2. Standing with the side toward 
the apparatus, using one hand at 
timCj (a) raise the arm up to a 
perpendicular position beside the 
head and return. 

(d) Sweep the arm around m 
front horizontally, keeping it stiff. 

(c) Bring the arm down to the 
side. 

(d) With the arm farthest from 
the machine, describe the horizon- 
tal movement similar to (d). 

(e) With both hands together ex- 
ecute (d) and {d). 

(r) With both hands execute {c), 
except that one arm is carried back 
of the body as far as possible, while ^ 
the other sweeps by in front. 

3. Standing with the back to the 
apparatus, many simple movements 
like those mentioned before can 
be executed. If the left arm be 
the weaker, the movements should 
be repeated more times with that 
side, or the weight made slightly 
heavier. 

4. It will be seen that by putting 
the foot in the handle, as a stirrup, 
and balancing on the o-her leg, 
while executing movements with 
the first, a good amount of exercise 
will be given the legs and hips. 

Tumbling. The various kinds of 



GYMNASTICS 



391 



GYMNASTICS 



tumbling, such as somersaults, 
hand-springs, lying on the ground 
and springing directly to a standing 
posture, depend largely on practice 
and can scarcely be taught in a book. 
They are performed chiefly by pro- 
fessional acrobats, but many ama- 
teurs attain great skill in them. 
Directions for only the simplest 
kinds are given. 
The Backspring (Fig. i). The 




Tumbling. — Fig. 



gymnast lies on his back and places 
the palms of his hands flat on the 
ground above his head. Then, 




Tumbling, 



raising the legs over the head, he 
gives a spring from the hands and 
shoulders, throwing his feet quickly 



forward, and drawing the heels 
close to the buttock, the object 
being to come into a standing post- 
ure with a single effort. The 
hands should be brought forward 
when the feet are nearly on the 
ground, that the balance may be 
preserved. 

Handspring. (Figs. 2 and 3.) The 
gymnast stands erect, the right 
leg forward, and bending slightly 
backward raises his hands high 
above his head, palms up. He then 
springs forward, placing his hands 




Tumbling. — Fig. 3. 

on the ground, and throws his legs 
over, the left first. Just as the legs 
go over, he springs from his arms 
and lands upright on his feet. 

Back Handspring (Fig. 4). The 




Tumbling. — Fig. 4. 

gymnast stands erect, his legs 
slightly apart and his arms raised 
above his head, elbows pointing to 



GYMNASTICS 



m 



GYMNASTICS 



the front and palms upward. He 
then bends down slightly, quickly 
throws arms and head back, bends 
the body backward, and at the same 
time throws his legs up over his 
head, pitches over on his hands, and 
springing from them alights on his 
feet. 

Forward Somersault. The gym- 
nast stands erect with arms above 
his head, and after a short run 
jumps up from both feet, throws the 
arms down, and the head and shoul- 
ders quickly forward, at the same 
time bending the knees, and tarns 
completely over in the air, alighting 
on his feet. When the jump is 
made, he sometimes seizes the under 
part of the thighs, just above the 
knees, pulling them up to the body. 
This, which is called the " catch," 
assists the somersault. 

Backward Somersault. The gym- 
nast raises his arms, then brings 
them down with a quick sweep and 
raises them again, at the same in- 
stant with a spring throwing the 
legs over the head and catching the 
thighs, as described above. 

All tumbling exercises require 
constant practice and great perse- 
verance. To avoid dangerous falls, 
the gymnast should wear what are 
called " lungers" (Fig. 5), consist- 




Tumbling. — Fig-. 5. Lungers. 

ing of a leather belt about an 
inch and a half wide, buckled 
around his waist. On each side of 
the belt are secured rings, to each 
of which a rope four feet long is 
tied. An assistant holds each rope 
while the gymnast is practising, 
and if he is in danger of a fall they 
can thus save him. The lungers 
are especially useful in giving the 



learner a feeling of confidence, for 
since he knows he is in no danger 
of falling, he will be much bolder in 
his attempts. All the feats de- 
scribed above are performed on a 
thick mattress. 

Special Apparatus. Modern gym- 
nasiums are provided with all kinds 
of machines for developing special 
muscles. For instance, to strength- 
en the muscles of the neck, a pulley- 
weight is used like those already de- 
scribed, having a small semicircular 
net at the end of the rope. By plac- 
ing this on the back of the head and 
lifting the weight by moving the 
head backward and forward, the 
muscles in the back of the neck are 
exercised, and by shifting its posi- 
tion the other neck muscles may be 
exercised in like manner. There 
are also machines to imitate special 
motions, such as rowing, canoe 
paddling, wrestling, and rope-climb- 
ing. The best gymnasiums now 
contain also dynamometers (from 
two Greek words meaning strength- 
measurers) for testing the muscles, 
spirometers (breath-measurers) for 
measuring the capacity of the lungs, 
and other arrangements to test the 
development of the gymnast. 

Indian Club Swinging. Indian 
clubs are made of wood. Formerly 
they were sometimes weighted with 
lead, but this is wrong, as the exer- 
cise depends largely on the speed 
and combination of movements. 
The exercise is more for rendering 
the joints supple than for increas- 
ing the size of the muscles, though 
it does both ; and swiftness and ac- 
curacy of movement should be aim- 
ed at rather than the exhibition of 
great strength. The number of 
movements possible with two clubs 
is almost numberless, and new ones 
can be invented by the learner, but 
all consist of combinations of three 
distinct motions called circles — the 
straight-arm circle, the bent-arm 
circle, and the wrist circle. In the 
first the club is swung around at 
arm's length; in the second the circle 



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393 



GYMNASTICS 



is made with the arm well bent at 
the elbow, the shoulder being the 
centre, as in the straight-arm circle ; 
and in the third the club is moved 
through a circle of which the hand 
is the centre. The third or wrist 
circles are made by the muscles of 
the forearm and hand. 

All circles should be as near plane 
circles as possible, and the body held 
erect and firm while the clubs are 
in motion. 

The swinger should be able to 
stand quite close to a wall without 
hitting it with the clubs while he is 
swinging. In beginning to swing, 
the learner should stand with heels 




Indian Clubs. — Fig. i. 

together, leaning a little forward to 
throw the weight on the balls of the 
feet. He should begin with one 
club, holding it in what is called the 
starting position, with which every 
movement is begun and ended. 
In this position the club is held 
vertically in front of the shoulder, 
as shown in the dotted part of Fig. 
I. All circles are called inside 
circles if the club moves first toward 
the swinger's head ; if in the other 
direction they are outside circles. 
If the club moves directly forward 



or backward, it is said to describe a 
forward or backward circle. 

For convenience, all the swings of 
one kind are described together, but 
it is not necessary for the learner to 
master all of one kind before going 
to the next. A good order for the 
learner to follow is given below. 

To perform the straight-arm 
circles, lift the club till it is held at 
arm's length, and then describe a 
circle toward the head for the inside 
circle, or toward the outside of the 
body for an outside circle (Fig. 2). 




Indian Clubs.— Fig. 2. 

It will be seen that all inside circles 
with the right hand are in the same 
direction as all outside circles with 
the left, and vice versa. When one 
circle is finished the club must al- 
ways be brought down into the 
starting position before beginning 
the next. When the learner has 
mastered the inside 
and outside straight- 
arm circles, with 
either hand, he 
should practise the 
bent-arm circles, 
which are those 
behind the back. 
Raising the club 
from the starting 
position, it is lifted 
over the head and 
allowed to drop 
down behind the 
head (Fig. 3) and shoulder, being 




Indian Clubs. 
Fig. 3. 



GYMNASTICS 



394 



GYMNASTICS 



brought lip to position by rotating 
the wrist. This is cue inside bent- 
arm circle. The outside circle is 
just the reverse, the club moving 
out from the shoulder (Fig. i) and 
dropping, being then brought up 
behind the head by the wrist move- 
ment, and then coming to position. 
Wrist Circles. These are exe- 
cuted withthe arm in any position, as 
extended straight in front (Fig. 4), 
or toward one side, straight down- 
ward close to the body, or bent at 
the side. The club is held vertically 




Indian Clubs.— Fig. 4. 

in position at first, and then allowed 
to fall forward or backward. Its 
impetus, aided by an effort of the 
wrist, brings it upright again, thus 
completing the circle. The learner 
should try to perform each wrist 
circle several times without stop- 
ping. He should avoid the tempta- 
tion to bend the elbow a little, and 
strive lu hold the arm perfectly stiff. 
The distinction between inside and 
outside circles is the same as that 
given above, and besides this, every 
circle can be made on either side of 
the arm, so that for nearly every 
position of the arm there are four 



wrist circles. All the circles de- 
scribed above should be learned by 
name, so that their combinations 
can be readily performed when 
named. 

Combinations. The inside straight- 
arm circle and the inside bent arm 
circle behind the back are perform- 
ed alternately (Fig. 5), passing di- 




Indian Clubs.— Fig. 5. 

rectly from one to the other, with- 
out bringing the club back to the 
starting position till the two swings 
have been made several times. The 
arm circle is made first, and when it 
is completed, as the club is held 
straight up at arm's length, it is 
dropped over the head into the in- 
side bent-arm circle. On the com- 
pletion of this, the arm is straight- 
ened again vertically, and the club 
moves on in another straight-arm 
circle. In the same way the out- 
side straight-arm and bent-arm 
circles can be combined (Fig. 6). 
In combining the inside straight- 
arm with the outside bent-arm, 
or vice versa, the change from one 
to the other is best made at the ex- 
treme right and left points of the 
swing, passing the arm instead of 
the club over the head. Thus, 
neither circle is quite completed, 
and the club is not brought to a 
vertical position, till it is returned to 
the starting point. In like manner, 



GYMNASTICS 



395 



GYMNASTICS 



bent-arm and wrist circles and 
straigiit arm and wrist circles may- 
be combined, or all three kinds 
together. The wrist circle may be 
introduced at any point of the 



r 




Indian Clubs. — Fig. 6. 

swing, but the best place is when 
the arm is farthest from the body, 
as this gives plenty of room. 

Combinations with both Clubs. 
Any of the simple or combined 
swings described can be performed 
with both clubs at once, or each 
club may execute a different circle. 
It is evident that if the two clubs 
describe the same circles at the same 
time, the clubs will move in the oppo- 
site direction, and will cross (Fig. 7), 




Indian Clubs 



so that it requires skill to avoid 
striking them together. On the 
other hand, when one club executes 
an inside movement, and the other 



the corresponding outside move- 
ment, the circles are in the same 
direction and the clubs move parallel 




Indian Clubs.— Fig. 8. 

to each other (Fig. 8). Instead of 
executing the same circle simul- 
taneously, however, one arm may 
perform one kind of circle while the 
other is executing another (Fig. 9). 




Indian Clubs. — Fig. 9. 

Thus, where the movement consists 
of a straight-arm and bent-arm cir- 
cle, the right hand may execute the 
former while the left is doing the 
latter, and vice versa. With this 
method there is never danger of 
the clubs striking, for when they 
cross one is in front of the swinger 
and one behind. In another way 
of swinging, one club follows the 
other, but half a circle behind, so 
that the clubs are not executing 
the same part of a circle at any 
moment. These are called " Fol- 
low " or "Windmill" movements. 



GYMNASTICS 



396 



GYMNASTICS 



It would be well for the novice 
in the art of club-swinging if he 
could receive personal instruction 
from some adept; but practice and 
work are what counts for most in 
gaining success in this, as in many 
other accomplishments. Then be- 
gin with the simple movements and 
practise them until they seem easy. 

1. Straight-arm circles outside. 

2. " " inside. 

3. " " forward at 
side. 

4. Straight-arm circles backward at 

side. 

5. Bent-arm circles outside. 

6. " " inside. 

7. Wrist circles forward or inside. 

8. " " backward or out- 

side. 

Follow these with the simplest 
combinations, and each day try 
something new. The left hand 
should by this time be as pro- 
ficient as the right. 

The following list of combinations 
may be a good order in which to 
learn new movements : 

1. Combination of inside straight- 
arm and bent arm circles as already 
described. 

2. Combination of outside straight- 
arm and bent-arm circles. 

3. Double swing both clubs. Both 
clubs are held in the starting posi- 
tion, and then the right hand begins 
the inside straight-arm, while the 
left at the same time begins the 
inside bent-arm circles. These two 
circles are finished at the same 
instant, when the right takes up the 
bent-arm, and the left the straight- 
arm movement. The learner will 
probably find the use of the two 
clubs difficult at first, and the move- 
ments must be gone through with 
slowly until they become very famil- 
iar when the speed is increased. 

4. Double swing. No. 2 with both 
hands, one arm doing the straight, 
and the other the bent-arm outside 
circle, as above. 

5. No. I with the right, and No. 2 



with the left, one doing the straight- 
arm while the other executes the 
bent-arm outside circle. The right 
begins with the inside suaight, and 
the left with the outside bent. 

6. No. 5 reversed ; that is. No. 2 
with the light, and No. i with the 
left. 

7. No. 5 in parallel motion, that 
is, both hands doing the straight 
and both the bent-arm circles at the 
same time. Both hands begin with 
the straight-arm motion, the right 
with the inside and the left with the 
outside circle. The clubs should 
be kept at the same distance during 
the whole movement, so that they 
move in exactly parallel lines. 

8. No. 6 in parallel motion. 

9. No. 3 in cross motion, both 
hands starting on the inside straight- 
arm. The clubs cross, twice in front 
and twice behind and it will doubt- 
less be found difficult at first to 
prevent them from striking. The 
proper way is to swing them in 
slightly different planes, and when 
each hand becomes accustomed to 
its own path, the movement can be 
executed almost mechanically with- 
out danger of the clubs interfering. 
It should be performed very slowly 
at first, and the clubs kept far apart 
in crossing. 

10. No. 4 in cross motion, both 
clubs startingon the outside straight- 
arm circles. 

11. No. 5 in "follow" or "wind- 
mill" motion. The right starts 
with the inside straight-arm, and 
just as it has half completed the 
circle, the left starts with the out- 
side straight-arm. Thus the right 
club keeps half a circle ahead of the 
left, and when the movement is 
correctly done, they should always 
extend in opposite directions, one 
pointing up while the other is down, 
and one to the right while the other 
is to the left. Some swingers bring 
the clubs nearer together than this, 
making the movement more like 
one in parallel motion. 

12. No. 6 in windmill motion. 



GYMNASTICS 



397 



GYMNASTICS 



In this the left hand leads off with 
the inside straight-arm circle, the 
right following with the outside. 
The left keeps half a circle ahead. 

13. Wrist Circles. These may be 
introduced earlier if desired. All 
the simple wrist circles should be 
practised with the arms in various 
positions, first with one hand and 
then with both. Wrist circles may 
be substituted for the bent arm cir- 
cles in all the exercises given above. 
They may be introduced while the 
arm is extended to right or left, or 
with the arm bent so that the hand 
is close at the shoulder. 

When the learner has proceeded 
thus far, he will be able to devise 
his own combinations. 

All the combination movements 
described above have been to the 
right and left, the plane of motion 
being always parallel to the line 
toed by the swinger. Combinations 
of straight-arm circles forward and 
backward at the side (Nos. 3 and 4 
of simple movements) may be 
readily combined with wrist circles 
at the side (Fig. 10) and make very 



/ /- 




i ^ m 


1 


"<:f 





/ 



Indian Clubs. — Fig. lo. 

effective movements for exercise. 

Descriptions of a few special 
swings will now be given. 

Stop Swings. In these each club 
is brought down with a slap on the 
opposite arm, from which it re- 
bound?, reversing the circle. 

Turning Swing. This begins with 
one or more forward wrist swings 



outside the arm with both hands, 
and then one hand executes a for- 
ward bent-arm, while the other per- 
forms a forward straight-arm circle. 
At the same time the swinger turns 
half way around, always toward the 
hand which is doing the straight- 
arm circle, so that he finishes fac- 
ing in the opposite direction, the 
arm describing the bent-arm circle 
having passed over his head as he 
turns. Several more wrist circles 
are then executed, and the gymnast 
turns back again in the same man- 
ner. 

An exercise for a heavy club (Fig. 
11) is to raise the club from the 




Indian Clubs. — Fig. 11, 

starting position, drop it over the 
head, and let it hang behind the 
shoulder. Then throw it over as if 
to strike, describing a forward 
straight-arm circle, and ending with 
the club extended horizontally be- 
hind the back. The club must then 
be carried back to the starting-point 
before repeating. A similar exer- 
cise with two clubs is to throw them 
over the shoulders, return to start- 
ing position, make bent-arm circles 
at the sides, and then a forward 
straight-arm to the horizontal posi- 
tion behind the back, as before. The 
clubs are then returned to the start- 
ing position. In these exercises, as 
in the others, the motion of the 
two clubs may be excictly alike, or 
the right hand may execute one 
part of the circle while the left is 
doing the other. 



GYMNASTICS 



398 



GYMNASTICS 



Feats of Club Swinging. On Feb. 
18, 1886. at Bath, Me., Edward 
Brown swung a pair of Indian clubs, 
weighing 8 pounds, i^ ounces each, 
continuously for 6 hours, 20 min- 
utes. 

On Jan. 7, 1885, at New Haven, 
Conn., W. W. Dudley swung 100 
separate combinations each 4 times, 
in 23 minutes, 36 seconds. 

Indian clubs are said to have been 
brought to England from Persia by 
an officer in the British army, but 
their origin is not known with cer- 
tainty. 

History. Systematic exercise has 
long been practised. In ancient 
Greece it formed part of the educa- 
tion of every boy, and was contin- 
ued during manhood. The Greek 
games, which were largely exhibi- 
tions of skill in gymnastics, are de- 
scribed in C.P.P. Gymnastics were 
employed also, as with us, as a cure 
for disease, and finally they were 
taken charge of by government 
officers. Public gymnasiums were 
erected first in Sparta and then in 
Athens, where some of them be- 
came celebrated as the places in 
which great philosophers lectured 
to their pupils. 

Among the exercises taught were 
dancing, leaping, pitching the dis- 
cus or Quoit, throwing the javelin 
and bar, riding, swimming, rowing, 
swinging, climbing, and archery. 
Gymnasiums in imitation of the 
Greeks were built also at Rome, but 
gymnastics never became popular 
there. In the middle ages gymnas- 
tics was represented by knightly ex- 
ercise, such as the tournament, and 
among the lower classes by wrest- 
ling, running, and archery, but sys- 
tematic training of the muscles was 
but little practised. In the 17th 
century it began again to be popu- 
lar. The illustration shows a form 
of vaulting-horse in use at this pe- 
riod. In the i8th century there was 
a great gymnastic revival in Ger- 
many, and in 1810, when Prussia 
was under the rule of Napoleon, a 



teacher named Jahn, with others, 
established throughout the country 
gymnastic schools, whose pupils did 
good work in the expulsion of the 
French in 181 3. These schools 
were copied in nearly every country 
in Europe. From them sprang the 




Ancient Vaulting-horse. 

associations called Turnvereine 
(gymnastic societies), which were 
soon afterward suppressed by the 
Prussian government, which feared 
that they would spread liberal ideas. 
In 1848 they were reorganized, 
and now many of them exist in this 
country, where they have been 
formed by German emigrants. 
These societies have done much 
to make gymnastics popular in the 
United States, and they were aided 
by the interest the colleges have 
taken in the subject. 

The finest gymnasiums in the 
United States are owned by the 
athletic societies, and the whole 
history of gymnastics is very closely 
connected with that of Athletics. 
The two words are often used to 
mean almost the same thing. 

The only exercises described unJ| 
der Athletics in this book are thos^ 
which commonly form part of the 
outdoor or "field" meetings of ath- 
letic societies, while in this article 
we have described those usually 
practised in a gymnasium, or at 
home, for the sake of health. 



i 



HALEY-OVER 



399 



HALLOWE'EN PARTY 



H 



HALEY-OVER, a game of ball 
played by any number of persons, 
divided into two opposing parties. 
The parties stand on opposite sides 
of a building, and one of the players 
throws a base-ball over the roof. 
The players on the other side try to 
catch the ball, and if any one suc- 
ceeds he runs around the building 
and tries to hit one of his oppo- 
nents with the ball, either by throw- 
ing it or running with it in hand. 
If anyone is hit, he has to join the 
side of the hitter. If the ball is not 
caught, it is thrown back over the 
building in the same way as at first. 
When a ball has been thrown, those 
on the throwing side have no means 
of knowing whether it has been 



caught or not until it either appears 
again over the roof, or in the hand 
of an opponent, running around 
the corner, hence every one must 
be on the lookout. The game lasts 
until all the players are on one side. 

The name Haley-Over is probably 
from the old word hale, meaning 
to draw or drag, from the drawing 
over of the defeated player to the 
opposite side. The game is much 
played in some parts of New Eng- 
land. 

HALLOWE'EN PARTY, an en- 
tertainment given on All Hallows 
Eve, or Hallowe'en, the night before 
All Saints' Day (Nov. i). The 
amusements of this evening were 
supposed in ancient times to foretell 




future events. Some of them are 
described below. 

I. Each person, alone with a look- 
ing-glass in one hand and a candle 
in the other, walks down stairs 
backward into a dark cellar or 
basement. It was supposed that 
each would see in the glass the face 
of his or her future wife or husband. 



Sometimes, instead of this, each 
runs around the outside of the house 
three times, with his mouth full of 
water. 

2. Each person melts some lead 
in an iron spoon, and pours it 
through a wedding-ring or through 
a key (Fig. i) into a vessel of water. 
The lead will cool in curious shapes, 



HALLOWE'EN PARTY 



400 



HALLOWE'EN PARTY 



which were supposed to be pro- 
phetic. Any one who is ingenious 
can cause much amusement by in- 
terpreting these shapes. For in- 
stance, if one of them looks like a 
shoe, it may be said that the owner 
will marry a shoemaker, or is going 
to have a pair of new shoes, or it 
may mean a wedding, as an old shoe 
is often thrown after newly-wedded 
couples " for good luck." Lead can 
easily be melted in any coal fire. 
Great care should be taken in pour- 
ing it through the ring or key, or 
serious burns may result. 

3. Snap-dragons. These, which 
must be prepared before the party, 
consist of slips of paper with verses 
written on them. The slips are 
folded very small, and wrapped in 
lead or tin foil. They are then 
placed in a large dish, and covered 
with water, over which alcohol, or 
spirits, is poured and set on fire. 
While it is burning, each person in 
turn must snatch one of the snap- 
dragons from the dish. The verse 
he gets is supposed to tell his for- 
tune. This furnishes much fun if 
the verses are written skilfully. The j 
"dragons " should be placed in an j 
earthen or tin-plate dish. Silver 
should not be used, as it melts too 
easily. The dish must be placed in 
the middle of a bare table, for drops 
of burning spirits are often splashed 
about, and great care must be taken 
that they set nothing on fire. In 
floating the alcohol on the water it 
should be poured on the side of the 
dish and allowed to flow down 
gently ; otherwise the two liquids 
will mix. 

4. Each person takes a greased 
needle and floats it in a basin of 
water. This requires some care, 
but can be done if the needle is put 
down evenly and gently. The best 
way is first to lay on the water a 
bit of very thin tissue-paper and 
place the needle on it. In a short 
time the paper will become wet and 
sink to the bottom, leaving the 
needle floating on the water. Owing 



to a phenomenon called capillarity, 
the needles behave very curiously. 
Some run to the edge of the dish 
and stick there, while some rush 
together and cling together, avoid- 
ing others. The manner in which 
one person's needle behaves toward 
another's causes amusement, and 
may be supposed to be prophetic. 

5. Bobbing for Apples. Apples are 
placed in a tub of water, and each 
in turn tries to pick one out with 
his teeth. Sometimes each apple 
is inscribed with a name, which is 
supposed to be that of the future 
husband or wife of the person who 
picks it out. Sometimes also each 
apple bears a letter, and each guest 
picks out two. The letters are sup- 
posed to be the initials of the guest's 
future husband or wife. 

6. On a table are placed three 
dishes, one of clear water, one of 
soapy water, and one empty. Each 
guest is blindfolded, and after the 
positions of the dishes have been 
changed so that he does not know 
which is which, he advances and 
puts his finger into one. If it be 
the one of clear water, he will marry 
happily ; if the soapy water, he will 
marry a widow ; and if the empty 
one, he will not marry at all. 

7. Nutshell Boats. These are 
made by pouring melted wax into 
halves of walnut-shells, in which are 
short strings for wicks. Several 
persons float these boats in a tub of 
water, after lighting the wicks, and 
the way in which they ride is sup- 
posed to show what the future life 
of the owner will be. 

8. Kaling. Two persons are blind- 
folded and required to walk to the 
vegetable garden, where each pulls 
up the first cabbage-stalk he finds. 
From the shape of the stalk, the 
fortune of him who pulls it up is 
inferred. The dirt clinging to the 
roots represents wealth. 

9. Apple and Candle. — At one end 
of a stick, about eighteen inches 
long, is fastened an apple, and at the 
other end a lighted candle (Fig. 2). 



HALMA 



401 



HAND-BALL 



The stick is then suspended from 
the ceiling by a string fastened at 
its centre, and swunsr backward and 



Fig. 2. 

forward, while the players, one by 
one, try to catch the apple in their 
teeth. 

10. The Raisin. A raisin is strung 
at the middle of a string or thread 
about a yard long, and two persons 
take each an end of the string in 
his mouth. Whoever, by chewing 
the string, reaches the raisin first, is 
allowed to eat it. 

History. Superstitious persons 
believed in old times that spirits 
walked abroad on Hallowe'en, and 
that they would assist people to 
knov/ the future by performing the 
feats, some of which are described 
above. Nobody believes this now, 
yet the feats are often performed 
for amusement on Hallowe'en, In 
some parts of England it is called 
" Nut-Crack Night," from the cus- 
tom of eating nuts on that evening. 

HALMA. See Checkers. 

HAND-BALL, a game played by 
two or four persons with a small 
ball, which they strike with their 
hands against a wall. The game 
may be played in a court or room 
having walls on all four sides, or out- 
of-doors against the wall of a build- 
ing. In the latter case lines are 
drawn on the wall and the ground 
to represent the side walls, and 
when a ball goes outside these lines 
it is supposed to have struck a side 



wall. A board called the Back- 
board, or a line representing it, 
bounds the court on the fourth 
side, and a line, called the Ace 
Line, is drawn parallel to the front 
wall and Back-board half way be- 
tween them. The two-handed game 
will be described first. The play- 
ers toss up for the " first hand," and 
the winner stands inside the Ace 
Line, while his opponent stands 
outside of it. The former is called 
the striker and the latter the player. 
The striker begins the game by 
bounding the ball on the ground 
and then striking it with his hand 
so that it rebounds from the front 
wall. This is called a " service." 
The ball must be served so that it re- 
bounds outside the Ace Line. If it 
does not, it is said to be a short ser- 
vice. If the striker make three suc- 
cessive short services, or if the ball 
bound on a side wall before striking 
the front wall, or if it bound outside 
the Back-board, it is a " hand-out," 
and the striker and player change 
places. If the striker serve the ball 
properly, it must be struck by the 
player with his hand, either before 
it strikes the ground or after the 
first bound, so that it bounds from 
the front wall. This is called a " re- 
turn." If he fail to return it prop- 
erly, the striker scores one point, 
called an ace. If he do return it, 
the striker must bound it again 
from the front wall, and if he fail, it 
is a hand-out. After the service, 
the ball may strike the ground any- 
where in the court inside the Back- 
board. This goes on till the striker 
has scored or made a hand-out, 
when an inning is said to have been 
played. He and his opponent 
change places, and the latter be- 
comes striker in his turn After 
the first inning, an inning ends only 
when there is a hand-out, and the 
striker continues to serve after he 
scores. The player first making 21 
aces wins the game. As will be 
seen by the rules, it is sometimes 
allowable to strike the ball with the 



HAND-BALL 



402 



HAND, EXPERIMENTS 



foot. When four play, two against 
two, the partners serve and receive 
alternately. During the service the 
strikers' partner stands with his 
back to the side wall or side line, 
but after the return all take part in 
the game. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. If the striker or his partner 
stop the ball intentionally before it 
bounds after leaving the front wall, 
or while on its way to the front 
wall, it is a hand-out. 

2. If a ball struck by the player 
strikes the striker or his partner, it 
shall be played over again. 

3. When a ball is served short to 
the player he has the privilege of 
striking it with his hand or foot; if 
it is struck with the foot and fails 
to go upon the front wall, it does 
not score for the striker. If It is 
struck with the hand and fails to 
strike the front wall, it is an ace for 
the striker. 

4. If a ball is served short to the 
player and he strikes it with his 
foot upon the front wall, the striker, 
after returning it on the wall, has 
the privilege of preventing the play- 
er from striking it again. 

5. If a ball is struck with the 
foot and assisted by the hand on to 
the front wall, it is foul, and counts 
an ace against the offender. 

6. When the player is about to 
strike the ball, and his opponent 
jostles him or gets in his way inten- 
tionally, it is an ace or a hand-out. 

7. The contestants are allowed 
one minute at the expiration of each 
game before commencing another. 

8. In a double match the striker's 
partner will stand with his back 
against either side wall, inside of 
the Ace Line, until the ball leaves 
the front wall. 

9. If a ball served to the player 
goes over the Back-board or strikes 
the gallery before bounding on the 
floor, it is a foul. 

10. The striker shall call time be- 
fore serving the ball, and shall not 



serve the ball before the player or 
players are outside of the line. 

11. A foul must count as such 
whether the players play it or not. 

12. In striking the ball the player 
shall not touch the ball with any 
part of his person other than the 
hand or foot, under a forfeit of an 
ace or hand-out. 

13. If the striker in serving the 
ball strikes himself or his partner 
with the ball and it goes over the 
Ace Line, it is at the option of the 
player whether he plays to it or 
not. 

14. In case there are only bound- 
ary lines drawn, and no side walls, 
if the ball after striking the front 
wall rebounds outside the side 
boundary line, such ball is foul, and 
is a hand-out. 

1 5. All disputed balls may be de- 
cided by a referee chosen by the 
players, whose decision in all cases 
shall be final. 

The early history of hand ball is 
probably the same as that of Ten- 
nis, which was formerly played by 
striking the ball with the hand. 

Temari, or Japanese Hand -ball. 
The ball used by the Japanese to 
play this game is about two inches 
in diameter, and generally of cotton, 
wound with thread. The players, 
usually girls, stand in a circle, and 
one, taking the bail throws it down- 
ward on the ground, striking it back 
as it rises. She continues thus till 
the ball bounds away from her, 
when the player toward whom it 
bounds, or who is nearest its direc- 
tion, must strike it back. When 
any player misses a stroke, or fails 
to make the ball rebound, she is out 
of the game, which continues until 
only one player is left. That one is 
said by the Japanese to gain the 
honor of kachi (victory), and leads 
off in the next game. 

HAND, Experiments with the. i. 
Press the finger-tips of one hand 
forcibly against those of the othef 
and open and shut the hands 
slightly. After a few seconds it is 



HANGING GAME 



403 



HANGING GAME 



easy, on shutting the eyes, to be- 
lieve that there are coins between 
the finger-tips. 

2. Hook the fingers of each hand, 
holding them as widely apart as 
possible, and then move the hands 
backward and forward through the 
air rapidly and forcibly for several 
seconds. The air currents between 
the fingers make them feel as if the 
hands were full of cotton or some 
other woolly substance. 

3. Holding one hand horizontal, 
palm downward, and fingers closed, 
blow through the crevice between 
the first and middle fingers. If a 
piece of paper two or three inches 
square be placed just under this 
crevice, it will stick to the hand, 
though you are blowing directly 
against it. The reason is, that the 
current carries away some of the 
air between the paper and the hand, 
reducing the pressure, and the pa- 
per is thus held up against the hand 
by the greater pressure of the air 
below it. 

4. Look closely at the inside of 
the fingers, particularly at the ends. 
It will be seen that they are covered 
with very small furrows, running in 
curved lines. By using a lens, these 
furrows can be seen more plainly. 
To make them plainer still, rub the 
finger lightly over a piece of chalk. 
The chalk will fill the furrows, 
which will thus be traced in white. 
A print of the furrows on paper can 
be obtained by spreading ink thinly 
on a piece of glass or a sheet of pa- 
per. When it is nearly dry, press 
the finger lightly on it and then on 
a sheet of white paper. After a few 
trials very good prints can be made. 
The arrangements of these furrows 
are said to be different in any two 
persons and to remain the same 
throughout one's life. An interest- 
ing experiment would be to verify 
this by taking a print of the same 
finger every year for a number of 
years. 

HANGING GAME, THE, a game 
played by two persons, one of whom 



puts on paper a row of dots, one for 
each letter of a familiar proverb, 
while the other tries to guess the 
proverb. The dots are separated 
into groups corresponding to the 
different words ; for instance, for 
the proverb " Make hay while the 
sun shines " they would be placed 
thus: 



The guesser begins by saying 
" Write down an E " (or any other 
letter he chooses). If there is an 
E in the proverb, the other writes 
it down in place of the correspond- 
ing dot. If there are two or more, 
he writes which of them he chooses. 
The guesser then suggests another 
letter, and so on till enough are 
written down to enable him to 
guess the whole proverb. 

In one corner of the paper is 
drawn rudely a picture of a gallows, 
with a rope dangling 
from it, as in Fig. i. 
When the guesser 
makes his first mis- 
take, ordering the 
other player to write 
down a letter not con- 
tained in the prov- 
erb, a little circle. Fig. i. 
representing a man's 
head, is added to the rope on the 
gallows (Fig. 2). At his second 
mistake a neck is added, and, for 
the successive mistakes after that, a 
body, arms, legs, and feet, so that 
the gallows appears as in Fig. 3. 



p-r\ 



y 



V^ 




Fig. 2. 



Fig. 3- 



If the whole man is thus hanged 
before he can guess the proverb, he 
loses the game, otherwise he wins. 
When it is found that the guesser 
has become very expert, it may be 



HARDNESS 



404 



HARE AND HOUNDS 



agreed that he shall not have so 
many chances, by " hanging " both 
legs or both arms for a single mis- 
take. The guesser may show con- 
siderable skill in choosing his let- 
ters. At first it is best to suggest 
those that occur oftenest, such as 
the vowels, the letter S, etc. After- 
ward, the letters already written 
may suggest others ; for instance, 
if a word stands " t. e," it must be 
" the," " tie," or " toe," and its place 
in the sentence will often decide 
which is right. A dot standing by 
itself must be I, O, or A (see 
also Secret Writing). The only 
chance the other player has for 
skill, except in the selection of his 
proverb, is when the guesser sug- 
gests a letter of which there are 
more than one in the sentence, in 
which case he should of course write 
the one that he thinks will be of the 
least help in guessing. The guesser 
is usually allowed as many guesses 
as he chooses, which may be made 
at any time, but it is better to make 
a wrong guess count as a mistake. 
If the guesser is careful, he need 
not make a wrong guess, for prob- 
ably no two proverbs have exactly 
the same number of letters in their 
words, taken in the same order. 
Instead of a proverb, it may be 
agreed that the dots are to repre- 
sent any sentence which makes 
guessing more difficult. The game 
can be made harder also by not 
separating the dots into groups. 
The name, "The Hanging Game," 
is from the way in which the mis- 
takes are scored. 

HARDNESS, Experiments on. 
When one substance will scratch 
another, the first is said to be harder 
than the second. It is an interest- 
ing experiment to make a list of all 
the substances one can obtain, in 
the order of their hardness. Some- 
times one substance will be the 
hardest in the list for a long 
time, till finally another is found 
which will scratch it. To try the 
experiment fairly, a sharp point or 



edge must be found to scratch with. 
It will be seen that hardness has 
nothing to do with brittleness; 
glass, for instance, being much 
harder than soapstone, for it will 
scratch it easily. Yet it is not diffi- 
cult to break a pane of glass with a 
lump of soapstone. 

HARE AND HOUNDS, or PAPER 
CHASE, a running game played by 
any number of persons. One or 
two of the players are chosen as 
hares, and each is provided with a 
bag filled with small clippings of 
paper, called the " scent." The 
hares start off together, the rest of 
the players, called hounds, not be- 
ing allowed to see the direction 
they take. After from five to fifteen 
minutes, according to agreement, 
the hounds set off in pursuit. The 
hares, as they run, throw out, now 
and then, handfuls of the scent, by 
which means the hounds are enabled 
to follow them. They may try to 
puzzle their pursuers by turning 
back, or taking a new direction sud- 
denly, or in other ways. The run may 
be for a certain number of miles, or 
for a certain length of time, agreed 
on at the start. If a hound catches 
one of the hares in the specified dis- 
tance or time, he wins, otherwise 
the hares win. If a hound catches 
sight of the hares, he and his com- 
panions may not run toward them 
directly, but must follow the scent, 
though it is sometimes allowed if 
previously agreed upon. Where 
boys play the game, instead of using 
paper " scent," the hare sometimes 
carries a piece of chalk, with which 
he makes a cross, or other mark on 
a fence, a stone, or the pavement, 
and the hounds follow by these 
marks. When the hares are strong; 
and skilful, they can often elude the 
hounds with very little start. Some- 
times there are formed regular Hare 
and Hound clubs, which hold 
"meets" or runs at stated times, 
and have rules by which these runs 
are regulated. In summer the: 
" scent " should be of white paper;, 



HARE AND HOUNDS 



405 



HARE AND HOUNDS 



in winter of black, so as to be seen 
easily on the snow. 

Sometimes the hares can deceive 
the hounds by laying a false scent 
faintly, while the real one is strong. 
The hounds will generally conclude 
that the hares are trying to make 
them take the strong scent, and 
will therefore follow the faint one. 
If one hare is a better runner than 
his companion, he is given the task 
of laying all the false scents, other- 
wise the two do so by turns. In 
case the hares are allowed to lay the 
handfuls of scent so far apart that 
there is delay in finding it, it is very 
seldom that they are caught by the 
hounds. The sport then consists 
in a contest between the latter to 
see who shall reach the end of the 
run soonest. Sometimes two rival 
clubs form the pack of hounds, and 
the victory is decided by adding to- 
gether the numbers representing 
the order in which each member of 
the club reaches the finish. Thus, 
suppose that two clubs of five men 
each, distinguished by the colors 
red and blue, come in in the follow- 
ing order : Red, blue, red, red, blue, 
blue, blue, red, blue, red. The score 
would be as follows : 



Red. 


Blue. 


I 


2 


3 
4 
8 


1 

7 


10 


9 



26 



29 



Red is therefore the winner, the 
smaller numbers representing those 

I who come in first. 

The Germans call this game 

I ScAm'^z£/ja£-d (Scrap-hunt). 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

The National Cross Country As- 
sociation, to which most of the 
Hare and Hound clubs in the United 
States belong, has adopted the fol- 
lowing rules for the sport. 



1. Slow Chases. — There shall be 
two Hares, one Master of the Pack, 
and two Whips, to be appointed by 
the Club Captain or other recog- 
nized authority. 

2. The Hares shall be allowed a 
start of from five to ten minutes, at 
the discretion of the Captain. 

3. The Master, who shall act 
also as Pacemaker, shall have sole 
control of the Pack, and until 
the break is ordered, he shall, at 
his pleasure, appoint temporary 
Pacemakers at any period of the 
chase. 

4. The members of the Pack 
must keep within hailing distance 
of the Master, and under ordinary 
circumstances must always keep 
behind the Master until the break 
for home is ordered. 

5. Only one break shall be 
ordered by the Master, and then 
only for home ; such break shall 
never be more than a mile. 

6. It shall be the duty of the 
Whips to keep the Pack together, 
and to collect and assist all strag- 
glers. 

7. Fast Chases. — In fast chases 
there shall be two Hares, who 
shall be allowed a start of from 
five to fifteen minutes, to be fixed 
by the Captain after considering 
the relative ability of both Pack 
and Hares. 

8. The scent shall be laid from 
the start, and each hound may run 
at his own pace. 

9. It shall be in the discretion of 
the Captain or other officer acting 
in his stead, to order a break for 
home or to allow the Pack to race 
from start to finish. 

10. General. — Club runs shall be 
runs for which no scent is laid, 
but in all other conditions must 
conform to those of a slow chase. 

11. In all chases the Hares shall 
lay a fair and continuous trail 
throughout, and shall not be 
allowed to double on their trail; 
they shall be allowed to cross ford- 
able streams only, and must sur- 



HEARTS 



406 



HEARTS 



mount all obstacles over which they 
lay the trail. 

12. In all chases the Hares must 
keep within hailing distance of each 
other. 

13. Under no circumstances must 
the Pack follow the line of sight 
when the Hares are seen, but must 
always follow the trail. 

14. In all chases the break for 
home shall be indicated by a scat- 
tered bunch of paper, different in 
color from that used on the trail. 

15. Touching one of the Hares by 
any member of the Pack shall con- 
stitute a catch. 

16. If the Hares do not finish to- 
gether, the time of the last Hare in 
shall be considered the time of their 
arrival. 

17. A Slow Pack may be started 
at the discretion of the Captain in 
all runs and chases (except for 
prizes), under the control of a Mas- 
ter and two Whips. A start of one 
minute for each mile estimated to 
be covered shall be allowed by the 
Fast Pack. 

Hare and Hounds is a very old 
sport in England. In an old com- 
edy of the i6th century a schoolboy 
is represented as saying ; 

"And also when I play and hunt the fox, 
I outrun all the boys in the school." 

This refers to the modern Hare 
and Hounds, which as late as the 
last century was called Hunt the 
Fox, or Hunt the Hare. In 1868 it 
was adopted as a sport by older 
persons, and it has ever since held 
a place among athletic sports. 

HEARTS, a game of cards, 
played by two to twelve persons, 
with a full pack, and any desired 
number of Counters. The count- 
ers are divided equally among the 
players, and the cards are then 
dealt, one by one, as in whist. For 
instance, if six are playing, each will 
have eight cards, and four cards 
will be left. Those that are left are 
laid aside for a time. As soon as 
the cards are dealt, the one at the 



left of the dealer puts one or more 
counters in the middle of the table, 
a large number if he has a good 
hand, but otherwise a few. This 
is called the " ante," and the antes 
of all the players together form the 
"pool." Each of the others must 
place in the pool, for his ante, as 
many counters as the first player 
put in. Some players put in three 
counters each to form the pool be- 
fore the cards are dealt. Beginning 
at the dealer's left, each then plays 
one card, following suit if possible, 
he who plays the highest taking the 
trick, and then leading. The taker 
of the first trick takes also the 
cards, if any, that were left over in 
dealing. The rank of the cards is 
the same as in Whist, but there are 
no trumps. The object of the game 
is to take no Hearts, and so long as 
none are played it makes no differ- 
ence who takes the tricks except 
to decide who shall lead. The play- 
ers usually try to get rid of their 
high cards at the beginning of the 
game, and Hearts should never be 
led unless by watching the cards 
played, the leader is sure that the 
trick must be taken by some one 
else. Large Hearts should be thrown 
away in preference to all other 
cards. When all the cards have been 
played, each player must place in the 
pool a counter for every card of the 
Heart suit that he has taken. The 
pool is then divided among those 
who have no hearts ; but if every one 
has some, the counters remain to 
form part of the next pool. Some- 
times this is varied by giving the 
pool to him who has least Hearts. 
The game can be played for any 
length of time agreed on, and at the 
end of that time the one who has 
most counters is the winner. If 
any one has given out all his count- 
ers, he may be allowed to borrow 
from some one; but his debt, if un- 
paid, must be remembered in count- 
ing up to see who has won. 

In Hearts, a low hand is general- 
ly a good hand. High Hearts are 



HEARTS 



407 



HEARTS 



very bad to have, and so are high 
cards of any suit that has been 



played once or twice. It is there- 
fore best to lead a high card of 




SCALE Vt 

Heliostat. (See page 408.) 

some suit that has not been played. I It is of course always safe to lead 
or a low card of some other suit. ' the lowest Heart, and generally safe 



HELIOStAt 



408 



HEN 



to lead one of the lowest three. 
When a player is obliged to take a 
trick he should do so with the high- 
est card possible and, in general, he 
should always try to get rid of high 
cards in any way except by taking 
a trick on which a Heart has been 
played or is likely to be played. 
The player must watch how the 
cards fall as carefully as in Whist, 
and special account must be kept of 
the Hearts. 

The Double or Eagle Game. Each 
player, instead of paying the pool 
one chip for each Heart he takes, 
gives for an Ace, 14; a King, 13; 
a Queen, 12 ; a Knave, 11 ; and for 
each of the other cards as many as 
the spots it bears. Sometimes an 
Ace counts, 5 ; a King, 4 : a Queen, 
3 ; a Knave 2 ; and each of the other 
cards, i. 

HELIOSTAT, an arrangement for 
throwing sunlight into a room, 
much used in experiments with 
light. The light is reflected in by 
means of a mirror, but, as the sun 
is continually moving, the mirror 
also must move, or else the direc- 
tion of the sunbeam would change. 
In very fine heliostats this is done 
by clock-work, but in the one about 
to be described, which can be made 
by any one, it is done by hand. 
The illustration shows the different 
parts of the instrument. AB is a 
board which fits in a window, CC 
two ordinary iron brackets, and D a 
shelf. The size of all these parts is 
given by the scale at the bottom of 
the cut. H is a round wooden 
rod turning freely in a hole in the 
board AB and in the block K. It 
is kept from slipping by the wooden 
washer M fitting tightly over it. 
The other end has a slot in it in 
which turns a wooden semicircle G, 
screwed to the back of a board N, to 
which is fastened a piece of silvered 
glass (not ordinary looking-glass) 
by means of elastic bands. The 
sunlight is reflected from this to 
another mirror, O, on the shelf D, 
and thence through the hole B into 



the room. The rod with its slot is 
shown separately at J I, and the 
semicircle at G. 

The proper working of the whole 
arrangement depends on getting 
the rod H at the correct angle. 
The angle made by this rod with a 
horizontal line must equal the lati- 
tude of the place where it is used, 
for instance 40° 45' at New York or 
42° 22' at Boston. If this is done, 
when the heliostat is put in a 
window facing directly south the 
rod H will point to the pole-star. 
Since the sky appears to turn 
around the pole-star, the daily mo- 
tion of the sun can be followed by 
simply turning the rod H from time 
to time, thus keeping the reflected 
sunbeam in the same direction. 
But since the sun changes place a 
little every day the mirror N will 
have to be tilted at a slightly dif- 
ferent angle every day by turning 
it around the middle point of G. 

In case the room has no window 
which faces the south exactly, the 
one which does so most nearly 
must be selected and the board 
twisted a little in the sash so that 
it will look directly southward. 
The upper part of the window, and 
all other windows in the room, 
must be covered with shawls or 
blankets so that no light can enter 
except the beam sent from the helio- 
stat. It is a good plan to have a 
plain wooden table just under the 
opening through which the beam 
comes, for making experiments. 

HEN, THE. A game played by 
any number of persons who sit in 
a row. The leader, who is at the 
end, says to his neighbor, " I have a 
hen," and each in turn must repeat 
the words to his nearest neighbor. 
When they have reached the farther 
end of the line the player at that 
end asks of the one next him, 
" Has she feathers?" And when 
this question has travelled back to 
the leader he returns the answer 
"She has feathers." Then follow 
in like manner the questions and 



HERBARIUM 



46^ 



HEXMEX 



answers, "Can she walk? "She 
can walk." " How does she walk ?" 
" Wiggledy-woggledy, wiggledy- 
woggledy." (As each player says 
this he imitates the walk of a 
chicken with his hands). "Can 
she crow T' " She can crow." 
"How does she crow.?" (each 
then imitates the crowing of a 
rooster). 

The object of the game is to keep 
from laughing, which is usually 
difficult. "Any one who laughs or 
makes a mistake in repeating the 
questions and answers must pay a 
forfeit. 

This game is played by German 
children, who call it " Entchen 
Verkaufen'' (Duckling Buying). 

HERBARIUM, a collection of 
dried plants. The collector should 
be provided with a tin botanical 
case, or with two or three dozen 
sheets of thick soft unglazed wrap- 
ping paper between two boards. 
The sheets of paper and boards 
should be a little larger than the 
sheets, or scrap-book, in which it 
is intended to preserve the plants. 
Each specimen, as it is gathered, is 
placed in the case, or between two 
of the sheets of paper. On reach- 
ing home, the collector must trans- 
fer his plants to fresh sheets of 
paper of the same kind, placing 
three or four sheets between each 
pair of specimens, and must place 
on the board at the top any conven- 
ient weights, such as books, or 
bricks. After letting them remain 
thus twenty-four to forty-eight 
hours, they must be removed to 
fresh paper and pressed again for 
an equal length of time. The damp 
paper from which they are taken 
should be dried before the fire, or 
in the sun. before using again. The 
specimens must now be mounted, 
or fastened to separate sheets of 
paper. This may be done either by 
gumming down the whole plant, or 
by pasting little paper bands across 
parts of it. The latter method ad- 
mits of removing the specimen if 



desired, or changing it to a fresh 
sheet. The plants may be mounted 
in a scrap-book, but the better 
way is to put each on a separate 
sheet. The sheets may be kept 
in a box, under a light weight. 
A bit of camphor in the box will 
preserve the dried plants, but the 
best plan is to look them over thor- 
oughly every six months, thus air- 
ing them well. Care should be 
taken not to put them away in the 
box unless they are quite dry, other- 
wise they will mould. 

The name of the plant should be 
marked on each sheet, with the 
date and place of its collection. If 
the collector is a student of botany, 
he will of course add the botanical 
name, and will arrange his leaves 
by genera and species. The botani- 
cal collector will have to be careful 
about some things which need not 
trouble one who collects merely for 
amusement. He must take care to 
have his specimens show well all the 
characteristic points of the plant, 
and each should bear fruit or seed- 
vessel, if possible, as well as flower. 

Sea-weed. To prepare sea-weed 
for mounting, the specimen must be 
floated on the surface of water in a 
bowl or soup-plate, and then the card 
or paper to which it is to be fast- 
ened is slipped under it. If the pa- 
per is not stiff,it should be supported 
on a slip of glass or of tin perforated 
with holes to allow the water to drain 
off. The sea-weed should now be 
arranged on the card, under water, 
with a camel's hair brush, and any 
unnecessary parts removed with 
scissors. The paper and sea-weed 
together are now removed, laid on 
blotting-paper, and covered first 
with a piece of linen, and then with 
another piece of blotting-paper. 
After this it is pressed like any other 
specimen. Most sea-weed will ad- 
here to paper of itself, but some 
specimens require a little muci- 
lage. 

HEXMEX, a game played by two 
persons, with slate and pencil, or 



HIDE AND SEEK 



410 



HITCHINSON FAMILY 



paper and pencil. Each makes on 
the slate marks like the following, 

^ , M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1- 

the first sign representing a king and 
the others common soldiers. Each 
can have only one king, but as many- 
soldiers as he pleases. One of the 
players now takes his pencil and re- 
peats a nonsense rhyme, keeping 
time to it by pointing at the signs, 
in regular order, first to one of his 
own and then to one of the other 
player's. The soldier or king on 
whom the last word falls is dead, 
and is crossed or rubbed out. The 
other player repeats the operation, 
and so on alternately till one of 
the kings is dead. The owner of 
the living king is then the victor. 
Any ordinary counting-out rhyme 
may be repeated. In Germany, 
where it is much played, the follow- 
ing is one of the common rhymes 
used, and gives the game its name : 

Hex mex Mere mex, 
Peter Paul Pom-pex, 
SchlSgt alle bosen Buben mit der Kugel 
auf den Kopf Mause todt. 

Which is in English : 

Hex mex, Mary mex, 
Peter Paul Pom-pex, 
Knocks all bad boys with a stick on the 
head dead as mice. 

HIDE AND SEEK, or HIDE AND 
WHOOP. See I Spy. 

HIDE THE HANDKERCHIEF, a 

game played by any number of per- 
sons, one or more of whom look for 
a hidden object, generally a hand- 
kerchief. The game is played in 
various ways. Sometimes one 
player hides the object and all the 
rest look for it ; and sometimes only 
one or two look, while the others 
tell them whether they are near or 
far from the object, generally by 
saying " cold " when they are far 
away, " cool " when not quite so far, 
" warm " when near, and " hot " 
or " burning " when very near. He 
who finds the object first hides it 
again. The game is often called 
" Hide the Thimble," or by other 
names, according to the object used. 
Magical Music, a kind of Hide 
the Handkerchief, in which the 



seeker is told by music, generally 
that of a piano-forte, whether he is 
near or far from the object. The 
music may be softer as he approaches 
the object, ceasing altogether when 
he has found it, or it may be louder 
as he comes nearer the object. The 
" music " is often made by striking 
a poker against a pair of tongs. 

Hjde in Sight, a kind of Hide 
the Handkerchief, in which the ob- 
ject, usually something unnotice- 
able, like a small coin, is placed 
where it may be seen without re- 
moving anything, for instance, on 
the floor, or on a table or chair. 
One of the players thus places it 
while the others are out of the 
room. The latter enter at a signal 
and begin to look for the object. 
As soon as any one sees it he sits 
down quietly, while the others go 
on looking. He who is last to sit 
down places the object for the next 

HIGH-LOW-JACK. See All 

Fours. 

HITCHINSON FAMILY, THE. 

Four or more grotesque life-size 




Fig. I. 

figures are painted on a canvas cur- 
tain, through which holes are cut 



HOCKEY, OR SHINNEY 



411 



HOCKEY, OR SHINNEY 



where the faces of the figures should 
be. (See Fig. i). Into these holes 
the performers put their faces, from 
the rear of the curtain, making a 
comical effect from the front (Fig. 
2). They may thus give any kind 
of concert or minstrel performance. 
Some of the figures may be made 
tall and others short, the persons 
behind the curtain standing on 
chairs, or kneeling on the floor, as 




Fig. 2. 

the case may require. A showman 
may introduce the "family" to the 
audience, giving a comical history 
and description of each member. 

The name " Hitchinson Family " 
is in imitation of the "Hutchinson 
Family," a popular band of singers 
who went around giving concerts 
from about 1840 to i860. 

HOCKEY, or SHINNEY, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
each of whom has a stick with a 
curved end, called a hockey, or shin- 
ney, with which he tries to drive a 
small ball past a line called the 
goal-line. The field has two goal- 
lines about 300 or 400 feet apart, and 
is bounded on the sides by lines 



about 200 feet apart, as shown be- 
low. An umpire having been se- 
lected, the players choose sides, and 

side line 







300 


feet 




a 


^ 






(KJ 




S 






^ 


'i 


8' 






=*. 


bo 








n 



side line 

each side elects a captain. The cap- 
tains decide in any way they please, 
usually by lot, which shall have the 
knock-off, and which the choice of 
goals, the winner taking whichever 
of these privileges he likes. The 
players then stand each with his 
back to his own goal, and at a dis- 
tance from it not greater than one 
third the length of the field. The 
captain of the side which has the 
knock-off, or some one chosen by 
him, then places the ball on the 
ground as far forward as he chooses, 
within the above-stated limits, but 
equally distant from both side lines, 
and strikes it with his hockey. As 
soon as it moves, any player is free 
to go to what part of the field he 
chooses, his object being to prevent 
the ball's passing over his own goal- 
line, and to drive it across the ene- 
my's line. The side which does this 
first wins the game. 

The sticks used in playing hockey 
may be of different sizes at the pleas- 
ure of the player, but the curved end 
is generally not more than four inches 
long. They are sometimes bent 
from straight sticks, but oftener cut 
from saplings, part of the root form- 
ing the curve. When the game is 
played on the ice, as it often is, a 
lighter stick should be used, as less 
force is required to drive the ball. 
The ball is commonly of rubber, 
about two inches in diameter, but a 
small block of wood called a nun, of 
! about the same size, is often used in- 
I stead. The ball is better, for it is 
i not so dangerous. Hockey is not 
[ played by regular clubs, like foot* 



HOCKEY, OR SHINNEY 



412 



HONEY-POTS 



ball or base-ball, and the rules differ 
somewhat in different places. Those 
usually followed are given below. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. Each captain shall place his 
players as he pleases, sending some 
forward to try to drive the ball across 
the enemy's goal-line (called " run- 
ning in "), and some backward to 
defend his own line (called " lying 
back"). 

2. Each player must strike the ball 
from right to left. If he do so in 
any other way, he may be told by 
his opponent to " shinney on his 
own side," and at the third offence 
he shall be disqualified by the um- 
pire and must leave the field. (In 
many places, when no umpire is 
chosen, custom allows a player to 
strike an offender against this rule 
on his shins, but this should not be 
permitted.) 

3. No player shall strike another's 
hockey except in so far as he must 
do so in trying to drive the ball. 
(In many places, when two players 
meet, each tries to knock the other's 
stick from his hands before touch- 
ing the ball, but this should not be 
permitted, as it places skill below 
mere strength.) 

4. With the exception of the cases 
stated in the two following rules, 
no one shall touch the ball with his 
hand. 

5. When the ball is driven over 
one of the side lines, the player who 
reaches it first shall take it in his 
hand, and going to the point where 
it crossed the line, throw it on the 
ground near any player he pleases, 
either back toward his own goal, or 
directly across the field, but not to- 
ward the enemy's goal. 

6. When the ball falls into a hole, 
or isin any place out of which it can- 
not be driven with hockeys it shall 
be withdrawn with the hand, by or- 
der of the umpire, and thrown by 
him between any players of opposite 
sides, chosen by the captains. 

7. Questions not touched by these 



rules shall be decided by the um- 
pire. 

History. Some authorities think 
that Polo, or hockey on horseback, 
was the original form of the game. 
The modern form of hockey was 
played long ago in England, where 
it was also called Hookey and Haw- 
key. Some say that the name is 
from Hock-day, a holiday that cele- 
brated the expulsion of the Danes 
from England, and others that it is 
from the hooked sticks with which 
the game is played. Games simi- 
lar to Hockey are Lacrosse and 
Golf. 

HONEY-POTS, a game for very 
small children, any number of whom 
may represent honey-pots, while 
older persons take the part of honey 
merchant and customers. The 
honey pots sit on the floor or grass 




Weighing a Honey-pot. 

in a row with hands clasped under 
their bent knees. After a dialogue 
between the merchant and a cus- 
tomer, in any words they please, the 
latter selects a honey pot, and they 
proceed to weigh it. This is done 
by taking the child by the arms and 
swinging him backward and forward 
till he is compelled to unclasp his 
hands and allow his feet to touch 
the ground or floor. The pot is 
supposed to weigh as many pounds 
as it has had swings. Another cus- 



HONORS 



413 



HOOPS 



tomer may now appear, or the same 
one may make some objection and 
desire to try another pot. 

In another similar game played in 
England, the child who lets go is 
called " Rotten Egg," which is re- 
garded as a disgrace. The game in 
Italy is called " Weighing." The 
child, after being lifted, is made to 
jump over one of the arms of his 
bearers. If he escapes, he is sup- 
posed to be going to Paradise, other- 
wise to the infernal regions. There 
are similar French and German 
games. 

HONORS, a Solitaire game of 
Cards, played with two packs. The 
Two of Spades, King of Hearts, Ace 
of Diamonds, and Queen of Clubs 
are placed in a row, and below them 
the King of Spades, Queen of 
Hearts, Knave of Diamonds, and 
Ten of Clubs. On these cards the 
others are to be built in families, 
following suit; building upward on 
the upper row and downward on the 
lower, ending in each case with the 
card next in rank to the one at the 
bottom. In playing, the cards are 
laid off from the pack in two rows 
of ten each, except those that are 
available for building, which are 
laid at once in their proper places. 

A card may now be placed on 
each of these twenty in any order 
the player wishes, and when this 
has been done three more cards may 
be laid off from the pack. An 
empty space in the rows may be 
filled with the top card of any pile, 
and any top card that becomes avail- 
able is used at once in building. If 
the families can be completed thus, 
the player wins. 

HOODMAN BLIND. See Blind 
Man's Buff. 

HOOK 'EM SNIFFEY, a game 
played by any number of persons 
with a ring at the end of a long 
cord tied to the limb of a tree. A 
hook is driven into the tree, and the 
players in order try to swing the 
ring so that it will catch on the 
hook. He who succeeds scores a 



point. Instead of a tree an upright 
post with a crossbar is often used. 
Sometimes, instead of one hook, a 
board is arranged with several 
hooks, each of which has a number 
under it. In this case the successful 
player scores the number of the 
hook on which he hangs the ring. 
After any number of turns agreed 
on, he who has scored the highest 
number of points wins. 

HOOPS. To trundle a hoop well 
requires considerable skill. It is 
more difficult to do it slowly than 
swiftly, but those skilled in the art 
can keep one in motion even while 
walking. The strike should be made 
directly forward, and not at all on 
the side of the hoop, otherwise the 
motion will be unsteady. It may be 
steadied by holding the stick flatly 
against the sides alternately, and it 
is steered in the same way. The 
best part of the stick to strike with 
is a point distant from the hand by 
two thirds of its length. This is 
what is called the centre of percus- 
sion. In any other place the full 
force of the blow is not utilized. 
The hoop can also be trundled by 
holding the stick firmly against the 
middle, and pushing, not striking. 
Some sticks, especially iron ones for 
driving iron hoops, are made with a 
hook at the end for holding the 
hoop when trundled in this way. 

The fact that a hoop is easier to 
keep up when rolling swiftly de- 
pends on the principle that a rapid- 
ly revolving body requires more 
force to move it out of its plane 
than one which is not revolving at 
all, or but slowly. The same prin- 
ciple is shown in the Top, or the 
Bicycle. 

Hoop Games. Several games can 
be played with hoops. In one, the 
players form in two lines, facing 
each other, each with his hoop 
in hand. At a signal, the lines 
advance, and each must guide his 
hoop between two of the opposite 
line. The game can be varied by 
agreeing that if anyone let his hoop 



HOOPS 



414 



HOP SCOTCH 



fall, or do not guide it properly 
through the opposite line, he shall 
be out of the game. Then, after the 
players have passed forward and 
backward a number of times agreed 
on beforehand, the side on which 
the greatest number of players re- 
mains is declared the winner. In 
another game the players try to run 
through their hoops both ways, 
keeping them rolling at the same 
time. He who can thus go through 
his hoop most times, while the 
hoop is rolling any distance agreed 
upon, is the winner. This game 
requires large hoops. A difficult 
feat is to keep more than one hoop 
rolling at once, or to trundle a large 
and a small hoop, making the small 
one pass through the large one at 
intervals. 

Hoop Races, races in which each 
contestant trundles a hoop. He 
wins who first crosses the finish line, 
or who first drives his hoop across 
it, as may be agreed beforehand. 
In another kind of race, he wins 
who crosses the finish line last, 
without letting his hoop fall, the 
object of the contestants being to 
trundle their hoops as slowly as pos- 
sible. 

Turn-pike, a game played by any 
number of players, about half of 
whom have hoops. Lots are drawn 
for the hoops, and those who fail 
to draw them are called toll- 
keepers. A large circle, from 100 
to 150 feet in diameter, is marked 
out, and at equal distances on this 
each toll-keeper puts up his toll- 
gate, consisting of two stones three 
or four inches apart. The other 
players drive their hoops around 
the circle, and if any fail to send his 
hoop through one of the toll-gates, 
or strike the stone on either side, he 
becomes toll-keeper, and the toll- 
keeper at that gate takes his hoop. 

Posting, a modification of the 
game of Turn-pike. Each one of 
the toll-keepers has a stick suitable 
for driving a hoop. Whenever a 
hoop reaches a gate, the driver 



changes places with the toll-keeper, 
who drives it as far as the next gate, 
changing in turn with the toll- 
keeper there. Whoever allows a 
hoop to fall, is compelled to leave 
the game for one round, or to pay a 
forfeit, or is punished in whatever 
other way may be agreed upon be- 
forehand. 

HOPPITY. See Checkers. 

HOP SCOTCH, or POTS, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
each of whom drives a pebble from 
one part to another of a figure on 
the ground by hopping or stepping 
in various ways. The figures may 
be drawn on the ground with a 
pointed stick, or marked with chalk 
on a pavement or floor. Several 
forms of the figure are given be- 
low, B being the one commonly 
in use in New York, where the game 
is usually called Pots. The num- 
bers are not put down when the 
game is played, but are given here 
for convenience. The player be- 




gins by standing outside the figure 
at the lower end, and throwing a 
pebble, shell, or bit of wood into 
the place marked i, and then, step- 
ping into it with his right foot 
jerks or kicks the pebble out to- 
ward the place where he began, with 
that foot. He then steps back tq 
the starting-place, throw^s the peb-^ 
ble into No. 2, steps with his left 
foot into No. I and with his left 
into No. 2, and jerks the pebble out 
as before. He thus goes on, throW' 



I 



HOP SCOTCH 



415 



HOP SCOTCH 



ing the pebble into each place in the 
order of the numbers, stepping up 
to it through the spaces, putting 
only one foot in each, and after 
kicking the pebble back to the 
starting- place, stepping out in re- 
verse order. This is then repeated, 
except that the player hops into 
each space instead of stepping. Or 
hopping on one foot, he kicks the 
pebble with that foot successively 
into each space, and then back 
again in like manner. If he throw 
the pebble wrongly, or upon a line, 
or put two feet into any space, or 
step on a line, or do not jerk the 
pebble back as far as the starting- 
place, or if he put both feet on the 
ground while hopping, his turn 
ends and the next player begins. 
When a player's turn comes again, 
he goes on with the game where he 
left it, and he is the winner who 
first goes through the required 
tasks. The game may be varied 
at pleasure. It is played differently 
in different countries, and even in 
different towns. Sometimes the 
player, when he reaches the pebble, 
is required to place it on his toe, 
and then, kicking it into the air, to 
catch it in his hand. 

The figure marked D is used in 
Scotland, E in Germany, and F and 
G in France. The spaces are often 
given different names. Sometimes 
they are all called " beds ;'' and the 
last bed is called in England the 
"plum pudding" or "cat's head." 
The game is called " Pottle " in 
some parts of England, and " Pee- 
vers," " Peeverals," or " Pabals " in 
Scotland. The German name is 
" Paradies hiipfen " (Paradise-Hop- 
ping), the end space being named 
" Paradise," and in Austria it is 
called " Te7}tpel-/nipfen" (Temple- 
Hopping), one of the spaces being 
called Tejnpel (the Temple). In 
France, where it is called Marelles, 
the end space is " Paradise," as in 
Germany, and the 5th in the one 
marked G is '"Etifer" (Hell) over 
which the player must leap. The 



6th is called " Reposozr" (the Rest- 
ing Place), and there the player 
can stand on both feet. The French 
also have La Marelle Ronde (Round 



10 



11 




O 



10 



( ^ 


V/ 


^9 \ 


^ 


4 


^ 


3 




2 




1 






12 1 


11 




8 


6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 



G H 

Hop-Scotch Figures. 

Hop Scotch), where the figure is 
spiral as shown in the diagram, and 
La Marelledes Jours (Hop Scotch 
of the Days) where the spaces are 
named for the days of the week. 



HOT COCKLES 



416 



HOW DO YOU LIKE IT 



History. Hop Scotch is proba- 
bly a very old game. The earliest 
mention of it in England is in Poor 
Robin's Almanac for 1667, where it 
is called Scotch Hoppers. A French 
authority speaks of it as having been 




La Marelle Ronde. 

"much in vogue before the intro- 
duction of cards in his country." 
The name Marelles, by which it is 
called there, is also that for what we 
call Nine Men's Morris. It is a 
common boys' game even in India, 
where it is called Ekaria Dukaria, 
and where the figure is shaped thus : 

It has been suggested 

that it was carried to 
India in the sixteenth 
century. The word 
" scotch " in the com- 
mon name of the game 
means to strike, and is 

probably from the strike 

given to the pebble by 
the foot. 

HOT COCKLES, a game played 
by any number of persons, one of 
whom kneels with his head in an- 
other's lap, while the rest of the 
players strike him in turn. As each 
one does so, the kneeling player 
guesses who struck him, and when 
he is successful, the striker must 
take his place. 

History. Hot Cockles is a very 



old game, having been played at 
least five hundred years ago. The 
poet Gay refers to it in the lines : 

" As at Hot Cockles once I laid me down 
And felt the weighty hand of many a clown, 
Buxoma gave a gentle tap, and I 
Quick rose and read soft mischief in her eye." 

A variation of this game, called 
Frog in the Middle, was once popu- 
lar in England. One player, called 
the Frog, sat on the ground and was 
buffeted by the others, standing 
around, till he could catch one of 
them, who then took his place. 
The Greeks had a game similar to 
Frog in the Middle, which they 
called Chutrinda (the Pot Game), 
the Frog being named Chutra (Pot). 
The name Hot Cockles is said to 
be a corruption of the French 
Hautes Coquilles (warm hand). The 
French call it Main-chaude, and in 
the middle ages its name was Qui 
fery (who struck) } A picture on 
an ancient tomb in Egypt shows 
that a similar game was played in 
that country. 

HOW DO YOU LIKE IT ? A game 
in which one of the players guesses 
a noun, agreed upon by the others, 
by their answers to three questions. 
The questions are usually " How do 
you like it .^" "When do you like 
it ?" and " Where do you like it }" 
The guesser, who goes out of the 
room while the company chooses a 
noun, comes in and asks each in 
turn the first of these questions. If 1 
he cannot guess, he asks the sec- 
ond, and then the third, and if he 
is still unable to tell what the word ' 
is, he must pay a forfeit, or he may . 
be sent out again while another t 
word is chosen. The game is usu- 
ally made more puzzling by select- 
ing a word with two different mean- 
ings, like pen (an enclosure) and 
pen (a writing implement), or two 
words of similar sound, such as belL 
and belle, rain and reign, or quay, 
and key. For instance, with the 
words hair (of the head) and hare 
(an animal) different answers to the 
question where do you like it might 



HUNTING 



417 



HUNTING 



be " on my head," " in a stew," " in 
a pillow," or "running about in the 
woods." Instead of the last ques- 
tion given above, " Where will you 
put it?" is sometimes used. 

HOW MANY MILES TO BABY- 
LON ? See Thread the Needle. 

HUNTING. In this article, hunt- 
ing will be treated as a sport, though 
even sportsmen generally consider 
that it is not right to kill an animal 
for pleasure alone. Game must be 
killed for eating, unless it is a dan- 
gerous creature or a nuisance. 
Thus, it is not considered sports- 
manlike to shoot song-birds not 
good for food, but it is thought 
proper to hunt an animal like the 
fox, though his flesh cannot be 
eaten, because he is destructive. 
There are many different methods 
of hunting, and some animals have 
to be pursued in special ways, but 
the most common method of kill- 
ing game in this country is by 
shooting, to which this article will 
chiefly be devoted. The use and 
care of guns is described in the 
article on Shooting. Shooting 
may be enjoyed in the open field, in 
the woods, called " cover," or " cov- 
ert" by sportsmen, from the French 
covert (covered), or on the water. 
The sportsman often has the assist- 
ance of dogs, which are trained to 
point out the game when they scent 
it, and to " retrieve" it, or bring 
it to their master when it is killed. 

When boys begin to hunt, they 
generally shoot at a bird on the 
ground or in a tree, or wherever 
they see one ; but older sportsmen 
think the true way is always to 
"flush" the bird first and shoot it 
"on the wing," that is, while flying. 
Of course this requires more skill, 
but a successful shot made in this 
way gives the sportsman more pleas- 
ure. It is estimated that not more 
than two or three birds are killed 
out of every five fired at, so that a 
young sportsman need not be dis- 
couraged because he does not hit 
every bird. 



Two persons often go on a shoot- 
ing expedition together, in which 
case the rule must be observed that 
one sportsman must never shoot at 
a bird which is flying toward his 
companion. More than two persons 
cannot usually shoot together with 
advantage, except on opposite sides 
of a river or in some similiar posi- 
tion, where the parties drive the 
game backward and forward from 
one to the other. A sportsman 
should never fire across his compan- 
ion's face, or at any bird which 
flies so that it must cross him, until 
he to whom the bird belongs has 
missed it with both barrels of his 
gun. Birds flying directly away 
from both sportsmen are taken al- 
ternately, unless several rise at 
once, when each man should fire at 
those on his own side. When a 
bird is shot the shooter should ob- 
serve carefully where it falls, noting 
some object near by. Birds which 
alight should also be carefully ob- 
served, which is called " marking," 
and is often difficult for any but 
practised sportsmen. One should 
be certain, in doing this, that the 
bird has actually alighted, and has 
not merely flown behind some ob- 
ject which hides it from sight. 

Dogs. The different kinds of 
dogs are described in the article 
Dog, in C. C. T. The following 
rules for their management in shoot- 
ing birds are substantially those 
given by " Frank Forrester" (W. 
H. Herbert) in his " Manual for 
Young Sportsmen." 

1. Never do that for which you 
would punish a dog, as running af- 
ter a "winged" bird (one shot in 
the wing so that it cannot fly). 

2. Never hunt your dogs with 
other dogs not well trained, as their 
example will do them harm. 

3. Never hurry them when they 
are pointing. 

4. When the birds rise, make the 
dogs "down" for one or two sec- 
onds. This tends to make them 
steady, and even if the sportsman 



HUNTING 



418 



HUNTING 



does not fire, it gives him time to 
" mark." 

5. If a dog devour a fallen bird, 
do not chase him, as that will only 
excite him, but call to him till he re- 
turns, and then, making him drop, 
put the check cord on his collar, 
drag him back to the place where 
he started, whipping him and re- 
buking him, and make him lie there 
several minutes. 

6. In buying a dog, try to learn 
the exact mode of hunting and 
words of command used by his 
former owner, and, if possible, con- 
form to them. 

7. Never punish a dog unless you 
are certain that he cannot fail to 
understand the reason. 

8. Never allow a dog to commit 
a fault because you are afraid of 
losing time or losing birds by cor- 
recting him. Correction should 
be by the voice, the whip, and by 
making the dog pause and recog- 
nize his fault. Never kick a dog, 
and use the whip as little as possi- 
ble ; but when it is used, use it so 
that it will be remembered. 

9. Make as little noise as possible 
in calling a dog. Dogs which are 
always shouted at get so that noth- 
ing but a shout will turn them. If 
possible, they should be trained to 
follow the motion of the hand. 

10. Make friends with your dog, 
without absolutely caressing him. 
as soon as you have done punishing 
him, and before allowing him to rise. 

11. When he is at point, never al- 
low him to flush his game without 
giving the order " on," and then in- 
stantly saying " Drop." 

12. When he is down, never allow 
him to rise until you have ordered 
him "up." 

13. When a bird is killed, whistle 
and say " Dead," at which he should 
come to you. Then say " Seek" or 
" Find," when he must draw up and 
point the dead bird. 

14. When he is pointing thus, 
never allow him to recover the bird 
till you order him to " fetch." 



15. When he has retrieved, he 
should deliver the bird into his 
master's hand ; otherwise he may at 
some time lay one down where it 
cannot be easily reached. 

16. Never break a sporting rule 
in order to recover a wounded bird 
or get a shot at a live one. 

17. Never lose your temper. 
The behavior of dogs in the 

hunting-field depends much on 
their treatment at home. 

Every dog should have a separate 
kennel, which should be movable, 
and without a bottom. It should 
stand on a board floor or platform, 
and inside should be placed plenty 
of fine pine shavings for the dog to 
lie on. Straw and other similar 
substances are apt to cause vermin. 

Dogs may be fed on table scraps 
and given meat sparingly. They 
should be supplied with plenty of 
pure water, care being taken to 
change it frequently. Exercise 
every day and frequent bathing in 
hot weather is necessary. In the 
country they should be taken out 
for a run of an hour or so every 
day. Before the shooting season 
they are improved by a fast run un- 
der a wagon, which hardens their 
feet and makes them capable of 
greater endurance. Where space 
can be had, the dogs should be al- 
lowed to run about in a yard, in- 
stead of chaining them to the ken- 
nels. Dogs thus treated will need 
less outside exercise. Where there 
is not much room for dogs to run 
about, a good plan is to fasten the 
chain to a ring which is free to run 
backward and forward on a strong 
wire stretched between two posts, 
or along the side of the house or 
barn. 

The following table shows the 
charges suitable for small game. 
Different sportsmen vary them con- 
siderably. The larger wild animals 
are generally shot with a rifle. 
Special hunting methods are de- 
scribed below under the name ol 
each kind of game. 



HUNTING 



419 



HUNTING 



Sora, Rail, etc.K 

Woodcock 

Snipe 

Quail "!.'.'.'.".*!!.! 
Prairie Chicken.. 
Ruflfed Grouse. .. 

Squirrel 

Teal....'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

Pintail .*.... 

Mallard.".'.'.';."!.*; 
Redhead ......... 

Canvasback 

Turkey .....*.'!!" 
Goose 



3auge 


1 Pow- 
der. 
Drams 


Shot. 
Oz. 


J 12 






16 


2j 


i 


20 






10 


4 


li 


12 


3i 


I 


10 


4 


li 


12 


3i 


li 


10 


4 


i^ 


12 


^i 


I 


10 


4i 


li 


12 


S* 


ij- 


10 


4i 


I;- 


12 


3^ 


H 


10 


4i 


I* 


12 


^i 


li 


10 


4i 


li 


12 


^i 


li 


10 


4i- 


li 


12 


s* 


li 


10 


4i 


li- 


12 


Sf 


li 


10 


4i 


li 


12 


^f 


li 


10 


4i 


li 


12 


^i 


li 


10 


5 


li 


12 


^f 


li 


10 


5 


li 


12 


3l 


li 



Size and 

Kind of 

Shot. 



ID Trap 

10 Shot 
10 Shot 
9 Shot 
9 Shot 
8 Trap 
8 Trap 
8 Shot 
8 Shot 
7 Trap 
7 Trap 
6 Shot 

6 Shot 

7 Shot 
7 Shot 
6 Shot 
6 Shot 
5 Shot 
5 Shot 
4 Shot 
4 Shot 
3 Shot 
3 Shot 
2 Shot 
2 Shot 
BB 
BB 



Snipe, wading birds which fre- 
quent marshes and flat lands (C. 
C. T.). They appear in meadows 
and sah marshes in the spring about 
the same time with bluebirds. In 
windy weather they often rise high 
in the air in "whisps" or knots of 
10 or 20, and it is then hard to 
shoot them. Good snipe-shooting 
depends much on chance, but the 
best time for it is when after a cold 
storm the weather has cleared off 
warm. Windy weather is always 
favorable, if the wind is not too 
high. In England dark days are 
considered good ones for snipe, but 
that is not the rule in this country. 
The snipe rises toward the wind, 
therefore the shooter should move 
in the direction in which the wind 
is blowing. The birds will then 
rise directly in front of him and fly 
off to his right or left, so that he 
can get a cross-shot, which is con- 
sidered the best. The time to 
shoot is just after the snipe rises, 
when the bird " hangs in the wind " 
for an instant. After that he flies 
off rapidly. When the birds are 



abundant they may be hunted with 
any kind of a dog, or with none at 
all ; but when they are scarce and 
the sportsman is obliged to go over 
much ground to get them, the dog 
should be a quick one. At the 
same time he must stand stiffly and 
not try to crawl in on the bird, and 
should be taught to stop or drop at 
the motion of his master's hand or 
the report of the gun. The dog 
should be encouraged to pass over 
unlikely ground as fast as possible, 
but where there are probably snipe 
he should be given his own time 
and not hurried. 

Bay Shooting. In this method 
the sportsmen lie hidden in boats 
covered with reeds moored in the 
small pools left by the tide, where 
the birds come for food. On the 
margin are placed " decoys " or 
" stools," which are imitation birds 
made of wood, rubber, or tin. 
From twenty to forty of these are 
generally used. The sportsman 
imitates the note or whistle of the 
birds, till, seeing the decoys, they 
begin to settle among them, when 
he fires into a group. In this way 
the birds can be shot in large num- 
bers. Sometimes the sportsman is 
concealed among bushes on shore 
instead of in a boat, but in any case 
he must keep perfectly still, and it 
is often necessary to wait thus for 
hours before the birds can be in- 
duced to come within shot. 

Woodcock. (SeeC. C.T.). These 
birds hide during the day in marshy 
thickets, seeking for their food. 
They fly in a rising straight line 
till they reach the top of the 
bushes, and then horizontally till 
they light again, which they do by 
making a quick zigzag movement 
and then settling down at once. A 
knowledge of this method of flying 
and lighting is necessary to the 
sportsman in order that he may 
know where to find the birds. 
Some sportsmen walk along the 
outside of the covert, allowing their 
dogs to run in and flush the birds, 



HUNTING 



420 



HUNTING 



but others make it a rule always to 
follow their dog and never allow 
him to flush the birds. Summer 
woodcock rise more sluggishly than 
autumn birds, and are more easily 
shot. 

Grouse. (See C. C. T.) Of the 
several grouse found in the United 
States the two principal ones are the 
ruffed grouse and the pinnated 
grouse or prairie chicken. Other 
species are the spruce partridge or 
Canada grouse, and the blue and the 
sharp-tailed, which are found in the 
West and the northwest. All the 
varieties have stout bills, short, 
feathered legs, and dark plumage. 
The ruffed grouse is wrongly called 
the partridge in New England and 
the pheasant in some of the Middle 
and Southern States. It frequents 
thick woods, and its color is so much 
like that of the ground that it is hard 
to see. The bird is wild and shy and 
has a way of running far ahead of 
the dogs and then rising, out of 
range of shot. When suddenly 
disturbed it rises with a loud whir 
and flies swiftly, often taking refuge 
in the branches of a tree. Grouse 
are often hunted with dogs of any 
kind, which flush the game, after 
which it is shot in a tree; but a 
more sportsmanlike method is to 
use only pointers or setters and to 
shoot the birds on the wing. The 
ruffed grouse is the most wary and 
cunning of all land game birds 
found in the northern States, and 
its successful pursuit requires much 
practice and skill on the part of the 
shooter. The birds are sometimes 
snared, but in most States this is 
forbidden by law, and it is consid- 
ered unsportsmanlike. The pinna- 
ted grouse, generally called prairie 
chicken, or prairie hen, is numer- 
ous on the Western prairies and 
rarely found in timber. In dry 
weather on the prairie, where no 
water is to be found, it is often 
necessary to carry water with the 
hunting party for the dogs to drink. 

Quail. (See C. C. T.). This bird 



is called the partridge in the 
Southern States, but there are no 
true partridges in this country. It 
is also commonly called Bob White, 
from the fancied resemblance of 
the call of the cock bird to these 
words. There are nearly fifty kinds 
of quail, all having a stout depressed 
bill, short tail, and brown plumage 
spotted with black and streaked 
with yellow. They are generally 
found in groups called coveys, in 
wheat stubbles and thickets at the 
edge of woods, near cultivated land. 
The birds are found in the Eastern 
and Middle States, but they are 
most numerous in the Southern 
States and the southwest. Quails 
are shy, and fly very swiftly. When 
they light they do not dart down 
nor wheel about, but fly gradually 
lower till they near the ground, 
when they bring feet and tail down 
together and then flap the wings. 
Unless they are seen to do this, it 
is unsafe for the hunter to assume 
that they have lighted. They often 
give out no scent for some time 
after they have dropped, and in this 
case it is best to note where they 
are, and return to them after trying 
other places. The quail is the 
most abundant and most widely 
distributed of the Eastern game 
birds. It is more easily brought to 
bag than the grouse or woodcock, 
and is game which the young 
sportsman may pursue with success. 
They are hunted with pointers or 
setters, which discover the birds by 
their scent and stand on point until 
the sportsman comes up, flushes the 
quail, and shoots them flying. 

Wild Fowl. The wild water-fowl 
hunted as game-birds are the swans, 
geese, and ducks. They are migra- 
tory, going to the far North in 
spring, to breed, and returning to 
the far South in autumn. The great 
routes of migration are along the 
Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and 
through the Mississippi Valley. On 
their passage to and from their 
summer homes, they stop to rest 



HUNTING 



421 



HUNTING 



and feed in the bays, lakes, ponds, 
and streams, wherever there is food 
for them. Wild rice and wild celery 
are favorite articles of food with 
wild fowl ; it is the wild celery that 
gives their fine flavor to canvas- 
back and redhead ducks, two vari- 
eties that are considered great lux- 
uries for the table. Sportsmen 
sometimes plant wild rice in waters 
where there is no natural food to 
lure the ducks. In winter wild fowl 
abound in southern waters. One 
kind of wild goose is called Brant. 
The kinds of ducks most valued by 
sportsmen are Canvasbacks, Red- 
heads, Mallards, Teal, Pintail, and 
Woodduck. Ducks abound es- 
pecially on the shores of lakes in 
the Northern States, the New Jer- 
sey coast, Delaware and Chesa- 
peake Bays, Currituck Sound, the 
Mississippi Valley, and the lakes 



and bays of the Northwest, such as 
Puget Sound, and the Willamette 
and Columbia Rivers. Wild fowl are 
hunted in a variety of ways, some- 
times by stealing upon them while 
they are feeding or resting, but 
usually by shooting them as they 
fly from one place to another. 
In the latter case the hunter must 
carefully conceal himself by some 
form of screen or blind, as it is 
called. One favorite method, 
adopted when the fowl fly to and 
from their feeding grounds, is for 
the hunter to station himself, well 
concealed, in a point of land over 
or near to which they fly, and to 
shoot them as they pass. A com- 
mon device is to put out decoys, 
which are images of ducks, made 
of wood or other material. These 
are anchored in the water, and 
are so arranged as to appear to be 




Turkey Call. 



alive; the ducks, seeing them, fly 
to join their company, and are shot 
before alighting on the water, or at 
rest. Sometimes tamed wild ducks 
are used as decoys, and call to their 
wild fellows. The gunner often 
uses a peculiar whistle or duck-call, 
with which he imitates the notes of 
the wild fowl, and attracts their at- 
tention to his decoys. In the Chesa- 
peake Bay and elsewhere duck 
hunters lie in sink-boats, which are 
sunk in the water until their edges 
are level with the surface, and shoot 
as the birds fly over. Another 
form of blind, called a battery, is 
a box sunk in the sand or in shal- 
low water, where the gunner lies 
concealed. Sometimes trained dogs, 
of the breed known as the Chesa- 
peake Bay dog, are made to run up 
and down the shore, and by their 



antics excite the curiosity of the 
birds, which approach to see what 
the dogs are doing. This is called 
"toling." Ducks fly very swiftly 
and they are wary birds. Duck- 
shooting requires much skill, and 
is often attended with hardship 
and exposure. 

Wild Turkey. This fowl abounds 
in most of the Southern and some 
of the Western States, and is usually 
decoyed by using a " call " or whistle, 
imitating the noise made by th'^ 
bird. Turkey calls of several kinds 
can be bought of dealers in sport- 
ing goods, but some sportsmen can 
make the call without their Hid. 
The sportsman usually hides him- 
self in a thicket and makes the call 
till a turkey, attracted by it, comes 
within range. Turkeys may be 
hunted also without the call. They 



HUNTING 



422 



HUNTING 



leave a trail when walking, so that 
they are easily tracked by a dog, 
but they are so timid that it is hard 
to get within range in this way. 
They are often shot at their roosts, 
the hunter surprising them at dawn 
before they have flown. 

The Upland Plover, or Bartram's 
Sandpiper. This bird frequents in- 
land pastures, and is much esteem<„d 
as food. It is very shy and difficult 
to appoach except by some trick. 
In Rhode Island it is hunted from 
two-wheeled chaises, in the bottom 
of which the huntsman sits, while 
the chaise drives around the bird in 
gradually narrowing circles. The 
huntsman has his leg on the step 
ready to spring out and fire the 
moment the bird rises. Success 
depends largely on the skill of the 
driver. Another trick is to use 
trained ponies, which move closer 
and closer to the bird while feeding, 
the huntsman standing concealed by 
the animal's forelegs and shoulder. 
Some sportsmen build houses of 
boughs, in which they wait for the 
birds to alight near by. 

The Rail. This small bird fre- 
quents the rice fiats on the sea- 
shore of the Southern States, and 
the borders of tidal rivers like the 
Delaware, or the New Jersey fiats. 
The rail runs swiftly, and though it 
has a strong scent, can with dif- 
ficulty be forced by dogs to take 
flight. The birds fly slowly, and 
for short distances. The best 
method of hunting them is from 
boats, at flood tide, the birds being 
forced to take wing by running 
them down. They must oe killed at 
the first shot, as otherwise they dive, 
hide in the thickest reeds, and 
are very hard 'o find. The skill lies 
more with the man who " poles " or 
pushes the boat than with the hunts- 
man, for the birds fly so slowly that 
they can hardly be missed by any 
one who is a fair shot. One sports- 
man has sometimes killed more 
than one hundred of these birds 
during a single tide. Rail-bird 



shooters also find on the same 
grounds the reed-bird or rice-bird, 
which is the bobolink of northern 
meadows in spring and summer. 
In September the reed-birds are 
found in immense numbers in the 
wild-oat fields ; and many thou- 
sands of them are killed for market. 
In the South, where they are known 
as rice birds, they do great damage 
to the rice crops. 

Pigeons. (See C. C. T.) These 
birds, once so numerous, have now 
almost disappeared from the eastern 
United States, owing to the way 
in which they have been killed 
in pigeon-shooting contests (see 
Shooting). 

Cranes. (See C. C. T.) Cranes 
are found in the South and West. 
Whooping cranes are hunted in 
the Mississippi Valley for their 
plumage. In Oregon the sandhill 
crane is called "Chinese Snipe," 
because it is eaten by the Chinese. 

Deer. The different kinds of deer 
are described in C. C. T. They are 
found chiefly in wild regions. In 
the Eastern States, the best regions 
for deer-hunting are the Adirondack 
Mountains, the Maine woods, and 
the western part of Pennsylvania. 
They abound in the Blue and 
Alleghany Mountains, in Arkansas, 
Michigan, the Rocky Mountains, 
and on the Pacific slope, but they 
are being killed so rapidly that 
there is danger that they may be 
exterminated. Many States have 
passed laws regulating deer-hunt- 
ing. Deer are hunted in various 
ways. In the South the sportsmen 
usually ride on horseback, and dogs 
are put on the trail, who chase the 
deer past the huntsmen. In some 
parts of the South there are hunting 
clubs, organized expressly to hunt 
deer in this way. In Georgia and 
Florida, deer are often shot by 
torch-light in the swamps, and in 
Kentucky and Tennessee hunting 
parties often camp in the woods for 
several weeks. In Arkansas the 
game is hunted chiefly on foot, the 



HUNTING 



4^^ 



HUNTING 



sportsman being careful not to get 
to windward of the deer. Some- 
times the hunter, by pinning a red 
handkerchief across his breast, so 
excites the curiosity of the deer 
that the animal keeps still until he 
is very near him. The deer in the 
Adirondacks are fast decreasing in 
number, though the time for killing 
them is limited by law. The 
methods used there are still-hunting 
over freshly fallen snow, the hunter 
tracking the deer until within 
range; "Jack hunting," where a 
lantern called a "Jack "is carried 
on a pole in the bow of a boat, or 
on the sportsman's head, to dazzle 
the deer and make him stand still 
for a moment; and hunting with 
dogs. In the last-named method, 
the dogs drive the deer past the 
hunter, who is stationed on a " run- 
way," or drive it into the water 
where it is shot swimming by hunts- 
men from the shore or in boats. 
Rifles and shotguns loaded with 
buckshot are used for deer-hunting. 

Bears. The bear is described in 
C. C. T, Bears are found through- 
out the United States in wild 
places, such as the Catskill and 
Adirondack Mountains in the East, 
the mountains of North Carolina 
and West Virginia, the swamps 
of South Carolina, Georgia, and 
Florida, the "bottom lands" of 
Arkansas, and the mountains and 
forests of the far West. They are 
usually hunted with rifles and by the 
aid of dogs. The black or brown 
bear, unless it be a mother with cubs, 
is apt to be inoffensive till wounded. 
The grizzly, though formidable, is 
hunted for sport quite extensively. 

Fox. The fox is described in C. C. 
T. He is found wild chiefly in the 
Southern States, especially around 
the Blue and Alleghany Moun- 
tains. In some parts of the country, 
especially in New England, he is 
hunted with a gun like other wild 
animals, hounds being employed to 
drive the game to the hunter, who 
stations himself where the fox is 



likely to pass ; but in some other 
parts of the country sportsmen 
think that the proper way to hunt 
him is with a pack of hounds. The 
hounds follow the trail of the fox 
till they overtake and kill him, and 
the huntsmen follow on horseback, 
each striving to be " in at the death. " 
The fox adopts many kinds of 
tricks to deceive the dogs and throw 
them off the scent, and the trail often 
leads over very rough country, so 
that to follow it requires great skill 
in riding. In some of the Southern 
States large packs of hounds are 
kept for fox-hunting, and women as 
well as men are fond of the sport. 
There are fewer foxes in the North- 
ern States, but near some of the 
large cities are associations called 
" hunts " for the purpose of hunting 
the animals. Where foxes cannot 
be found, one is brought from a 
part of the country where they 
abound, and sometimes instead of 
following a fox, the hounds are 
made to trace the scent of a bag 
filled with anise seed, which has 
been dragged over the ground. The 
first one of these hunting clubs was 
formed in Hackensack, N. J., in 
1875. Some of the chief ones are 
the Rockaway Hunting Club and 
the Meadow Brook Hunt on Long 
Island, the Essex County Hunt in 
New Jersey, the Radnor and Rose- 
tree Hunts near Philadelphia, the 
Myopia near Boston, the Elkridge 
Hunt of Baltimore, and the Prince 
George County Hunt, most of 
whose members live in Washington, 
D. C. These hunts, in addition to 
the usual society officers, have a 
Master of the Hounds, who has 
charge of the horses and dogs, and 
appoints places for the meets. 

Hares or Rabbits. Hares are usu- 
ally hunted with dogs, which drive 
out the game to the hunter. The 
beagle is the best dog for this pur- 
pose. In the West the large hare, 
known as the jack rabbit, is coursed 
with grayhounds, which chase the 
game on the prairies, the huntsmen 



HUNTING 



424 



HUNTING 



following on horses. The Jacks, as 
they are called, are exceedingly 
swift runners, but are often over- 
taken by the hounds. 

Squirrels. Of all game animals 
no one furnishes more sport to the 
young hunter than does the black or 
gray squirrel. For squirrel-hunting 
a dog is useful to point out the tree 
where the game is in hiding; and 
for this purpose almost any dog 
with a good nose will do. The 
proper weapon is a small bore-rifle, 
though the shotgun is often used ; 
but the rifle calls for the most skill 
and gives better satisfaction in every 
way. Other animals hunted in the 
United States are thfe Raccoon, the 
Wolf, the Lynx, the Couguar, and 
the Opossum, and sometimes the 
Alligator and the Eagle. These, 
all of which are described in C.C.T., 
are usually shot with the rifle. 

Game Laws. Most States have 
passed statutes for the preservation 
of game. 

Methods. In New York deer 
cannot be taken by traps, spring- 
guns, or similar devices. They 
must not be hunted with dogs in 
St. Lawrence and Delaware counties, 



ly m 
It is 



tain prescribed seasons. It is for- 
bidden to kill fawns. In New York, 
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, wild 
fowl must not be killed with swivel 
or punt-guns, or by any other device 
except such a gun as is ordinarily 
raised to the shoulder and fired. 
In New York it is unlawful to hunt 
wild fowl at night or with a " float- 
ing battery " or to use a decoy more 
than twenty rods from shore, except 
in certain bays in Long Island, in 
Lake Ontario, and in Hudson River 
below Albany. In New York it is 
unlawful also to shoot wild fowl 
from any steam or sailing vessel. 
Game birds in general may not be 
trapped in any of these States. In 
New York hares and rabbits may 
not be hunted with ferrets, except 
in orchards or nurseries by their 
owners. In New Jersey non-resi- 



dents of the State are not allowed 
to hunt in certain counties without 
becoming members of one of the 
Game Protective Societies. Rob- 
bing the nests of wild birds or 
killing song-birds is unlawful in all 
the States mentioned. 

Trespassing. In most cases it is 
necessary for the sportsman to hunt 
01 land belonging to other people. 
The best plan is to obtain permis- 
sion, which in this country is usually 
given readily, but often huntsmen 
have become so accustomed to kill 
game in a certain spot without hin- 
drance, that they think they have a 
right to do so. Courts, however, 
have decided that, no matter what 
the custom is, sportsmen cannot 
claim a legal right to hunt on other 
people's land, nor even to stand on 
the public road and shoot over the 
fence, or send in a dog. In any 
such case the sportsman is really 
trespassing, and although the owner 
of the land usually does not care, 
the sportsman should always re- 
member that the owner has a right 
to order him to leave. If he refuse, 
and do not leave after a reasonable 
time, the owner may then use neces- 
sary force, but not till then. The 
owner has no right, for instance, to 
set a savage dog on the trespasser 
whom he finds on his land. In some 
States special laws have been made 
against sportsmen who enter land 
when they are forbidden by a 
printed and posted notice. 

The owner of a piece of land does 
not own the live game on it, in the 
same way that he owns his horses, 
dogs, or chickens, but he has the 
exclusive right to kill it so long as it 
is on his land. This right is called 
his property in game. But game is 
the property of no particular person 
till he has killed it. The question as 
to who owns game killed by a tres- 
passer has never been settled in the 
United States. 

Some States allow hunting priv- 
ileges to its own citizens which 
they deny to those of other States. 



HUNTING 



4^5 



tt UNTINC 



Their right to do this has been 
denied by some people, but the 
Supreme Court of the United 
States has decided that it is allowa- 
ble to make such laws with regard 
to oyster-fishing, and probably all 
similar laws would be supported in 
like manner. 

Seasons. Most of the States have 
laws regulating the times when the 
several species of game may be 
killed. See Tables following, The 
black lines show months the game 
is "in season." A short black line 
in the columns means first half of 
month, when printed toward the 
left; and last half, wher. toward 
right. Figures to the left of short 
lines mean in season from that date, 
and to right, to that date. These 
times are only apprqximately cor- 
rect, as legislatures are constantly 
changing them. The sportsman to 
be absolutely safe should therefore 
make special inquiry in each case. 
The intent of these laws is to protect 
the game during its breeding season, 
so that birds may not be killed while 
nesting and rearing their young nor 
before the young birds shall have 
grown large and strong enough to 
care for themselves. The time when 
game may lawfully be killed is called 
the "open season," and during that 
period the game is said to be " in 
season." The period when it cannot 
be killed is called the " close sea- 
son, " and the game is then said to be 
"out of season." In most States it is 
forbidden also to have in possession 
or to sell game in the close season. 

History. The pursuit of wild birds 
and animals was probably under- 
taken at first to obtain food, or for 
protection; but it must have begun 
very early to be thought of as a 
sport, for the oldest nations whose 
history we knew so considered it. 
In the great eastern kingdoms the 
Kings and their courtiers were very 
fond of the sport, and the sculptures 
on the ruins of Nineveh and other 
great cities of Assyria and Persia 
often represent hunting scenes. The 



kings of Persia owned many vast 
hunting parks, in which were kept 
wild animals. These parks were 
called by the Greeks paradeisos, 
from which we get our word Para- 
dise. The Greek and Roman le- 
gends are full of hunting stories. 
The Greeks were fond of the sport, 
and Xenophon and other Greek 
authors wrote books about it, from 
which it appears that hares, boars, 
stags, lions, panthers, and bears 
were among the game hunted. 

In Egypt the huntsmen formed a 
class by themselves, either hunting 
on their own account, or acting as 
the attendants of the nobility. 
Sometimes trained lions were em- 
ployed by tnem instead of dogs, 
just as the cheetah, or hunting 
leopard, is used in India at the 
present day, and the huntsman 
sometimes rode in a chariot, dis- 
charging arrows at the game when 
he came within range. Allusions 
in the Bible to huntsmen and their 
nets and snares show that in Pales- 
tine trapping was a favorite mode of 
securing game ; but spears and ar- 
rows were also sportsmen's weapons. 
The horse and dog were not used 
in hunting by the Jews. King Herod 
was a successful huntsman, and is 
said to have killed forty boars, wild 
asses, and deer in a single day. The 
Romans viewed hunting, like other 
sports, less as an occupation for 
gentlemen than as a spectacle, and 
exhibitions of hunting were often 
given in the great amphitheatres. 
Sometimes the beasts were kOled by 
attendants, and sometimes the peo- 
ple were allowed to rush in and 
carry away what they could get, in 
which case no dangerous animals 
were brought in. Sometimes large 
trees were taken up and planted in 
the arena, to make it look like a 
forest. In one of these hunting 
spectacles, w^hich were called Vena- 
tiones, there were looo ostriches, 
looo stags, looo boars, looo deer, 
and numbers of wild goats, wild 
sheep, and other smaller animals 



HUNTING 



426 



HUNTING 





G* 






t 
< 




4; 

1 


"a 
1— > 


bib 




i 





s 


Deer. 
Alabama, all counties 


— 


— 


— 


— 









— 


— 


= 




" sorr)^ rniipti?S 




Arkansas (doe and fawn) 

California 


— 


" Siskiyou and Nevada Counties 
Colorado 


— 


Dakota 




Florida 








Idaho 




Illinois .. ......... 




Indiana and Iowa 

Kentucky (female deer) 


— 


Maine . . . 




Massachusetts (Tuesdays, Wednes- 
days, Thursdays and Fridays). . . . 




" lower peninsula 




Minnesota ... . ... . 








Missouri 








Nebraska 








New Hampshire 








New Mexico 




New York 








Ohio 




Oregon (male deer) 




Pennsylvania ......... 








Tennessee 




Some counties 

Texas 


— 


Utah 




Virginia 








West Virginia 




Wisconsin 








Wild Turkey. 

Alabama, all counties 

" some counties 

Arkansas 

Georgia 

Indiana 


— 






Kentucky 

Louisiana 


— 


Michigan 




Mississippi 

Missouri 

New Mexico 

North Carolina 


^ 


Pennsylvania. 




Ohio 




South Carolina 

Tennessee, all counties 

" some counties 

Texas 

Virginia, West of Blue Ridge 

" elsewhere 

West Virginia 


— 


Quail. 




" some counties ■ 

Arkansas and California ■ 

Colorado 


— 



HUNTING 



427 



HUNTING 



Connecticut 

Dakota 

Delaware 

District of Columbia. 

Florida 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana :.. 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New York — 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 



Pennsylvania / 

Rhode Island f 

Tennessee, all counties . . . 
" some counties. 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia ) 

West Virginia ) 

Wisconsin 



Wyoming 

Grouse. (Including Pinnated Grouse 



and Ruffed 

) 



or "'Prairie Chicken,' 

Grouse or " Pheasant 

Arkansas (Pinnated). . - 

Cal if ornia 

" Siskiyou County 

Colorado 

Dakota 

Idaho 

(Ada County) 

Illinois (Pinnated) 

(Ruffed) 

Indiana 

Iowa (Pinnated) 

" (Ruffed) 

Kansas 

Maine (Pinnated) 

(Ruffed) 

Michigan (Pinnated) 

(Ruffed) 

Minnesota (Pinnated, white-breasted, 

and sharptaiJed) 

Minnesota (Ruffed) 

Mississippi (Ruffed) 

Missouri (Pinnated and Ruffed) 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire (Ruffed) 

New Jersey (Ruffed) 

New York (Ruffed and Pinnated) 

" '• Queens and Suffolk Coun- 
ties (Ruffed) 

Ohio (Pinnated) 

" (Ruffed) 

Oregon 

(Pinnated) 

Pennsylvania (Ruffed and Pinnated). 
Pike County (Ruffed). . . 

Rhode Island 

" (Ruffed) 

Tennessee, all counties 

'* some counties 



HUNTING 



428 



HUNTING 





i 
•— > 




J3 


1 




3 


"3 

1—. 


bio 
3 
< 


a 


1 


> 


A 


Texas (Pinnated) 


_ 


.i_ 












.i._ 


_»_ 


___ 


__ 


_ 


Utah 


vaaBa 


mBV 


••• 










^B^ 


^o^ 


aB^_ 


^^^ 


r—^ 


Washington 
















^^ 


^^ 


___ 


,.^__ 


___ 


West Virginia (RufEed and Pinnated). 


._ 
















^_i 


^— 


_ 


.■.i. 


Wisconsin (Ruffed, Pinnated, and 


























Sharptailed) 
















■IB 


Ba^_ 


^._ 


^m^ 


aa_^ 


Wyoming (Pinnated, Sharptail, and 
Sage Grouse) 






































— 




■■^~ 


—■ 


"- 




Wild Water Fowl. 




Alabama (Wild Duck) 


-^ 


•— i 


—^ 


— — 














^_i 


— . 


Arkansas, " " 


















,„„,^ 


■ 


,^^^ 


_^_ 


California, " " all counties.. . 




i^_i 


_ 












_ 


___ 


^__ 


ii__ 


'* " some counties. 




_^ 


_^_ 


mmt 








^ 


__^ 


^^ 


_„ 


_i_l 


Connecticut (Wild Duck, Geese, 
Brant) 


























District of Columbia (Wild Duck, 


























Geese, Brant) 


_ 


^_ 


^_ 














„__ 


_^ 




Georgia (Wild Duck) generally 


^_ 


_^ 


_ 














...._ 


__ 


_ 


Idaho (Wila Duck and Goose) 


— — i 


-^ 


._ 


mm 








^__ 


1— 


_ 


_ 


._ 


Indiana (Wild Duck) 


>~~ 


i_ 


^^ 


_i 










_^__ 


ii^_ 


i»_i 


.,_ 


Iowa (Wild Duck, Geese, Brant) 


•i... 




__ 


,^_ 








_ 


^^ 


_«_« 


_^ 


^■i_ 


Kentucky (Wild Geese, Woodduck, 


























Teal, or other Duck) 


,aa_i 




^^^ 


^^_ 










^ 


„„,_ 




„^,^ 


Maine (Wood Duck, Black Duck, or 


























other Sea Ducks) 


^^ 


_i_ 


i_ 


__ 










— i 


^_ 


«i_ 


_ 


Maryland (Wild Fowl), all counties.. 


i^— 


i^— 
















— ^ 


^____ 


—— 


•' " " some counties. 


>aB^ 




^_aa 


^^_a 










^^^ 


^^i_i 


^^^ 


B^^ 


Massachusetts (Wood or Summer 


























Duck, Black Duck, Teal) 


_i. 


^^ 


.__ 












^_ 


mmmm 


_ 


_ 


Michigan (Water Fowl) 


— 


_i__ 


—— 


__i 










^^ 


^_ 


__ 


^^m 


Minnesota (Aquatic Fowls) 


— 


^m.m 


•— 


_»i 


_ 








^^ 


-~— 


— . 


— « 


Montana (Wild Geese and Ducks) . . 


— — 


— — 


— — 


— «" 


— 






10— 


— — 


— 


— 


— — 


Nevada " " " .. 


■■■■^ 




laaiiB 












■i^^ 


BBiiiiB 


^^-B 


^"^ 


New Hampshire (Duck) 


^^„^ 
















^^^ 


,„„^ 


^^^ 


„^^ 


New Jersey, Barnegat Bay, and trib- 
utaries (Ducks, Geese, Brant) 


























mm^ 


aio^ 


^_aB 


■BBB 












^ 


^^^ 


a^BI 


New York (Wild Duck, Brant) 


— 


'^'"" 


^—i 


— — 










— 


^— 


■^— 


— ■ 


" " in Long Island waters. .. 


•iB^— 




_^BB 


■amiB 














^^^ 


MBi 


North Carolina Cunibuck County, 


























(Wild Fowl) 


BaSBB 


O^BBi 


^10 
















10— 


Oi^^ 


Ohio (Wild Fowl) 


_— 


— 




^_ 


mmmm. 










_ 




— — 


Oregon (Swan and Duck) 


— — 





— 












•— 


— — 


— — 


"-^ 


Pennsylvania (Wild Fowl) 


^— 


__• 


>ii^ 


—^ 


•— 








■»i~ 


■— 


•^^ 


— 


Pike County (Wood 


























or Summer Duck) , 






















^^^ 


•^^B 


Rhode Island (Wood, Black, or Gray 


























Duck) 


■"■" 


















""■" 


^^^ 


•^■Bi 


Rhode Island (Dusky Duck, Summer 




Duck, Blue or Green Winged Teal) 


__ 


.i_i_ 
















— — 


— ^ 


!■■ ■ 


Tennessee, Montgomery and Cheat- 


























ham Cos , (Duck) 


_a^ 


^^^ 


^^••m 


Bi^^ 










— ^ 


^iia>a 


^■■BB 


^^^ 


Vermont (Wood Duck) 


,__^^ 



















__^ 


^^^ 


,^^„ 


" (Wild Geese and Ducks),... 


—.i^ 


1^— 


— 


-i— . 





















Virginia (Wild Water Fowl, except 
Wood Duck and Sora) 




























—1^ 


-— 


— — 










>— 


^— 


— 


— 


Washington ^Wild Ducks) 




.^^ 


>— > 


— ■ 








^ 


^mm. 


— ^ 


— _ 


— > 


West Virginia (Wild Ducks, Geese, 


























and Brant) .... 




""^ 


~~" 
















•■■"■ 




Wisconsin (Wood, Mallard, and Teal 




Ducks) 


















- 


~~" 


— 


■~~ 


^^^ 


Wyoming (Wild Fowl) 

Rail. 
California 






















12- 


— 


— 


,_, 


Connecticut .. 


__' 


Delaware 


















^^^ 


ZI 


' 


^iOM 


District of Columbia. ........ ....... 


, 


Massachusetts 


_^ 


New Hampshire 
















-^ 


^^^ 


— 


— 


^^Mi 


New Jersey 




New York (Queens and Suffolk Coun- 


























ties) 


















_ 


aaiBai 


•■» 


■ 


^ Pennsylvania 


















— 




— — 


^ 



HUNTING 



A^g 



HUNTING 



Woodcock. 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Georgia, Morgan County 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Maine 

Maryland, all counties 

some counties 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Nevada 

New Jersey 

New York 

North Carolina, New Hanover Co. . , 

Ohio and Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

Tennessee (generally) 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Doves and Pigeons. 

Alabama, some counties 

" all counties 

California 

Georgia, some counties 

" Bibo County 

Kentucky 

Massachusetts 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

North Carolina 

Rhode Island (when netted or 
trapped) 

South Carolina 

Wisconsin 

Hares and Rabbits. 

Alabama, Lawrence County 

Delaware, some counties 

" all counties 

Kentucky, some counties 

Maryland, all counties 

" some counties 

Massachusetts 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania and New York 

Rhode Island 

Snipe. 

Dakota 

District of Columbia 

Michigan 

Nevada 

New Jersey 

New York, Queens and Suffolk Coun- 
ties 

North Carolina, New Hanover Co. . . 

Tennessee (generally) 

Wyoming 

Squirrels. 

Connecticut (gray) 

Kentucky, some counties (black, 
gray, or fox squirrels) 

Massachusetts (gray) 

New Hampshire (gray) 

New Jersey (gray and red) 

New York (gray and black) 



—25 



Absolutely protected within 3 miles of nesting-place. 



HUNTING 



430 



HUNTING 



Pennsylvania (gray and black) Pike 

County 

Elsewhere 

Rhode Island (gray) 

Water Animals. 
Iowa (.Beaver, Mink, Otter, Muskrat) 
Maine (same, with Sable and Fisher), 
Montana (Beaver, Otter, Fisher) .... 

Nebraska (Mink and Muskrat) 

New Hampshire (Mink, Beaver, 

Sable, Otter, Fisher) 

Ohio (Muskrat, Mink, Otter) 

Utah (Beaver, Otter) 

Vermont (Mink, Beaver, Otter, 

Fisher) 

Wisconsin (Otter, Mink, Martin, 

Muskrat, Fisher) 

Plover. 

Dakota 

District of Columbia 

Maine 

Massachusetts 

Missouri 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New York, Queens and SufiEolk Coun- 
ties 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

Tennessee, Montgomery and Cheat 

ham Counties 

Rice Bird. 

Connecticut 

Reed Bird. See Rail. 

Elk, Moose, Antelope, Buffalo. See 

Deer. 
Robin, Lark, Bobolink. 

Connecticut 

Gull, Tern, Sea Swallow. 

Massachusetts 

Starling. 

Mississippi 

Mountain Sheep. 

California, Siskiyou County 

(Elsewhere prohibited.) 
Colorado. Hunting prohibited till 
1895. 

Oregon 

Washington 

Elsewhere, where found, included 
with Deer. 



Hunting has always been a more 
favorite sport with the northern 
than with the southern nations of 
Europe. The early inhabitants of 
Britain are said to have kept good 
hunting-dogs, and under the Saxon 
kings the sport was reduced to a 
system. Alfred the Great was an 
expert huntsman when a boy of 
twelve. The love for the sport was 
carried to such an extent that laws 
had to be made prohibiting hunting 
on Sunday, and forbidding monks 



to hunt in the woods with dogs. 
People were also forbidden to inter- 
fere with the king's hunting, but 
any man could hunt where he 
chose. 

When the Normans conquered 
England, they brought with them 
much finer horses and hounds than 
those the Saxons had used, but 
they made hunting a privilege of 
the nobles alone, and passed cruel 
laws forbidding the common people 
to indulge in it. These laws, called] 



HUNT THE RING 



4.'^T 



HYDROCHLORIC ACID 



Forest Laws, drove many of the 
Saxons into rebellion, and some, like 
the famous Robin Hood (see C. P. 
P.), became outlaws. These laws, 
little by little, were removed; yet 
even at the present day, the law in 
England is very severe against 
hunting on land belonging to 
another person. Such hunting is 
called poaching, and the game- 
keepers who have charge of the 
game on large estates are obliged to 
keep constantly on the watch for 
poachers, who are generally pun- 
ished severely. In this country 
the owners of enclosed ground 
usually allow people to hunt there, 
but they have always the right to 
forbid it, as explained above. 

HUNT THE RING. See Hunt 
THE Slipper. 

HUNT THE SLIPPER, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
with an ordinary slipper. The play- 
ers sit on the floor in a circle, except- 
ing one, who stands in the middle. 
Those in the circle pass the slipper 
quickly around the ring either be- 
hind their backs or beneath their 
bent knees, and the one in the 
middle tries to find out who has it 
at every moment. If he can call 
the name of the person in whose 
hands it is, that person must take 
his place. It is usual for the players 
to pretend to pass the slipper when 
it is not in their hands, and to try in 
many ways to mislead the one look- 
ing for it. Instead of a slipper a 
ring is often used, strung on a long 
cord, on which it is slid along from 
one player to another. If the 
players keep their hands moving 
along the cord, it is very difficult to 
tell where the ring is In this form 
the game is called Hunt the Ring. 

In France Hunt the Ring is 
called Le Furet (The Ferret), and the 
player within the circle is named 
the Hunter. During the game the 
players sing a song, beginning : 

" II court, il court, le Furet, 
Le Furet du bois. mesdames; 
II court, il court, le Furet, 
Le Furet du bois joli." 



In English this is 

" He runs, he runs, the Ferret, 
The Ferret of the woods, ladies; 
He runs, he runs, the Ferret, 
The pretty Ferret of the woods, 

HUTCHINSON FAMILY, a game, 
or trick, played by any number of 
persons. Those who know the 
game retire to an adjoining room 
and are supposed to personate the 
Hutchinson family, to whom the 
others are brought in one by one to 
be introduced. The " family," who 
all stand in a row, imitate, as ex- 
actly as possible, whatever the 
guest says or does, until he sits 
down, when he joins the family, and 
another person is brought in. 
Sometimes, when the guest under- 
stands the joke, he can turn it on 
the members of the " family," by 
doing something difficult to imi- 
tate. 

HYDROCHLORIC ACID, Experi- 
ments with. Hydrochloric acid is 
a gas made up of hydrogen and 
chlorine (see C. C. T.) ' It is called 
also muriatic acid. It is sold in 
drug-stores in liquid form, the gas 
being dissolved in water. If this 
liquid be heated it will give off the 
gas again. The liquid may be held 
over an alcohol lamp, in a bottle or 
flask from which a delivery-tube 
leads to the bottom of a jar. The 
gas, being heavier than air, will stay 
in the jar till it is full. The gas 
may be made also by gently heat- 
ing common salt and sulphuric 
acid in a flask. Pieces of rock salt 
the size of a pea should be used, fur 
with ordinary pulverized salt the 
action is too quick, causing the 
mixture to froth. The gas is col- 
lected as before. It is transparent, 
so the only way to tell when the 
jar is full is to hold a strip of blue 
litmus paper near the top. (See 
Test Papers.) 

experiments. 

I. The Fountain. This is made 

in the same way as the Ammonia 

fountain, except that the water must 

be colored with blue litmus, and 



HYDROGEN 



432 



HYDROGEN 



will turn red as it enters the upper 
bottle. The result is explained in 
the same way, hydrochloric acid 
gas having a great liking for water. 

2. Fill a long test-tube with the 
dry gas, and invert it over a saucer 
of mercury, letting the mouth of the 
tube dip below the mercury. Put 
a bit of ice into the tube by pushing 
it under the mercury. The ice and 
gas will both disappear, and the 
mercury will rise in the tube. This 
is because the gas likes water so 
well that it forces the ice to melt, 
and is then dissolved by the water 
which is made. The pressure of the 
outside air then forces the mercury 
up into the tube to take the place 
of the dissolved gas. 

See also Experiment 3 under Am- 
monia. 

HYDROGEN, Experiments with. 
Processes and things merely al- 
luded to in this article are freely 
explained in that on Chemistry, 
Experiments in. H3^drogen gas 
is described in C. C. T. To make 
it, bore two holes in the cork of a 
wide-mouthed bottle, like those in 
which pickles and jam are sold, 
making sure that the cork is sound 
and tight. Through one of the holes 
put a " thistle-tube," and through 
the other a delivery-tube, the end 
of which is bent to collect the gas 
over water. The thistle-tube must 
reach nearly to the bottom of the 
bottle, but the deli very- tube must 
end near the top. Into the bottle 
put about a dozen small pieces of 
zinc. Scraps of zinc can be bought 
at a plumber's, and cut up with a 
pair of shears. Each piece should 
be bent or twisted a little, so that it 
will not lie flat on the bottom of the 
bottle. Instead of zinc, nails or 
scrap-iron may be used. The cork 
with its two tubes must now be put 
in place. Be sure that it is tight 
(hydrogen being quite explosive); 
blow into the delivery tube till the 
water rises into the funnel of the 
thistle tube, and then stop up the 
end of the delivery-tube with the 



tongue. If the water stays at the 
same height in the other tube 
the bottle is tight, if not, the cork 
must be covered with sealing-wax. 
When all is tight, half fill the 
bottle with water, by pouring it 
through the thistle-tube. Then 
pour in sulphuric or hydrochloric 
acid slowly, half a tea-spoonful 
or so at a time, until bubbles be- 
gin to rise pretty briskly from 
the zinc. Gas will soon bubble up 
into the receiver. If it does not, 
pour in more sulphuric acid, and if 
it still refuses to appear it is proba- 
ble that the cork is not tight, and 
that the gas is escaping into the 
air. The first jarful of hydrogen 
made must be thrown away, for it 
is mixed with the air which was in 
the bottle to begin with, and a mix- 
ture of hydrogen and common air 
is very explosive. When one or 
more jars of pure hydrogen have 
been collected, the experiments de- 




Making Hydrogen. 



scribed below may be tried with it, 
or a large quantity may be made 
and stored in a gas holder for future 
use. The hydrogen made in this 
way comes from the acid used (see 
Acid in C. C. T.) The other sub- 
stances in the acid prefer the zinc 
or iron to the hydrogen, and so let 
it go and unite with the metal in- 
stead. The substance so formed is 
sulphate of zinc or iron, if sulphuric 
acid be used, and chloride of zinc or 
iron, if the acid is hydrochloric. 
Any of these dissolves in water un- 



HYDROGEN 



433 



HYGROSCOPE 



less there is too much acid in it, 
when it sticks to the metal and 
stops the action. For this reason it 
is not well to put in too much acid. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1. Holding a jar, in which hy- 
drogen has been collected, mouth 
downward, touch a lighted match 
to it. If the gas is pure, it will 
burn quietly. Repeat the experi- 
ment, holding the mouth of the 
jar upward, the gas will burn quick- 
ly with a high flame. This is be- 
cause hydrogen is lighter than air 
and so escapes and mixes with it 
when the opening of the jar is up- 
permost. 

2. A jarful of hydrogen may be 
poured up into an empty jar. That 
the gas has really been poured into 
the empty jar may be proved by 
touching a match to it. 

3. Remove the end of the delivery- 
tube and substitute a glass jet. If 
the hydrogen is pure it may be 
lighted at this jet, and will burn with 
a very pale blue flame. This experi- 
ment must not be tried till several 
jars of gas have been collected, for 
if the gas in the bottle is impure it 
will explode. It is a good plan to 
wrap a cloth around the bottle, so 
that if there be an accident broken 
glass will not be thrown about. A 
jet of hydrogen burning thus is 
called the *' Philosopher's Candle." 

4. Hold a glass tube twelve or fif- 
teen inches long and about one and 
a half inches wide over the flame of 
the Philosopher's Candle, and move 
it up and down. A position will be 
found where the tube will give out 
a musical sound. If it does not, the 
size of the jet and tube are not fitted 
to each other, and one or the other 
should be made larger or smaller. 
The sound is caused by a great 
number of little explosions, so close 
together that they form a musical 
sound. (See Sound, C. C. T.) 

5. Blow soap-bubbles with the 
gas, as described in the article Soap- 
BuBBLES. The gas must be drawn 



from a gas-holder for this purpose. 
If the bubbles be blown with a mix- 
ture of hydrogen and air, or hydro- 
gen and Oxygen, each will explode 
with a loud report, instead of burn- 
ing, when touched with a lighted 
match. 

HYDROSTATIC BELLOWS. A 
scientific toy, made as follows : Cut 
out two pieces of board of the same 
size and shape, either square or 
round, and about two feet in diam- 
eter. Connect them by nailing 
leather to their edges, so that when 
it is stretched they will be about six 
inches apart. The apparatus must 
be water-tight. Bore an auger-hole 
in one piece of board, and fit in it 
tightly the end of a piece of lead- 
pipe five or six feet long. Place the 
bellows on the ground with a heavy 
weight on it, so that the boards will 
be pressed together. Support the 
pipe upright and pour water into it 
through a tin funnel. The upper 
board of the bellows will rise, raising 
the weight. If the experimenter 
stand on the bellows, he can raise 
his own weight by pouring water 
into the tube. The reason is, that 
in fluids pressure is carried equally 
in all directions. If the pipe is one 
square inch in section, then every 
square inch of the bellows-boards is 
pressed on by a weight equal to the 
water in the pipe ; and if the bellows 
be large, the entire pressure may 
thus amount to several hundred 
pounds. 

HYGROSCOPE, an instrument 
to show whether the air is moist or 
dry. One of the simplest is made 
by taking a hair or piece of cat-gut 
a foot or two in length, and hang- 
ing it by one end to a nail in the 
wall, tying to the other end a small 
weight, just sufficient to stretch 
the hair tight. Hair or cat-gut 
will lengthen by absorbing moisture 
from the air, so the hair becomes 
longer in moist than in dry weather. 
To show a slight change in the 
length of the hair, a splinter of 
wood is fastened at one end to the 



HYGROSCOPE 



434 



HYGROSCOPE 



hair near the weight, and is pivoted 
on a pin very near that end. A slight 
movement of the end fastened to the 
hair, will thus cause 
a greater one in the 
other end. The 
illustration shows 
one a little more 
carefully made. Fas- 
tened to the upper 
part, ^, of the frame 
is a screw a b to 
tighten the hair, c 
is the hair, and p 
the weight. To re- 
lieve it of the ten- 
sion caused by the 
weight, the hair is 
passed over a pul- 
ley, to which the 
pointer is attached. 
A little thermom- 
eter is fastened to 
the side of the 
frame. 

Hair Hygroscope. This kind of hy- 
groscope can be 
made also of twisted cat-gut, which 
untwists by absorbing moisture. The 
little houses with figures of a man 
and woman, one of whom appears 
in moist and the other in dry 
weather, are made in this way. 

Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer. 
This form of hygroscope consists of 
two thermometers hung side by side. 
Around the bulb of one is tied a 
piece of soft cloth, the end of which 
dips into a cup of water. The cloth 
soaks up the water, and keeps the 
bulb continually wet. The evapora- 
tion of the water on the bulb keeps 
it cooler than the other, so it always 
stands lower. On very dry days 




the water evaporates fast, and the 
wet bulb thermometer stands much 
lower than the other, while on 



s 



Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers. 

damp days the water does not evap- 
orate so quickly, and so it stands 
only a little lower. Hence the in- 
strument is used to tell whether the 
air is dry or damp. 

Phial Barometer. This is really 
a kind of hygroscope, because it does 
not measure the pressure of the air, 
but shows only whether it is dry or 
moist. Cut off about half of the 
neck of a common glass phial (see 
Chemical Experiments, direc- 
tions for glass-working) and nearly 
fill it with water, which may be col- 
ored if desired. Place the finger 
over the mouth of the phial and in- 
vert it; the water will not run out 
even when the finger is removed. 
Suspend the phial, neck downward, 
by a string. In dry weather the un- 
der surface of the water is either 
level or concave, but in damp 
weather a drop appears at the mouth 
of the phial, and keeps enlarging 
till it falls. This is caused by the 
deposition of moisture from the air. 



ICE 



435 



ICE-BOATS 



ICE, Exper i me nts with. In a 

room below the freezing point place 
a lump of ice, whose ends rest on 
two chairs, tables, or boxes, and 
hang a weight of several pounds over 
the ice by an iron wire. The wire 
will cut gradually through the ice, 
but the block will freeze together 
again above it, so that in time the 



weight will fall to the floor, the wire 

having cut completely through the 
block, which nevertheless remains 
sound and whole. 

ICE-BOATS. The present ice- 
boats, or yachts, as they are some- 
times called, are made on the plan 
shown in Figs, i and 2, of two beams 
crossed, and braced with iron stays. 




Fig. I. 



The runners, three in number, are 
at the ends of the cross-beam (called 
the " runner plank ") and at the 
rear of that running lengthwise 
(called " centre timber"). On the 
forward end of the centre timber 
is bolted the bowsprit. The rear 
runner serves as a rudder. The for- 
ward runners are fastened by a bolt 
on which they can rock forward and 
backward. There is one mast, which 
is placed slightly in advance of the 
cross-plank. An oval box, holding 
two persons, is fastened just above 
the rudder; except for this the 
boat is merely a frame. The larg- 
est ice-boats are 50 to 60 feet long, 
and 25 or 26 feet wide. They are 
rigged as sloops, cat- boats (see Fig. 
3), or with a lateen sail (see Sail- 
ing). Ice-boats may sail faster than 
the wind, as shown by Fig. 4 : 

Suppose the wind to be blowing 
in the direction of the arrow at the 
rate of twenty miles an hour ; then, if 
A B is a mile, the boat cannot sail 
that distance directly before the 
wind in less than three minutes; but 



the friction of the runners on the ice 
is so slight, that it will sail along A C 
in almost the same time. As AC is 
about two miles, the boat would be 
going twice as fast as the wind. Ice- 
boats thus attain wonderful speed. 
On February 12, 1879, the " Lucille " 
sailed from Poughkeepsie to New 
Hamburg, on the Hudson River, 
nine miles, in seven minutes and ten 
seconds. At another time the 
" Snow Flake " is said to have made 
the same distance in seven minutes, 
and in 1882 the "Haze" did the 
same, making at one time two miles 
in one minute. Many similar in- 
stances of great speed are related, 
but it is hard to get an official rec- 
ord, for ice-boats go fastest when 
least expected, and the time made 
in regular races, as shown below, is 
far slower than that just given, 
though still very great. 

The sails of the boat are set near- 
ly fore and aft, and the boat is man- 
aged almost entirely by the rudder, 
the speed being so great that the 
helmsman has no opportunity to 



ICE-BOATS 



436 



ICE-BOATS 



change the position of the sail. If 
the sail must be reefed, the boat is 




Fig. 2. 

brought into the wind and the crew 
disembark to reef it. The boat is 
stopped usually by bringing her with 




thrust down to act as a drag. The 
boat is anchored by bringing her 
into the wind, loosening the jib- 
sheets, and turning the rudder 
crosswise. The ice boat obeys her 
rudder very easily, and the steers- 
man must be always on his guard, 
for if he turn it too suddenly the 
boat will spin around, throwing 
the crew out. To cross a crack, 
some sailors first head the boat so 




Fig- 3. 

her head to the wind, and then 
slackening the sheet. Many ice- 
boats have a brake which can be 



Fig. 4. 

as to " spill" (or lose) the wind and 
then run over the crack so that both 
forward runners cross it at the same 
time ; and some disembark and help 
the boat over. Others would sim- 
ply slack both sheets and let the 
boat's momentum carry her over. 
The wind often forces the boat over 
so that the weather-runner is lifted 
clear of the ice, leaving only the lee- 
runner and the rudder. 

The boat is then said to " rear," 
and must be eased by bringing her 
into the wind, if the boat is beating 
to windward. One or two men 
often stand on the windward runner, 
to keep it down. The greatest 
speed, running free, is made by steer- 
ing across the wind till a maximum 
velocity is reached, and then steer- 
ing down the wind without slacking 
the sheet. The momentum will 
carry the boat faster than the wind 
for some distance, when she must 
again be brought up and headway 
regained. The yachtsman often 
wears coverings of wire gauze over 
his eyes and mouth to keep out fly- 
ing snow. 

The strain on the timbers of an 
ice-yacht makes it necessary that 
they shall be perfect in grain and 
well seasoned. The runners are 



ICE-BOATS 



437 



ICE-BOATS 




Ice-boats on the Hudson 

made of iron or steel. Iron runners 
wear at first, but by use acquire 




Crossing a Crack. 

what is called a " water polish," the 

surface becoming very hard. Many 



boats have two sets of runners, 
sharp ones for smooth ice and strong 
winds, and duller ones for rough or 
soft ice. 

A Tom Thumb ice-boat holds 
only one person, and can be made 
by nailing boards together as in the 
diagram. The runners are made of 
skates. The rear one, or rudder, is 
screwed to the end of a stout wood- 
en upright which passes tli rough a 
hole at the rear of the main plank. 
To this upright a horizontal handle 
is fastened, forming the tiller. The 
steersman sits just forward of the 
tiller with his feet on the cross- 
plank. The rudder may be omitted, 
the rear skate being fixed, like the 
others; but in this case the steers- 
man must have on skates and steer 
with his feet. Any simple sail may 
be used. 

The chief ice boat clubs in the 
United States are on the Hudson 
River and the Shrewsbury River in 
New Jersey. A silk challenge pen- 



ICE-BOATS 



438 



ICE-BOATS 



nant, thirty feet long, is raced for 
every year. The winner can be 
challenged in the following year by 




Tom Thumb Ice-boat. 

any organized club in this country 
or Europe. A list of winners of the 
pennant, with their times, is given 
in the appendix. 

The following are the chief sail- 
ing rules of the Hudson River Ice 
Yacht Club: 

Rule I. — The following sailing 
rules and regulations shall govern 
and control all the regattas and all 
the races of this Club, and all con- 
tests sailed under its auspices, un- 
less otherwise specified between 
parties makins: a match. 

Rule II. — Classification. Yachts 
shall be divided by sail area into 
four classes as follows : First class. 
measuring 600 square feet of sail 
area and over ; Second class, meas- 
uring 450 and under 600 square 
feet; Third class, measuring 300 
square feet and under 450 ; Fourth 
class, measuring less than 300. 

Rule III. — Objections. If any 
objection be made with regard to 
the starting of any ice-yacht in a 
race, such objection must be made 
in writing to the Regatta Commit- 
tee at least one hour before a regatta. 

Rule \Y.— Entry of the Yachts. 
Unmeasured or unrecorded yachts, 



or yachts in arrears to this CluU 
cannot be entered for any race. 

Rule V. — Touching Buoys, etc. 
An ice-yacht touching any mark, 
boat, or buoy, used to mark out 
the course, shall forfeit all claim 
to the prize, except as in cases 
specified in Rules VII, IX, X. 

Rule VI. — Rule of the Road. 
When two yachts have to cross 
each other on the opposite tacks, 
the one on the starboard must 
invariably keep her course, and the 
one on the port tack must keep 
away and pass to leeward, or tack 
short, when the smallest doubt 
exists as to her being able to 
weather the other. All expenses of 
damages incurred by yachts on op- 
posite tacks running on board each 
other, fall upon the one on the port 
tack, unless the one on the star- 
board tack has kept away with the 
intention of passing to leeward, in 
which case the expense of damage 
falls upon the yacht on the star- 
board tack, because, by her keeping 
away, she may have prevented the 
other passing to leeward. Should a 
vessel on the port tack attempt to 
weather one on the starboard tack 
when it does not seem possible to 
do so, the latter, rather than keep 
away, should put her helm down. 
Nothing should induce a vessel on 
I the starboard tack to keep away. 

Rule VII. — Courses. Any ice- 
yacht purposely bearing away or 
altering her course to leeward, and 
thereby compelling another ice- 
yacht to bear away to avoid a col- 
lision, shall forfeit all claim to the 
prize, and pay all damages that may 
ensue — unless, when two ice-yachts 
are approaching the windward shore, 
a buoy or stake boat, together with 
a free wind, and so close together 
that the weathermost cannot bear 
away clear of the leewardmost, and 
by standing further on would be in 
danger of running on shore, or 
touching a buoy or stake boat ; then 
j such leewardmost ice-yacht, on being 
] requested to bear away, is imme- 



ICE-BOATS 



439 



IDENTIFICATION 



diately to comply, and will forfeit all 
claim to the prize by not doing so. 
The vveathermost ice-yacht must, 
however, bear away as soon as the 
one she hails, if she can do so with- 
out coming into contact. 

Rule VIII. — Rounding Buoys, 
etc. When rounding a mark, boat, 
or buoy, the ice-yacht nearest 
thereto is to be considered the 
headmost ice-yacht ; and should 
any other ice-yacht in the race com- 
pel the ice-yacht which is nearest 
to any mark, boat or buoy; to touch 
said mark, boat, or buoy, the ice- 
yacht so compelling her shall forfeit 
all claim to the prize ; her owner 
shall pay for all damages that may 
occur; and the ice-yacht so com- 
pelled to touch a mark, boat, or 
buoy, shall not suffer any penalty for 
such contact. 

Rule IX. — Courses. Ice-yachts 
going free must invariably give way 
for those by the wind on either tack. 

Rule y^.— Courses. When two 
ice-yachts (by the wind) are ap- 
proaching the shore, a mark, boat, 
or buoy, together, and so close to 
each other that the leewardmost 
cannot tack clear of the weather- 
most, and by standing further on 
would be in danger of running on 
shore, or touching a mark, boat, or 
buoy; such weathermost ice-yacht, 
on being requested to put about, is 
immediately to comply, and will 
forfeit all claim to a prize by not 
doing so. The leewardmost ice- 
yacht must, hov/ever, tack at the 
same time as the one she hails, if 
she can do so without coming into 
contact. 

Rule X I. — Pushing. Unfair 
pushing is strictly forbidden in any 
race for a prize ; any ice-yacht in- 
fringing upon this Rule, in the 
opinion of the Regatta Committee, 
shall forfeit all claim to the prize. 

Rule XII. — Ballast. No ice- 
yacht shall increase or diminish 
ballast during a race. 

Rule XIII. — Time of Perform- 
ance. Section i. In case the 



distance assigned for the race shall 
not have been performed in the 
time specified by the Regatta Com- 
mittee, the race shall be repeated 
at such time as the Regatta Com- 
mittee may appoint. 

Sec. 2. If any ice-yacht, however, 
shall perform the distance in time 
specified for her class, it shall be 
deemed a race for that class. 

History. Ice-boats have been 
used in the north of Europe for 
several centuries, but they have 
never been brought to such perfec- 
tion there as in the United States. 
In Holland and Russia they are 
hardly more than sleds with sails, 
and sometimes they are sail-boats 
mounted on runners. The princi- 
pal improvements in ice-boat build- 
ing have been made by the clubs on 
the Hudson River, the first of which 
was formed in Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 
in 1 86 1, but the sport is practised on 
harbors, lakes, and streams through- 
out the northern United States and 
in Canada. 

IDENTIFICATION, GAMES OF, 
games in which part of the players 
try to guess the names of the others 
from the appearance of their eyes, 
ears, noses, or fingers. The players 
are divided into two parties, and 
stand in adjoining rooms, in the 
doorway; between the posts of which 
is stretched a sheet of cloth or paper 
with a hole in the middle. Each of 
one party now puts a finger through 
the hole, and each of the other 
party guesses who its owner is. As 
the guesses are made, they are re- 
corded, and when all have guessed, 
he who has made the most correct 
guesses is declared the winner. 
The parties then change places. 
Instead of fingers, noses, ears, or 
hands may be put through the hole, 
or each may apply one eye to it. 
There may be only one guesser, and 
as soon as he makes a correct guess 
the person guessed may take his 
place. 

In another game those whose 



ILLUSTRATED BALLADS 



446 



1 LOVE MY LOVE 



in a row, and their heads and faces 
are covered with long paper funnels, 
each having two holes for the eyes. 
To the bottoms of the funnels is 



pinned a sheet, which hangs to the 
ground, concealing their bodies. 
Each one of the guessers now takes 
a lighted candle, and looking at the 




eyes through the holes in the paper 
funnels, guesses who each one is. 
When all have guessed, the paper 
funnels are removed. Another 
method of identification is by the 
voice. French Blind Man's Buff 
is a game of this kind. 

ILLUSTRATED BALLADS, ballads 
illustrated by Pantomime or Tab- 
leaux. The ballad is read or 
sung by a concealed person. If it 
be illustrated by pantomime, the ac- 
tion should accompany the ballad 
from beginning to end; but if by tab- 
leaux, they may be shown at inter- 
vals, when required. Any ballad 
telling a simple story may be thus 
illustrated. Instead of a ballad, a 
narrative poem may be taken, such 
as Longfellow's " Evangeline," or 
" Miles Standish." - 

I LOVE MY LOVE, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
who usually sit in a circle. The one 
who begins says, for instance, "I 
love my love with an A, because 
she is ainiable; I hate her with 
an A, because she is avaricious. I 
took her to the sign of the Antelope, 



and treated her to apples and ale* 
Her name is Anna, and she lives in 
Andover." The words in italics 
may be varied as the speaker 
chooses, but must always begin 
with A, and if the player is a girl, 
she must of course speak of her 
love as a boy. When the first play- 
er has finished, the one on his left 
repeats the sentence, and so on till 
all have done so, but the words in 
italics must be entirely new in each 
case. When a player mentions any 
one of them a second time, or can- 
not think of a suitable word, he 
must pay a forfeit. When all the 
players have used the letter A, the 
sentence is repeated again by all in 
turn, using words that begin with 
B, and so on through the alphabet, 
except that X, Y, and Z, and some- 
times U, V, and W, are omitted. 
When a large number play the 
game, it is often difficult for those 
whose turns come last to think of 
words that have not been used, and 
the turns should therefore be taken 
alternately in different directions; 
that is, to the right for A, to the 



INDIAN CLUBS 



441 



IODINE 



left for B, and so on. The sentence 
given above is very commonly used 
in the game, but it may be varied 
at the pleasure of the company. 

History. Thegameof I Love my 
Love was formerly very simple, and 
consisted in saying " I love my love 
with an A, because he is agreeable, 
amiable, attentive," and soon, using 
all possible adjectives beginning 
with an A, while the next player took 
up B in the same way. The game 
is called in France "Lejeu de I'al- 
phabet" (The Alphabet Game). It 
is sometimes called " Alphabetical 
Compliments." The game can be 
varied in many ways. For instance, 
each player may represent a mer- 
chant, the first saying " My name is 
Atreus, I come from Attica, I deal in 
Antiquities, and am going to 
u^tna;" the second, "My name is 
Byron, I come from Barbary, I deal 
in Bananas, and am going to Bos- 
ton ; " and so on through the alpha- 
bet. Games of this kind are called 
in Germany Spielen mit gegebenen 
Anfangsbuchstaben (Games with 
Given Initials). 

INDIAN CLUBS. See Gymnas- 
tics. 

INITIALS, a game played by any 
number of persons. The leader be- 
gins by addressing to any player a 
remark whose words begin with the 
initials of that player's name in 
their proper order, or some epithet 
beginning with those initials. The 
others, one by one, address the 
same player in like manner. When- 
ever the player so addressed can 
answer one of the others with a 
sentence or epithet beginning with 
the latter's initials, before the next 
player can speak, the players must 
all address the one so answered, and 
so the game goes on. For instance, 
if the player's initials are A. E. B., 
he may be addressed with " An ex- 
quisite beau !" " Are eggs break- 
able ?" "Apples excite boils." "An 
early bird," etc. 

A similar game is known in Ger- 
many as Na7nenspiel (The Name 



Game). In it the names or epithets 
are given one by one by each player 
to his neighbor, who must guess to 
whom they refer. They may apply 
to some one in the company or to 
some well-known person or histori- 
cal character. 

INK, Experiment with. Dissolve 
one half teaspoonful of salt in a 
tumblerful of water. Dip a pen 
in ink, filling it not too full, and 
touch with it the surface of the 
water. The ink will descend into the 
tumbler in curiously shaped drops. 

INTELLECTUAL SALAD, a guess- 
ing game played by any number of 
persons. Any number of cards are 
first prepared, on each of which is 
written a quotation, with its au- 
thor's name. The cards are decor- 
ated with green leaves of tissue 
paper, and placed in a salad bowl. 
One of the company takes them out 
one by one and reads the quotations, 
while the others guess the authors' 
names. The first one who guesses 
correctly, in each case, is given the 
card to keep as a memento. 

IODIDE OF MERCURY, Experi- 
ment with. Mix together solutions 
of iodide of potassium and corrosive 
sublimate (the latter should be used 
with care, as it is very poisonous). 
A bright scarlet powder will be 
formed, which may be separated by 
filtering (see Chemical Experi- 
ments). This powder is iodide of 
mercury. When rubbed on paper 
it leaves a beautiful scarlet stain, 
but on heating the paper over an 
alcohol lamp, the stain turns yellow. 
If the stain be rubbed over with the 
fingers it will turn scarlet again. 
The change takes place gradually if 
the yellow stain be scratched with 
a pin. The reason is that iodide of 
mercury crystallizes in two forms, 
one of which is red and the other 
yellow. The red form is changed to 
the yellow by heat, and the yellow 
crystals are broken up into red ones 
again by rubbing, 

IODINE, Experiments with. The 
iodine used in these experiments 



IRON BURNED IN A CANDLE 442 



I SUSPECT 



is a bluish black solid. The liquid 
iodine used in medicine is really 
iodine dissolved in alcohol. 

1. Take a piece of iodine and heat 
it in a bottle. It will not melt, but 
give off a beautiful purple vapor. 

2. Powder some iodine fine, and 
put a very little of it (about as 
much as will lie on quarter of an 
inch of the small blade of a knife) 
into a small saucer. Pour in 
enough strong ammonia water to 
cover it, and let it stand for about 
20 minutes. Then either stir the 
powder up, and filter it (see Chem- 
ical Experiments) or pour off most 
of the ammonia, and then pour the 
powder on a piece of blotting-paper. { 
Place the filter-paper or blotting- 
paper where it will dry in the sun. 
When it is perfectly dry, rub a stick 
on the powder, or even brush a 
feather over it, and it will explode 
with a crackling noise. Though it 
has not changed in looks, the iodine 
has been made by the ammonia into 
a very explosive substance called 
Nitrogen Iodide. The reason why 
so little iodine was used, is that 
otherwise the explosion might be 
dangerous. 

IRON BURNED IN A CANDLE. 
Take any piece of iron, as a bit of 
wire, or a nail, and scrape it with a 
knife above the flame of a candle. 
Very small bits of the iron are 
scraped off which, although they 
cannot be seen with the naked eye, 
take fire as they fall into the flame, 
and burn with beautiful sparks. 

I SPY, an out-door hiding game 
played by any number of persons. 
One of the players, who is usually 
chosen by counting out, remains 
near the goal (which may be a tree, 
stone, or other object) and, shutting 
his eyes, counts a number previously 
agreed upon, generally one hun- 
dred. Meanwhile, the others hide, 
each where he pleases, and when 
the player at the goal has finished 
counting, he goes out in search of 
them. When he sees one he names 
him, saying, " I spy James Smith," 



or whoever it may be. Both now 
run for the goal. If the hider 
touch it first, without being touched 
himself, he is safe. If the seeker 
can not catch any of the players he 
spies, nor touch the goal before 
them after he spies them, he must 
close his eyes again while they all 
hide as before ; but if he has caught 
or touched the goal before one or 
more players, the first one of them 
must take the seeker's place in the 
second game. The hiding players 
need not wait to be spied, but may 
run in and touch the goal whenever 
they think they can do so safely. 

This game is sometimes played in 
England by dividing into two par- 
ties, one of which hides and the 
other seeks. If the seeking party 
spy two of the hiders before two 
others reach goal, they hide in the 
next game, otherwise the same 
party hide again. 

Hide and Whoop or Hide and Seek, 
a kind of I Spy played by little chil- 
dren. Those who hide call out 
" Whoop !" when they are ready, 
and the seeker then looks for them. 
In the simplest form of the game 
there is no goal, and the one that 
is found first becomes seeker in the 
next game. Another game some- 
times called Hide and Seek, is called 
in this book Hide the Handker- 
chief. 

The Greeks played a game of 
Hide and Seek called Apodidras- 
kinda (The Shunning Game), where 
one sat down and closed his eyes, 
while the others hid. He who was 
found first took the seeker's place. 

IMPERIAL, See Piquet. 

! SUSPECT, a game of cards 
played by any number of persons 
with one or more full packs. The 
cards are dealt one by one, so as to 
be as evenly distributed as possible. 
The eldest hand leads a card, face 
downward, calling out at the 
same time the name of a card, 
which may be the one he laid down 
or some other. The next player to 
the left now plays in like manner* 



I SUSPECT 



443 



JACK-STONES 



and must call the name of the card 
next higher than the one named by 
the eldest hand. The others in 
turn do the same. Thus if A leads, 
calling " Six," the others in turn, as 
they play, say "Seven," "Eight," 
" Nine," *' Ten,'' " Knave," etc. 

When King is reached the next 
player begins at " One " again. This 
goes on till some one suspects that 
the card played is not the same as 
the card called, when he must say 
" I suspect. " The suspected person 
then shows the card he played. If 
the suspicion is correct, the offender 
must take into his hand all the cards 
on the table; if it was unfounded, 
the accuser receives the cards. He 
who first gets rid of all his cards is 
the winnei. 

A just accusation may always be 
avoided by playing the proper cards 
in order, but this is impossible with 
a small hand, hence it is always safe 
to suspect the holder of a few cards. 
The last card should always be sus- 
pected, since there is only one 
chance in thirteen of its being right. 
If a player can get all four cards of 
the same name into his hand, he is 



of course, certain to suspect rightly 
any one whose turn it is to play 
one of those cards. A skilful player 
rarely plays the right card unless he 
thinks some one is watching him, 
and saves as many kinds of cards as 
he can, getting rid of duplicates. 
When his hand is small, he tries to 
hide the fact by diverting the atten- 
tion of the company to some one 
else. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. No player can be suspected 
after the next in order has played 
his card. 

2. A player may conceal his hand 
as he pleases, to hide the fact that 
it is small, but he must always show 
it on demand of any one of the 
company. 

3. The game may be continued 
after one player's cards are gone, 
till all the cards are in one hand. In 
this case any one out of the game 
may suspect, and if he suspect 
wrongly he must enter the game 
again. 

This game is called also "I 
Doubt it," and " You Lie." 



JACK'S ALIVE. See Robin's 
Alive. 
JACK-STONES, a game played 
by one or more per- 
sons with five small 
pebbles, or little 
pieces of iron 
shaped as in the 
illustration. These 
are thrown up and 
caught in various 
Jack-stone. ways, and if more 
than one plays, he wins who first 
succeeds in going through in order 
with a certain number of exer- 
cises. These exercises differ in 
kind and number in different 
places; but some of them are 
given below. 




1 . The five Jack-stones are thrown 

into the air and caught all together 
on the back of the hand. 

2. One of the Stones is tossed up 
and caught in the hand and on its 
back alternately. At the successive 
catches the player calls out " Five !" 
" Ten ! " " Fifteen ! " " Twenty! " and 
so on by fives up to One Hundred. 

3. Ones, The Jack-stones are held 
in the hand, and one, called the 
" Jack," is thrown into the air, while 
the four others are laid on the floor 
or table in time to catch the Jack as 
he comes down. These are then 
picked up, one by one, each one 
while the Jack is thrown into the 
air. When all have been taken into 
the hand they must be laid down 



JACK-STONES 



444 



JACK-STONES 



as before, ready for Twos. Only 
one hand must be used. 

4. Twos, Threes, 2iV\di Fours. The 
same as ones, except that the Stones 
are picked up first two at a time ; 
then three and one at a time ; and 
then all four at a time. 

5. The Stones are all taken in the 
hand and laid down, first one at a 
time, then two at a time, and so on, 
always while the Jack is in the air. 
Each time after all are laid down, 
they are picked up all at once. 

6. Riding the Elephant. The four 
Stones are placed in a line, and with 
the Jack on the back of his hand the 
player traces a curved line in and 
out among them with his forefinger. 
At the end he tosses up the Jack, 
and picks up all the Stones before 
catching it, all with one hand. 

7. Set the Table. Four Stones are 
placed in a heap, and one by one are 
set at the corners of a square, while 
the Jack is in the air. 




"Peas in the Pod." 

8. Peas in the Pod. The left hand 
fs laid on the table with the ends of 
the thumb and forefinger joined. 
Into the circle thus formed the 
Stones are pushed, one by one, while 
the Jack is in the air. The hand is 
then removed and all are picked up 
together. 

9. Horses in the Stable. Similar 
to the above, save that the fingers of 
the hand are outstretched and one 
Stone pushed into each opening. 

All these exercises, of which 



there are very many, require the 
player to do something with the 
Jack-stones while the Jack is thrown 
into the air, and they all require 




" Horses in the Stable." 
practice. Some of them can be 
mastered only after hours or even 
days of hard work. A game of 
Jack-stones between two or more 
persons is thus only a trial to see 
which is most perfect in the exer- 
cises. 

History. Jack-stones is mentioned 
by the Greek poet, Aristophanes, as 
a girl's game more than two thou- 
sand years ago, and it has been a| 
common amusement from that tim( 
to this. The illustration shows 
Greek girl playing. The ancients 




Greek Girl Playing Jack-stones, 
played it with the knuckle-bones of j 
sheep, and it is still so played inj 
Europe, but in this country pebbles] 



JACK-STRAWS 



445 



JUSTICE IS BLIND 



or iron Jack-stones are commonly 
used. In England it is called 
"Dibs." ' "Cockall" wasan old name 
for it, and the French call it Osselets 
(little bones). Sometimes, also, it 
is played with marbles, and the 
jack is often of a different size or 
color from the rest. The name 
" Jack-stones " is probably a cor- 
ruption for " Chuck Stones." In 
Scotland small pebbles are called 
" chuckz'e-stanes." In Germany it is 
called Handtopsen or Knochelchen, 
and the Jack receives in various parts 
of that country different names,such 
as Hecker, Dopser, and Hopper. 

Oti-dama, or Japanese Jack-stones, 
the game of Jack-stones played 
with little bags about an inch and 
a half square, partially filled with 
rice. Some of the figures of Oti- 
dama differ from those of ordinary 
Jack-stones. Seven bags are often 
used, and the Jack is sometimes 
made of a different shape. The 
name is in Japanese 0-tddama, 
from O te tama (The Hand-balls). 
The game is common in Japan, and 
pebbles also are used in playing it 
there, as with us. 

JACK-STRAWS, a game played 
by any number of persons with little 
sticks of ivory or wood of equal 
length, generally between four and 
six inches. Some of these sticks, 
called Jack-straws, and usually 
twenty to one hundred in number, 
are plain, and some carved to look 
like various objects, as weapons, 
tools, garden implements, and the 
like. The players sit around a 
table, and the one who begins takes 
up the Jack-straws in one hand, in a 
bundle, and then holding them up- 
right and touching the table, sud- 
denly lets go, so that they fall out- 
ward in all directions. Each in turn 
then tries to pull from the pile with a 
little hook, made for the purpose, 
as many of the straws as he can, 
one at a time, without shaking any 
of the others. If he shakes any 
Jack-straw ever so little, he must 
stop, and the turn passes to the 



next. When the pile is gone, he 
who has the most Straws wins. 
Sometimes the Straws are marked 
with different numbers, and then at 
the close of the game each adds his 
numbers, and he who has the high- 
est wins. The game is sometimes 
called Jerk-straws, and perhaps the 
common title is a corruption of this. 
The English often call it Spillikins, 
and the Germans Feder Spiel (the 
Pen Game). The French call Jack- 
straws lonchets, or Honchets (from 
Joncher, to strew), and name partic- 
ular pieces the King, the Queen, and 
the Knight. These are of different 
shapes from the others, and being 
more difficult to extract from the 
pile, count more than the common 
straws, the King being valued at 20 
points, the Queen at 10, and the 
Knight at 5. 

JACOBY, a game of cards played 
by three persons with a full pack. 
Four hands are dealt, as in Whist, 
with a Dummy. The cards in 
Dummy's hand are sorted in se- 
quences, the highest first, begin- 
ning with Clubs, followed in order 
by Hearts, Spades, and Diamonds. 
The cards are played as in Whist, 
except that each player is for him- 
self. Dummy follows suit when he 
can, always playing his highest 
card, and when he cannot follow 
suit he plays the first card in his 
hand, arranged in the order de- 
scribed. He is never allowed to 
take a trick, and therefore never 
leads. If he play a card that would 
ordinarily take the trick, it goes to 
the next highest card played. The 
object is to get rid of the Jacks. 
Each trick counts one, but for each 
Jack taken a number must be de- 
ducted from the score. Thus, for 
the Jack of Clubs, 4 is deducted ; for 
the Jack of Hearts, 3 ; for the Jack 
of Spades, 2 ; and for the Jack of 
Diamonds, i. He who first makes 
ten points wins the game. 

JUSTICE IS BLIND, a game played 
by any number of persons, one of 
whom, representing Justice, is blind- 



KALEIDOSCOPE 



446 



KALEIDOSCOPE 



folded. Justice is given a seat in 
the middle of the room, and then a 
second player leads up the players, 
one by one, and asks Justice's opin- 



ion of each. Whenever the opinion 
is correct, as decided by a majority 
of the company, Justice changes 
places with the person judged. 



K 



KALEIDOSCOPE. The ordinary 
toy kaleidoscope is described in C. 
C. T. A large one, to furnish 
amusement at an evening party, 
may be made thus : The lid of a 
piano is opened and rested on piles 
of books, so that it forms an angle 
of 60 degrees with the top, and the 
whole is then covered with the 
piano-cloth, or with a large table 
cover. The polished top and lid of 
the piano take the place of the 
glass mirrors in the small kaleido- 
scope, and when objects are held or 
moved at one end they will appear 
in beautiful and complicated designs 
to any one looking in at the other. 
The cover should hang down over 
the end at which the observer 
stands, so that he may put his head 
under it. The objects at the other 
end, which may be anything bright 
or colored, must be shaken about 
and changed rapidly. Thus the 
exhibitor may first twirl a bouquet 
of artificial flowers m front of the 
kaleidoscope, then shake his fingers 
there, then dangle two or three 
silver spoons at the end of a string, 
then look in and make a face, and 
so on. The objects should be 
brightly lighted, but the lamp or 
gas fixture should be placed so that 
it does not show in the kaleido- 
scope. The reason why the reflec- 
tions appear in a regular design in 
a kaleidoscope will be understood 
by looking at the figure, which, if 
looked at from the left, may repre- 
sent a section of the piano-lid and 
top, M and M'. The top M will be 
reflected in the lid M', appearing as 
the dotted line just beyond, and 
this reflection behaves like a real 
mirror, so the lid is reflected in it, 



appearing as the next dotted line. 
In the same way the reflections 
shown by the other dotted lines 
appear. Therefore the observer 
sees eight polished surfaces radi- 
ating from the middle point, and if 
any object A is held between the 
lid and top, it will appear also 
between every pair of these reflected 




Principle of Kaleidoscope. 

surfaces. Thus eight objects, a, b, 
a', b' , etc., are seen arranged in a 
regular design, of which only one is 
real, the others being reflections 
The centre of the design is always 
the angle between the piano top 
and lid. By varying this angle, the 
number of reflections, and therefore 
the shape of the design, will be 
changed, there being more images 
as the top and lid are brought near- 
er together. A kaleidoscope for 
use with the Magic Lantern can 
be made by placing two mirrors 
against the screen, at an angle, and 
throwing between them the image 
of a slide made of two pieces of 
glass having heads or fragments of 
glass between them. The image 
can be varied, as in the ordinary 
kaleidoscope, by shaking the slide 



KENO 



447 



KING'S CASTLE 



The audience must sit on the op- 
posite side of the screen from the 
lantern. 

Diffraction Kaleidoscope, a toy 
depending on the principles ex- 
plained under Diffraction Grat- 
ings. It has one of these gratings, 
ruled with a diamond-point on 
glass, for an eye-piece, and for ob- 
jects disks of pasteboard with nee- 
dle holes in various patterns. These 
can be arranged to suit the fancy 
of the observer. The light passing 
through these holes, when viewed 
through the grating, produces va- 
rious beautiful colored patterns. 

Tube Kaleidoscope. Paint a glass 
tube (for instance the straight part 
of an Argand lamp chimney) black 
on the outside. Look through 
this at a pin-hole in a piece of 
paper, and several circles of light 
will be seen, one within another. 
Any design or figure looked at will 
in like manner be reflected in cir- 
cles, making a curious effect. The 
tube may be closed at one end by 
two pieces of glass, between which 
are placed beads or other small 
colored objects, as in an ordinary 
kaleidoscope. 

KENO. See LOTO. 

KEY OF THE KING'S GARDEN. 
See Repeating Games. 

KING AND QUEEN, a game or 
trick in which any number of per- 
sons may take part. All who have 
never played the game before are 
sent out of ths room. A boy and 
girl are then selected as King and 
Queen and seated on a throne made 
of two chairs, placed about two feet 
apart and covered with a shawl or 
rug. The covering is stretched 
while the King and Queen take 
their seats, and their weight keeps 
it smooth, so that the throne looks 
like a solid bench, covered with a 
shawl. The other players are then 
asked to come in one by one. As 
each appears, one who is chosen for 
the purpose introduces him to the 
King and Queen and says that they 
wish him to sit between them. Just 



as he is about to take his seat the 
King and Queen rise and allow him 
to fall between the chairs. He then 
takes his place among the other 
spectators, and witnesses the recep- 
tion of his companions. The King 
and Queen must rise exactly at the 
right moment. If they do so too 
soon, the victim will have time to 
save himself ; if they wait until he 
has rested his weight on the shawl, 
he will discover the trick and get 
up quickly. 

KING ARTHUR WAS KING WIL- 
LIAM'S SON, a singing game played 
by boys and girls. A row of hats is 
placed on the floor, and the leader 
of the game, putting the first one on 
his head, marches about and sings to 
the tune of " Maryland, My Mary- 
land" : 

" King Arthur was King William's son, 
And when the battle he had won, 
Upon his breast he wore a star, 
And it was called the sign of war." 

He then picks up the next hat and 
puts it on the head of any one he 
chooses, who must then follow him 
while they sing the same verse. 
This goes on till all the company are 
in line. Sometimes the first line is 
" King William was King James's 
(or King George's) son." A kissing 
game is played by adding to this 
stanza, or a similiar one, the lines, 

" Star of the East, Star of the West, 
Star of the one you love the best, 
Down on the carpet you must kneel, 
As the grass grows on the field, 
Salute your bride and kiss her sweet, 
And rise again upon your feet." 

This game is played in this and 
other ways in Ireland, and is com- 
mon in the Middle and Southern 
United States. 

KING C/ESAR. See Peelaway. 

KING'S CASTLE, a game in which 
several players try to dislodge one 
from some position he has chosen. 
It is called in France Le Roi De- 
t7'oni (The Dethroned King). The 
Kmg selects for his castle a hillock 
or mound, and the other players try 
to dethrone him by pushing or 
pulling him down. Sometimes 



KING'S LAND 



448 



KITE-FLYING 



only pushing is allowed. During 
the civil war in England between the 
Parliament and Charles L, the Puri- 
tans besieged Hume Castle, and the 
commander, when ordered to sur- 
render, replied, 

" I, William of the Wastle, 
Am now in my castle, 
And a' the dogs in the town 
Winna gae me gang down." 

This rhyme is supposed to have 
been quoted from a boy's game of the 
time, probably the same as that just 
described. In Pennsylvania the de- 
fender of the castle says : 

•' Hally, hally, hastle, 
Come into my new castle." 

In a variation of the game all the 
players act as defenders except one, 
who tries to gain entrance, saying : 

" Hally, hally, hastle, 
Get off my new castle." 

KING'S LAND, See Tag. 
KITE-FLYING. The article Kite 
in C. C. T. describes several forms of 




Japanese Kite. 

Kites, and tells some interesting 
things about them. A Japanese 
form is shown in the illustration, 
easily made from the thin slips of 
bamboo in a Japanese fan, and 
covered with tissue-paper. The 



points in which skill is especially 
shown in making a kite are the 
arrangement of the string and the 
tail. Two or more short strings are 
fastened to the kite frame and these 
are joined in a knot, to which the 
kite string is afterward tied. The 
kite (without its tail), if lifted by 
this knot, should hang with its sides 
perfectly even and the point wiiere 
the tail is to be attached a little 
lower than the top. If, in flying, 
the kite plunges sidewise, it is prob- 
ably because this knot is too high; 
if it whirls around, the knot is too 
low. 

The tail should never be less 
than twelve times, and may be even 
twenty times, the length of the kite. 
It may be made of string with 
stuff " bobs " of folded paper three 
inches long placed at intervals of 
three inches, or it may be of strips 
of cloth tied together, in which case 
it should be somewhat shorter. To 
fly a kite, one person must hold it 
in the air as high as he can, while ! 
the other stands about fifty feet dis- 
tant in the direction from which 
the wind is blowing, with the 
string in his hand. At a signal 
from the latter, the former releases 
the kite, while the latter runs 
towards the wind till the kite has 
mounted a little way. He then lets 
out string till the kite is as high as 
he wants it to go. The running is 
for the purpose of increasmg the 
force of the air striking the kite, as 
near the ground the wind is apt to 
be light. In a strong wind it is 
often unnecessary to run at all. 
When a kite has reached such a 
height that the weight of string 
attached to it is all it can carry, it 
will go no higher by itself, but the end 
of the string may be attached to a 
second kite which may be sent up 
in the usual manner. One kite after 
another may thus be sent up till their 
combined pull is all that the flyer 
can hold. Two kites sent up in 
this way can be made to pull a car- 
riage, the main kite being pre- 



KITE-FLYING 



449 



KNAVE'S DIAL 



ceded about loo feet by a smaller 
one, called a pilot kite, which can 
be turned to one side or the other 
by strings, and the carriage can 
thus be guided somewhat. Benja- 
min Franklin once allowed himself 
to be drawn across a river by a kite, 
when he was bathing. 

While the kite is in the air, if little 
pieces of paper with holes in the 
middle be strung on the string, the 
force of the wind will carry them up 
to the kite. These are called " mes- 
sengers." Messengers made like a 
toy paper windmill will twirl around 
as they rise. 

Kite-fighting, a contest between 
two kite- flyers to see which can 
capture or disable the other's kite. 
With ordinary kites this is done 
by entangling the tail of one in 
the string of the other. The kite 
whose tail is thus entangled is said 
to be captured. To capture a 
hostile kite, the flyer must 
make his own kite pass under 
the string of the other and 
then let out twine; when his 
kite has fallen behind that of 
the enemy he pulls it in rapid- 
ly. Kites with broken glass 
or knife blades fastened to the 
tail are some- 
times used in 
these contests, 
the object in 
this case being 
to cut the op- 
ponent's string 
by sweeping the 
tail across it. 
They should be 
six-sided. The 
pieces of glass 
for the tail are 
obtained by 
chipping them from 
a thick glass bottle. 
Pieces with one edge 
sharp and the other 
thick and blunt are 
selected, and three are 
Kite-cutter. fastened to the string 
at one point with wax, so that they 



all point outward. Strips of wood 
are now bound to the string length- 
wise between the knives to keep 
them in place. Kite-fighting origi- 
nated in China, where it is a favor- 
ite sport. 

History. Kites appear to have 
been brought into Europe from 
China or Japan, where they were 
first used. The English name is 
from a supposed resemblance to the 
bird called a Kite. The French call 
the kite cerf volant (flying stag), the 
Scotch name it Dragon, and the 
Germans call it Z>r^^^^ which means 
the same thing. 

KNAVE'S DIAL, a Solitaire game 
of Cards, played with one or two 
full packs. All cards of the suit of 
the first one played are placed, as 
they appear, in a circle to represent 
the numbers on a clock dial, the 
Queen countingas 1 1 andtheKingas 





Knave's Dial. 

12. The Knave is placed in the cen- 
tre. On this dial is placed another 
of a differently colored suit, and so 
on till all the cards are used. Cards 
that cannot at once be put in place 
are laid aside to form stock, and 
the stock can be shuffled and relaid 
twice. If the four cjials can thus 



KNIGHT OF THE WHISTLE 



450 



KNITTING-NEEDLE 



be formed, one above another, the 
player wins. 

KNIGHT OF THE WHISTLE, a 

trick, which the victim supposes to 
be a game. The person who is to 
be duped is told that the game con- 
sists in passing a whistle around a 
circle of players, while one, standing 
in the middle, is required to find it 
by its sound, as it is blown from 
time to time. Whoever "counts 
out " for the game must arrange 
that the player in the middle is 
some one who does not know the 
trick, which will now be explained : 
The whistle is fastened to one end 
of a string about two feet long, at 
the other end of which is a bent pin. 
The pin is hooked into the clothes 
of the player in the middle of the 
ring, so that the whistle always hangs 
behind him. It is blown by some 
one, and the seeker turns quickly to 
find it, thus carrying it in front of 
some one else, who blows it again. 
The victim of the trick is thus kept 
turning from side to side till he dis- 
covers the deception. The pin can 
be hooked into his clothes without 
his noticing it by making him kneel 
down and close his eyes, and then, 
after going through a mock cere- 
mony, declaring him a " Knight of 
the Whistle," and striking him on 
the back. While this is going on, 
the whistle can be attached to him 
unobserved. The players should 
pretend to pass the whistle from one 
to the other so as to increase the 
deception. 

KNIGHTS OF SPAIN, a game 
played by three boys, representing 
Spanish knights, and any number of 
girls, representing a mother and her 
daughters. The mother and daugh- 
ters sit in a row, and the knights ad- 
vance to ask the hand of one of the 
latter in marriage. A dialogue is 
carried on in verse, of which there 
are many varieties. The following 
is one common form : 

KNIGHTS. 

" Here come three lords out of Spain, 
A courting of your daughter Jane." 



MOTHER. 

" My daughter Jane is yet too young 
To be ruled by your nattering tongue." 

KNIGHTS. 

" Be she young or be she old, 
'Tis for the price she may be sold, 

" So fare you well, my lady gay, 
We must turn another way." 

MOTHER. 

" Turn back, turn back, you Spanish Knight, 
And scour your boots and spurs so bright." 

ONE OF THE KNIGHTS. 

" My boots and spurs they cost you nought, 
For in this land they were not bought." 

MOTHER. 

" Turn back, turn back, you Spanish Knight, 
And choose the fairest in your sight." 

ONE OF THE KNIGHTS. 

" I'll not take one nor two nor three, 
But pray Miss (Mary) walk with me," 

The knight then takes the hand 
of the girl named and walks around 
the room with her. On his return 
he says : 

" Here comes your daughter safe and sound, 
In her pocket a thousand pound. 

" On her finger a gay gold ring, — 
I bring your daughter home again." 

Sometimes the girl runs away and 
is pursued by her mother or the 
knight. 

History. This game is played in 
many different forms throughout 
Europe. The English and Scotch 
versions are similar to ours, but in 
Spain the " knights " represent an 
embassy from the Moorish king. 
The verse probably dates from the 
middle ages. In the last century 
the game was very popular in the 
United States, and it is still played 
somewhat. Another version of the 
game begins " Here comes a duke 
a-roving," sometimes corrupted into 
"We are three ducks a-roving." 

KNITTING NEEDLE, Experiment 
with a. Heat a knitting-needlej 
to redness in an alcohol flame,! 
holding it by a cork on one end 
so that the fingers may not bei 
burned. Dip the red hot needle] 
into cold water, and then hold it| 
again in the flame. It will change 



KNURR AND SPELL 



45^ 



KNURR AND SPELL 



color curiously, turning first yellow, 
then orange, crimson, violet, blue, 
and finally gray. The reason is, 
that a film of rust forms on the 
needle, which alters its color as it 
grows thicker. In tempering steel 
(see Knife in C. C. T) these colors 
are carefully watched, for the kind 
of steel depends on the time when it 
is taken from the fire and cooled. 
If the knitting-needle be cooled 



when it is yellow, for instance, it 
will be much harder than if cooled 
when it is blue. 

KNURR AND SPELL, corrupted 
into " Northern Spell," a game 
of ball played by any number of 
persons, with trap, bat, and ball. 
The trap is like that used in Trap 
Ball. The bat, represented in the 
illustration, is of wood with a han- 
dle of cane, four or five feet long. 




Knurr and Spell. 



The ball is of wood or white porce- 
lain, about an inch and a half in di- 
ameter. The players take turns at 
the bat, and, sending the ball into 
the air from the trap, as in Trap 
Ball, try to knock it with the bat 
as far away as possible. The dis- 
tance of the spot where the ball 
strikes from the trap is measured 
in yards, and after each player has 
had a certain number of turns, the 
distances made by each are added 
together. He whose sum is largest 



is the winner. In striking the ball, 
the bat is held in both hands by the 
end of the handle, and whirled 
around the player's head. The dis- 
tance to which the ball can be driv- 
en depends less on force than on 
skill, which can be gained only by 
practice. 

This game is played chiefly in the 
north of England. The bat used 
is called the Knurr (a knot or 
knob), and the trap the Spell. 



LACROSSE 



452 



LACROSSE 



LA C R O S S E, an out-door game 
played by 24 persons, 12 on a side, 
each of whom has a stick, or crosse, 
like that shown in the illustrations, 
and fully described in Rule I. below. 
At each end of the playing-field, 
which is as near 125 yards long as 
possible, is a goal consisting of two 
posts, six feet high and the same 
distance apart. Each side faces 
one of these and tries to carry or 
throw toward it with the crosse a 
solid rubber ball, somewhat smaller 
than a base-ball. The side that suc- 
ceeds in propelling the ball through 
their opponents' goal, either by 
throwing or striking it with the 
crosse, or by kicking it, scores a 
goal, and the side that gains the 
greatest number of goals in the 
allotted time (see Rule IX., Sec. 8), 
wins the game. 

The titles of the players and their 
positions at the beginning of the 
game are given below, those defend- 
ing the lower goal being in italics. 
(Goal) 
Goal-keeper 
Point Inside Home 

Cover Point Outside Home 

First Defence FirstAttack 

Second Defence Second Attack 

Third Defence Third Attack 

Centre Field Centre Field 

Third Attack Third Defence 

Second Attack Second Defence 

First Attack First Defence 

Outside Home Cover Point 

Inside Home Point 

Goal-keeper 
(Goal) 

The players generally remain near 
these positions throughout the 
game. In the Defence half of the 
field, the players, as a rule, try to 
throw the ball as nearly as they can 
the full length of the field, and at 
the same time land it at about Cover 
Point at the other end ; while the 



Attack half usually run toward their 
opponents' goal until " checked," or 
stopped, when they " pass" the ball 
to another of their team, who, in 




Facing. 

turn, does the same, each player re- 
turning to his original position up- 
on surrendering the ball. Thus, if 
the Attack are well trained and play 
well together, one of them will 
eventually have a good opportunity 
to "shoot for goal." At the open- 
ing of the game, the ball is " faced" 
in the centre of the field ; that is, 
placed on the ground there between 
the crossed sticks of the two op- 
posing players whose positions are 
each Centre (see list of positions), 
and who must each have one knee 
on the ground. When " Play" is 
called, each Centre has one of three 
methods of play to adopt : either he 
can use some trick to obtain the 
ball himself (and this is the most 
frequently used), or else he can draw 
his stick rapidly away, trying to 
force the ball behind him, where 
one of his team is always ready to 
receive it, should the Centre be 
successful. In the third and 
last method, which the Princeton 
College Lacrosse Team invented, he 
may, by jumping up on his feet and 
keeping his body between the ball 
and his opponent, give a player on 
his side a chance to run up and ob- 
tain the ball, The ball must not be 



LACROSSE 



453 



LACROSSE 



touched with the hand, however, at 
any time, by any player, except the 
Goal-keeper. He who succeeds in 
getting it after the " face" may 
strike it with his crosse, run with it 
in his crosse, or throw it by means 
of his crosse. The opposing team 
try to get the ball from him, either 
by striking his crosse with their 
crosses, or by " body-checking" 
him, that is to say, running into 
him bodily. Care must be taken, 
however, not to run against an op- 
ponent's back, and not to use one's 
hands, arms, or legs in " body- 
checking." 

A line drawn six feet in front of 
each goal is called the " Goal-crease," 
and no attacking player is allowed 
inside it until the ball has passed 
Cover Point. The Goal-keeper, 
while defending the goal, stands 
inside the "Goal-crease," and is al- 
lowed privileges that are denied to 
the other players. (See Rule XII.) 

Picking up and Carrying. A 
player, when running, always picks 
up the ball by pushing his crosse 
under it; when standing, however, 
he hooks the ball towards him with 
his crosse and then pushes it under, 
the ball rolling on by its own im- 
petus. In pushing the crosse, the 
player leans down so that it will not 
make too great an angle with the 
ground. When the ball is already 
running toward the player he has 
merely to let it roll up on his crosse, 
but the crosse must be held at a 
greater angle the faster the ball is 
coming. If the ball is rolling very 
fast and the crosse is held so as to 
offer too gentle an incline, the ball 
is likely to bound up into the 
player's face. If the ball comes on 
a swift bound, the player should be 
able, by not standing directly in 
front of it, to catch it in his net 
without any difficulty, the old idea of 
"blocking" or knocking it straight 
downward and catching it when it 
rises, being entirely given up, nowa- 
days, as in doing that too much 
valuable time is lost. When it 



comes on the fly it is received on 
the net, the crosse being drawn back 
slightly as the ball strikes it. 

A "liner" is caught by a player's 
moving to one side, holding his 
crosse in a horizontal position, and 
allowing it to " give " a little when 
the ball strikes it. All these move- 
ments (and many more could easily 
be described) require a great deal of 
practice to render them successful. 

Running and Dodging. As a 
rule, each team has its own method 
of play, but good critics consider it 
poor play to keep the men running 
until " checked ;" it being far better 
to save their strength by teaching 
the Defence to throw as far and as 
accuratelyas possible, and the Attack 
to " pass " among themselves as 
quickly and accurately as possible. 
In running, the ball is held on the 
crosse, which is inclined slightly 
downward in front of the player, 
the inclination increasing with the 
speed. The ball is kept in place 
partly by the resistance of the air, 
and rests against the stick of the 
crosse, which is turned slightly to 
one side for the purpose. When the 
runner meets an opponent, he must 
take care to prevent the latter from 
striking his crosse, and at the same 
time prevent "body-checking." 
Sometimes he changes the crosse 
from one hand to another, or even 
turns his back, which makes it diffi- 
cult for the enemy to get at his 
crosse. Sometimes, with a quick 
wrist-movement, he throws the ball 
over his opponent's head, or to one 
side, running on and catching it 
again before his antagonist has time 
to turn. On the other hand, the 
player who is trying to get the ball 
strives to knock it out of the run- 
ner's stick, or else, which is far more 
customary nowadays, he tries to 
upset him by "body-checking" 
One method of knocking a ball out 
of a runner's stick is to strike the 
crosse down, not hitting the ball, 
which may then be caught in the 
air. 



LACROSSE 



454 



LACROSSE 



Throwing. This is the term 
applied nowadays strictly to the 
Defence who "throw" the full length 
of the field. The act of sending the 
ball from one Attack man to another 
is now termed either " tipping," or 
" passing," and that of attempting 
to send the ball between the posts a 
" shoot for goal." When an Attack 
player with the ball finds that he 
can run no farther and that dodging 
is useless, he passes the ball to 
another player on his own side, 
either one who is farther forward, 
or who has a clear field before him. 
There are many kinds of throws, of 
which only a few will be described 
here. Of Defence throws, the best is 
to turn the back in the direction in 
which the ball is to be thrown and 
raise the crosse straight up, so as to 
throw over the head. Skilful 




Throwing backward. 

players throw thus with great accu- 
racy of aim, and the plan has the 
advantage that, as the thrower's 
back is toward the checking player, 
it is hard for the latter to interfere. 
The crosse must be turned side- 
wise a little to prevent the ball's 
falling off, as the player turns, and 
the throw is made chiefly from the 



elbow, the crosse being stopped 
suddenly just before the hands 
touch the face. 

Perhaps the most universal, and 
certainly the best Attack throw is 
made by bringing the crosse around 
to the right side, then raising it, 
and throwing from the shoulder. 

Tipping may be done in two ways : 
either by a single players' tossing 
the ball a foot or so and catching it 
again, repeating this performance 
as he runs, or else by two players 
running along together, and as each 
is compelled by opponents " check- 
ing" them to do so, tossing or pass- 
ing the ball a few feet from one to 
the other. (See Rule XIL) Other 
details of the game are given in the 
following playing rules of the New 
England Amateur Lacrosse Associa- 
tion. Those of the rules relating to 
the discipline of the association and 
having nothing to do with the game, 
are omitted. 

Rule L — The Crosse. Sec. i. 
The crosse may be of any length to 
suit the player ; woven with cat- 
gut, which must not be bagged. 
(" Cat-gut " is intended to mean 
raw-hide, gut, or clock-strings ; not 
cord or soft leather.) The netting 
must be fiat when the ball is not on 




Goal Tend, 
widest part the 



it. In its 

shall not exceed one foot 



crosse 
A string 



LACROSSE 



455 



LACROSSE 



must be brought through a hole at 
the side of the tip of the turn (to 
prevent the point of the stick catch- 
ing an opponent's crosse). A lead- 
ing string resting upon the top of 
the stick may be used, but must not 
be fastened, so as to form a pocket, 
lower down the stick than the end 
of the length strings. The length 
strings must be woven to within 
two inches of their termination, so 
that the ball cannot catch in the 
meshes. 

Sec. 2. Players may change their 
crosse during a match. 

Rule II.— The Ball. Sec. i. 
The ball must be of sponge rubber, 
manufactured by the New York 
Rubber Co. In each match a new 
ball must be used, furnished by the 
home team. It shall become the 
property of the winning team. 

Sec. 2. The ball shall be of the 
size of the ball marked No. 40, regu- 
lation by the New York RulDber Co. 

Rule III. — The Goals. Sec. i. 
The goals must be at least 125 
yards from each other, and in any 
position agreeable to the captains 
of both sides. The top of the flag- 
poles must be six feet above the 
ground, including any top orna- 
ment, and six feet apart. In matches 
they must be furnished by the chal- 
lenged party. 

Rule IV. — The Goal Crease. 
Sec. I. No attacking player must 
be within six feet of either of the 
flag poles, unless the ball has passed 
Cover-point's position on the field. 

Ru-L^Y.— Referee. Sec. i. The 
Referee shall be selected by the 
captains. 

Sec. 2. Before the match begins, 
the referee shall see that properly 
qualified Umpires are selected, as 
provided for in Rule VI. All dis- 
puted points and matters of appeal 
that may arise during his continu- 
ance in office shall be left to his de- 
cision, which, in all cases, must be 
final, without appeal. 

Sec. 3. Before the match begins, 
he shall draw the players up in lines. 



and see that the regulations respect- 
ing the ball, crosses, spiked soles, 
etc., are complied with. He shall 
also see that the regulations respect- 
ing the goals are adhered to. He 
shall know before the commence- 
ment of a match the number of 
games to be played, the time for 
stopping, and any other arrange- 
ments that may have been made by 
the captains. He shall have the 
power to suspend, at any time during 
the match, any player infringing 
these laws — the game to go on dur- 
ing suspension. 

Sec. 4. When " foul " has been 
called by either captain, the referee 
shall immediately cry " time," after 
which the ball must not be touched 
by either party, nor must the players 
move from the positions in which 
they happen to be at the mo- 
ment, until the referee has called 
'"play." If a player should be in 
possession of the ball when "time" is 
called, he must drop it on the ground. 
If the ball enters goal after " time " 
has been called, it shall not 
count. 

Sec. 5. The jurisdiction of the 
referee shall not extend beyond the 
match for which he is appointed ; 
and he shall not decide in any 
matter involving the continuance of 
a match beyond the day on which 
it is played. The referee must be 
on the ground at the commence- 
ment of and during the match. At 
the commencement of each game, 
aid after " fouls " and " balls out of 
bounds," he shall see that the ball is 
properly faced, and, when both sides 
are ready, shall call "play." He 
shall not express an opinion until he 
has taken the evidence on both 
sides. After taking the evidence, his 
decision in all cases must be final. 
Any side rejecting his decision, by 
refusing to continue the match, 
shall be declared losers. 

Sec. 6. When game is claimed and 
disallowed, the referee shall order 
the ball to be faced for, from 
where it is picked up ; but in no 



LACROSSE 



4S6 



LACROSSE 



case must it be closer to the goals 
than ten yards in any direction. 

Rule VI. — Umpires. Sec. i. 
There shall be one Umpire at each 
goal. They shall not be members 
of either club engaged in a match, 
nor shall they be changed during 
its progress without the consent of 
both captains. 

Sec. 2. Their jurisdiction shall 
last during the match for which 
they are appointed. They shall not 
change goals during a match. 

Sec. 3. No person shall be al- 
lowed to speak to an umpire, or in 
any way distract his attention, when 
the ball is near or nearing his goal. 

Sec. 4. They shall stand behind 
the flags when the ball is near or 
nearing their goal. In the event of 
game being claimed, the umpire at 
that goal shall at once decide 
whether or not the ball has fairly 
passed through the flags, his de- 
cision simply being "game " or " no 
game," without comment of any 
kind. He shall not be allowed to 
express an opinion, and his decision 
shall in all cases be final, without 
appeal. 

Sec. 5. In the event of the field 
captains failing to agree upon the 
umpires, after three nominations (in 
accordance with this rule) have 
been made by each party, it shall be 
the duty of the referee to appoint 
one or more umpires, as may be re- 
quired, who shall not be one of the 
persons objected to, who must be 
duly qualified, as required by this 
rule. 

Sec. 6. Only the captain of either 
side and one other player by him ap- 
pointed shall have the right to call 
" foul," and the referee shall not 
stop the game when " foul " is 
called by any one else. In cham- 
pionship matches they shall be ap- 
pointed the day previous. 

Rule VII. — Captaiiis. Captains 
to superintend the play shall be 
appointed by each side previous to 
the commencement of a match. 
They shall be members of the club 



by whom they are appointed, and 
no other. They may or may not be 
players in the match ; if not, they 
shall not carry a crosse, nor shall 
they be dressed in lacrosse uniform. 
They shall select umpires and 
referees, as laid down in these rules, 
toss for choice of goals, and the cap- 
tain and one player appointed by 
him shall be entitled to call " foul " 
during a match. They shall report 
any infringement of the laws during 
a match to the referee. 

Rule NWl.—Natnes of Players. 
The players on each side shall be 
designated as follows : " Goal-keep- 
er," who defends the goal ; " Point," 
first man out from goal ; " Cover- 
point," in front of Point; " Centre," 
who faces ; " Home," nearest op- 
ponent's goal; others shall be termed 
" Fielders.' 

THE GAME. 

Rule YK.— Miscellaneous. Sec. 
3. The game must be started by the 
referee facing the ball in the centre 
of the field between a player on each 
side. The ball shall be laid upon the 
ground between the sticks of the 
players facing, and when both sides 
are ready the referee shall call 
" play." The players facing shall 
have their left side toward the goal 
they are attacking, and shall not be 
allowed to use a left-handed crosse. 

Sec. 4. A match shall be decided 
by the winning of most goals in 
every match, unless otherwise agreed 
upon. Games must in all cases be 
won by putting the ball through thej 
goal from the front side. 

Sec. 5. Captains shall arrange, 
previous to a match, whether it is to 
be played out in one day, postponed 
at a stated hour in the event of! 
rain, darkness, etc., or to be con- 
sidered a draw under certain circum- 
stances, and if postponed, if it is toi 
be resumed where left off. 

Sec. 6. If postponed and re- 
sumed where left ofT, there shall be 
no change of players on cithers 
side. 



LACROSSE 



457 



LACROSSE 



Sec. 7. Either side may claim at 
least five minutes' rest, and not 
more than ten, between each game. 

Sec. 8. The time of game shall 
be two half hours, with ten minutes 
rest between. 

Sec. 9. No change of players 
must be made after a match has 
commenced, except for reasons of 
accident or injury during the game. 

Sec. 10. Should any player be 
injured during a match, and com- 
pelled to leave the field, the oppo- 
site side shall drop a man to 
equalize the teams. In the event 
of any dispute between the field 
captains as to the injured player's 
fitness to continue the game, the 
matter shall at once be decided by 
the referee. 

Rule '^.—Spiked Soles. No 
player must wear spiked soles or 
boots, and any player attempting to 
evade this law shall be ruled out of 
the match. 

Rule XI. — Touching Ball with 
the Hand. The ball must not be 
touched with the hand, save in cases 
of Rules XII and XIII. 

Rule XII. — Goal-Keeper. The 
goal-keeper while defending goal 
within the goal-crease, may pat 
away with his hand, or block the 
ball in any manner with his crosse 
or body. 

Rule XIII. — Ball in an Inacces- 
sible Place. Should the ball lodge 
in any place inacessible to the crosse, 
it may be taken out with the hand, 
and the party picking it up must 
" face " with his nearest opponent. 

Rule XIV. — Ball out of Bounds. 
Balls thrown out of bounds must be 
" faced " for at the nearest spot 
within the bounds, and all the play- 
ers shall remain in their places until 
the ball is faced. The referee shall 
see that this is properly done, and 
when both sides are ready shall call 
play. The "bounds" must be dis- 
tinctly settled by the captains before 
the commencement of the match. 

Rule XV. — Accidental Games. 
Should the ball be accidentally put 



through a goal by one of the players 
defending it, it is game for the side 
attacking that goal. Should it be 
put through the goal by any one not 
actually a player, it shall not count. 

Rule ^Vl.— Ball Catching Net- 
ting. Should the ball catch in the 
netting, the crosse must be struck 
on the ground to dislodge it. 

Rule l^Wl.— Fouls, and Penal- 
ties for Same. The following shall 
constitute fouls, and be punished as 
such by the referee : 

Sec. I. No player shall grasp an 
opponent's crosse with his hands, 
hold it with his arms or between 
his legs, nor shall any player more 
than six feet from the ball hold his 
opponent's crosse with his crosse, 
run in front of him, or interfere in 
any way to keep him from the ball 
until another player reaches it. 

Sec. 2. No player with his 
crosse or otherwise shall hold, de- 
liberately strike or trip another, nor 
push with the hand, nor wrestle 
with the legs so as to throw an 
opponent. 

Sec. 3. No player shall hold the 
ball in his crosse with his hand or 
person, or lay or sit on it. 

Sec. 4. No player shall charge 
into another after he has thrown the 
ball. 

Sec. 5. The crosse or square 
check which consists of one player 
charging into another with both 
hands on the crosse, so as to make 
the crosse strike the body of his 
opponent, is strictly forbidden. 

Sec. 6. No player shall interfere 
in any way with another, who is in 
pursuit of an opponent in posses- 
sion of the ball. 

Sec. 7. "Shouldering" is al- 
lowed only when the players are 
within six feet of the ball, and then 
from the side only. No player must 
under any circumstances run into 
or shoulder an opponent from 
behind. 

Sec. 8. The referee shall be the 
judge of fouls, and shall call time 
to decide them only at the request 



LACROSSE 



458 



LADY OF THE MANOR 



of the captains or the men ap- 
pointed by them. 

Sec. 9. When a foul is allowed 
by the referee, the player fouled 
shall have the option of a free 
" run " or "throw" from the place 
where the foul occurred. For this 
purpose all players within ten feet 
of said player shall move away to 
that distance, all others retaining 
their positions. But if a foul is 
allowed within twenty yards of the 
goal, the man fouled shall move 
away that distance from goal before 
taking the run or throw allowed 
him. 

Sec. 10. If a foul is claimed 
and time called, and the foul then 
not allowed, the player accused of 
fouling shall be granted a free 
" run " or " throw " under the con- 
ditions above mentioned (Sec. 9). 

Sec. II. No player shall throw 
his crosse at a player or at the ball, 
under any circumstances : and such 
action will be considered a "foul." 
Should a player lose his crosse 
during a game, he shall consider 
himself " out of play," and shall not 
be allowed to touch the ball in any 
way until he again recovers it. 
Kicking the ball is absolutely pro- 
hibited to players without a crosse. 

Sec. 12. Any player considering 
himself purposely injured during 
play, must report to his captain, 
who must report to the referee, who 
shall warn or suspend the player 
complained of. 

Sec. 13. For deliberate fouls 
which occasion injury to opponents 
or affect the result of the game, for 
the first offence, the referee shall 
have power to suspend the player 
committing it for the rest of the 
game (not match) ; for a second 
offence, the referee may remove 
the offending player and compel 
his side to finish the match short- 
handed. 

Sec. 14. Any player deliberately 
striking another, or raising his hand 
to strike, shall be immediately ruled 
out of the match. 



Rule XNlll.Seitlement of Dis- 
putes. In the settlement of any 
dispute, whether by the umpires or 
referee, it must be distinctly under- 
stood that the captains, with one 
player each to be selected by them, 
have the right to speak on behalf 
of their respective clubs ; and any 
proposition or facts that any player 
may wish brought before the referee 
must come through the captains or 
the players selected by them. 

Rule XIX. — Flag-pole Down. 
In the event of a flag-pole being 
knocked down during a match, and 
the ball put through what would 
be the goal if the flag-pole were 
standing, it shall count game for the 
attacking side. 

History. Lacrosse, in one form 
or another, is said to have been 
played by the North American 
Indians from a very early time, to 
teach their young men strength and 
endurance. The game is described 
by early French missionaries to 
Canada, and the Jesuits named it 
La Crosse, from the stick with 
which it was played, which resem- 
bled the French Crosse or hockey- 
stick. The original meaning of the 
word is a bishop's staff, or crozier, 
shaped something like a hockey- 
stick. The Chippewa name was 
Baggatinaway. On June 4, 1763, 
the fort at Michilimackinack (now 
Mackinaw, Mich.) was surprised 
and taken from the English by a 
party of Indians who pretended to 
be playing a game of Lacrosse. The 
game is still a favorite with the 
Canadian Indians, among whom are 
to be found its finest players. It is, 
widely played by Canadians, and| 
has been called their national game.j 
holding the same place with them 
that Base-ball does in this country. 
It has lately been introduced into 
the United States, where it finds 
some favor, and numerous clubs] 
have been orsfanized to play it. 

LADY OF THE MANOR, a SOLl-j 
taire oanie of cards, played with! 
two full packs. Four piles ofl 



LAMP-LIGHTER 



459 



LAWN BILLIARDS 



twelve cards each are placed in a 
row, one pile at a time. The rest 
of the cards are now divided into 
thirteen piles, which are placed in a 
semicircle above this row. Each of 
the thirteen piles contains only- 
cards of the same value, and they 
are arranged in regular order, from 
Ace to King. The player's object 
is now to form families, without 
following suit, by placing the eight 
Aces in a row below, and building 
upwards from them. Cards may 
be taken for this purpose from the 
top of any of the four original piles, 
or from these in the semicircle. If 
the families can be completed, the 
player wins. The semicircle should 
be resorted to only in case of neces- 
sity. 

LAMP - LIGHTER, Experiments 
with. Lamp-lighters were formerly 
used instead of matches for lighting 
lamps, being lighted at a fire. They 
are made by rolling up strips of 
newspaper about eighteen inches 
long and one and a half inches wide, 
beginning at one corner. The large 
end is folded over to prevent un- 
winding. In performing the follow- 
ing experiments keep away from 
draughts. 

1. Light the lower end, hold the 
lamp-lighter slantingly, and as the 
fliame moves towards the upper end, 
a tongue of flame still burns at the 
charred lower end. Blow this out, 
allowing the other to burn, and its 
place will be taken by a stream of 
smoke. This smoke may be lighted 
like gas. 

2. Leave the large end of a lamp- 
lighter open, and holding it at that 
end, to prevent unwinding, and light 
the lower end. There is now no 
second flame, but the smoke pours 
from the upper end, and may be 
lighted as before. 

3. Repeat Experiment 2, holding 
the charred end over the mouth of 
a jar or wide-mouthed bottle. Pinch 
the upper end after the smoke has 
begun to stream out, and it will pour 
out of the lower end, without burn- 



ing, into the bottle, which it will fill. 
Light the smoke in the bottle and it 
will take fire with a sudden flash. 

4. Fill the bottle with the smoke, 
but allow it to subside. Repeat six 
or eight times, and several drops of 
a yellow liquid will be collected. 
Heat these in a tin spice-box over a 
flame, and smoke will again be pro- 
duced, which may be burned as 
before. 

LAWN BILLIARDS, a lawn game 
played by from two to ten persons, 
with balls like CROQUET balls, which 
they try to drive through a ring. 
The implements are shown in Fig. i. 
The ring, which is of metal, is just 
large enough to allow a ball to pass 
through it, and is set loosely in a 
wooden or metal peg, driven into 



O 



Fig. I. 

the ground, as in Fig. 2, so that it 
can revolve easily. The balls are 
propelled with a cue, consisting of a 
wooden handle three or four feet 
long, with a small ring fixed in the 
end at an angle. Each player may 
have one of these, or each may use 
the same one in succession. The 
object of each is to drive his ball 
through the ring, which scores one 
point. If a ball bounds through 
from another ball, it counts two 




Fig. 2. 

points. No ball must be pushed or 
thrown through the ring. Each 
player has only one turn, whether 
he is successful or not. Instead of 
trying for the ring, any one may en- 
deavor to knock another's ball out 
of position, or to strike the side of 



LAWN TENNIS 



460 



LEAF PRINTS 



the ring, and so turn it edgewise 
to another ball. Skilful players 
can sometimes send their balls 
through the ring when it is turned 
almost edgewise, by striking it on 
one side, causing it to turn around 
and catch the ball. The ground 
may be surrounded by a wooden 
border, one side of which is seen in 
Fig. 2. 

LAWN TENNIS. See Tennis. 

LAWYER, a game played by any 
number of persons, who usually sit 
in two rows of chairs, facing one 
another, excepting one who stands 
between the rows. The player who 
stands, called the lawyer, asks a 
question of any of the others, and the 
one who sits opposite must answer 
it. If the player addressed answers, 
or if the one opposite him does not 
begin to do so before the lawyer 
counts ten, the one making the mis- 
take must pay a forfeit and take the 
lawyer's place. If both make mis- 
takes, the lawyer may decide which 
is to take his place. The one who 
answers must do so as if he had 
been spoken to directly ; thus, if the 
question is " Are you fond of row- 
ing.^" the opposite one must not 
answer, for instance, " Yes, he enjoys 
it very much," but "/enjoy it very 
much." The players may sit in a 
circle instead of in two rows. In 
this case the one opposite may 
answer, as before, or the right or 
left hand neighbor of the person 
questioned, as is agreed upon be- 
forehand. 

Though the questioner is now 
usually called the lawyer, the game 
is probably named from the fact 
that the questioned player has some 
one to answer for him, just as a 
lawyer sometimes acts for his 
client. 

LEAD, Experiments with. i. With 
a sharp knife cut away part of two 
leaden bullets so as to make a fiat 
surface on each. Press these sur- 
faces together with a slight screwing 
motion, and they will adhere so 
tightly that it is difficult to pull them 



apart. In this way several bullets 
may be made to stick together. 

2. Melt some lead in an iron 
spoon. A gray scum will form on 
the top. Still holding the spoon in 
the fire, stir the lead with a piece of 
iron, and in time it will all turn to 
the gray substance that formed the 
scum. If the lead be weighed be- 
fore it is melted, and again after it 
has turned to the gray substance, it 
will be found to have gained in 
weight. This is because the gray 
substance has in it not only the lead 
but also some oxygen from the air, 
which united with the lead to make 
lead oxide, or litharge. 

3. Put a teaspoonful of litharge 
in a quarter of a glass of strong 
vinegar. The vinegar will dissolve 
it, forming lead acetate or SUGAR 
OF LEAD, with which may be per- 
formed the experiments described 
under that title. It is very poison- 
ous, so must be used carefully. 

4. Pour a few drops of sulphuric 
acid into the vinegar in which the 
litharge was dissolved, and a white 
powder will at once appear. This 
is sulphate of lead. The lead, hav- 
ing a greater liking for sulphuric 
acid than for vinegar, left the latter 
and united with the former. 

LEAD TREE, a curious formation 
made by the action of zinc on a 
salt of lead. Make a strong solu- 
tion of lead nitrate or lead acetate, 
suspend in it a strip of zinc, and set 
it in a quiet place. Beautiful lead 
crystals will form in the liquid, re- 
sembling the growth of a plant. 
The cause is chemical action. The 
acid in the lead salt (see salts in 
C. C. T.) prefers zinc to lead, and 
so takes it up instead. The lead as 
it is thus slowly displaced forms the 
crystals seen. 

LEAF PRINTS. Prints of leaves 
resembling lithographs may be made 
by the following method. The im- 
plements required are a small ink- 
roller, such as is used by printers 
ink type (one three inches long ma) 
be bought for forty cents), quartt 



LEAF SKELETONS 



461 



LEAP-FROG 



of a pound of dark green printers* 
ink, which is sold in tubes, and 
some unglazed paper. The ink 
must be thinned by adding two or 
three drops of balsam copaiba to a 
salt-spoonful of ink. The thinned 
ink is spread evenly on a pane of 
glass with the roller, which is then 
passed over the leaf it is desired to 
print. If the leaf stick to the roller, 
it is a sign that the ink needs more 
thinning. The leaf is then pressed 
down on the paper and leaves a 
perfect impression. The paper 
should be slightly dampened, which 
is best done by keeping it in the 
cellar. If the leaf is very large, it 
should be inked a little at a time. 
If it is finely veined, the under sur- 
face may be used to print from : 
otherwise the upper surface gives 
the best results, If the leaf be soft, 
it should be covered with a few 
thicknesses of newspaper before 
printing, and if it is irregular in 
thickness, the thinner parts may be 
covered with paper. The best way 
to apply the pressure is with an 
ordinary copying press ; but it may 
be done in any other way, as for in- 
stance with books, or merely by 
rubbing the thumb over the leaf. 
With practice excellent leaf-pictures 
mav thus be made. 

LEAF SKELETONS, the bleached 
framework of leaves, from which all 
the skin and pulp have been re- 
moved. They can be used in vari- 
ous ways for decoration. The best 
time to prepare them is early in the 
summer, when the leaves are tender. 
Dissolve four ounces of washing- 
soda in a quart of boiling water and 
add two ounces of slaked lime. 
Boil this liquid a quarter of an hour, 
and then, after it has cooled, pour 
off the clear fluid. Boil the leaves 
in this till the skin and pulp are so 
tender that they can easily be re- 
moved from the skeleton by rub- 
bing between the fingers. Rub 
them thus carefully in cold water, 
and then bleach them by soaking 
fifteen minutes in a quart of water 



to which has been added one tea- 
spoonful of chloride of lime. Dry 
the skeletons by rubbing them 
gently on blotting paper. 

LEAP-FROG, a game played by 
any number of persons, each of 
whom in turn leaps over the others, 
one by one. The players stand 
in a row, about fifteen feet apart, 
each resting his hands on his 
thighs and bending his head for- 
ward. This is called " making a 
back." The player at one end of 
the line takes a short run, and leaps 
over each of the others, placing his 
hands on their backs and letting his 
legs pass one on one side and one 
on the other. The player who is 
leaped assists the leaper by rising 
slightly and then stooping. The 
players may stand side by side, in 
which case the leaper goes over 
them sidewise, or they stand in file, 
in which case he leaps from their 
backs over their heads. When he 
has thus gone over the whole line, 
he " makes a back " at the proper 
distance, and the player who is 
thus left in the rear becomes the 
leaper. 

Foot and a Half, a leap-frog 
game where the person to be 
jumped over moves by degrees 
farther and farther from the point 
where the jump begins. A line is 
drawn (sometimes called the " gar- 
ter ") to mark the beginning of the 
jump, and whoever steps on it must 
take the place of the player leaped 
over. After the players in turn 
have leaped, the last cries " Foot 
and a Half !" and the player who is 
making the back thereupon places 
his right heel in the hollow of his 
left foot, advances the latter so that 
its hollow covers his right toe, and 
then brings up his right foot to its 
original position. The players then 
leap again, always beginning at the 
"garter," after which the back ad- 
vances again in like manner, and 
the game goes on till some one 
treads on the "garter, "or fails in 
leaping. The unsuccessful one then 



LEGITIMIST, 



462 



LENSES 



makes a back and another game 
begins. 

This game is called also " Fly the 
Garter " and " Foot it." Sometimes 
it is varied by allowing the last 
player in the first round to make a 
back at the spot he reaches in his 
jump. The back thus changes at 
each round, and as the position is 
moved forward such a distance each 
time, the players are often allowed 
one jump, or a hop, skip, and jump, 
between the garter and the back. 
• In France Leap-frog is called Le 
Saut deMouton (The Sheep's Leap). 
Besides the varieties described 
above, French boys play one called 
Saut de Mouton avec Mouchoirs 
(Sheep's Leap with Handkerchiefs), 
in which each leaper is required, in 
his first turn, to lay his handerchief 
on the back of the player he leaps, 
and at his second turn to pick off 
his own handkerchief, leaving the 
others. Another variety is called 
" Sheep's Leap with Crowns." Each 
leaper places on his head a crown 
made of a twisted handkerchief, and 
at the moment of leaping takes it 
off and throws it on the ground 
before him. At his second turn he 
must pick up his own crown without 
moving his feet from the place 
where he alighted, though he may 
bend in any direction or even throw 
himself at full length. If his crown 
touch any of the others, or if he 
touch any of them in picking it up, 
he must make a back in his turn. 
The boy who makes the back is 
called in French Le Patient (The 
Patient). 

LEGITIMIST, THE, a solitaire 
game of cards, played with two 
full packs. A King is placed at the 
player's left, and then in order, as 
they appear, a Queen, Knave, Ten, 
Nine, Eight, Seven, and Six. On 
each of these a card next below it in 
rank is placed, and so on, till, when 
the piles are completed, the top 
cards will be Ace, King, Queen, 
Knave, Ten, Nine, Eight, and Seven. 
The cards that cannot be used at 



once are placed aside to form stock, 
which can twice be taken up, 
shuffled, and relaid. The player 
must take care to notice when his 
piles are completed. As each ends 
with a different card, an inattentive 
player is apt to build some of them 
too far. 

LENSES, Experiments with. 
Lenses are described in C. C. T. 
Very fine ones can be bought of an 
optician, but the experiments de- 
scribed here can be performed with 
simple ones. A burning glass is a 
double convex lens, and, so are some 
spectacle glasses. 

1. Photographic Lens. Let one 
person hold up a handkerchief, or ai 
blank sheet of writing-paper, ten or 
twelve feet in front of a window, and 
let the other hold a lens between the; 
paper and the window. By moving^ 
it, now nearer the paper and now* 
nearer the window, a place will be; 
found where a picture of the window, 
upside down, will be seen on thei 
paper. The picture will be plainer 
if the other windows in the roomr 
be closed, and still plainer if the< 
lens be surrounded with a piece of' 
pasteboard, so that no light cam 
shine on the paper except that 
which passes through the lens. The 
picture is called an image. In likei 
manner an image of any things 
bright can be made. This is the 
way an image is thrown on the 
plate in Photography. 

2. Microscopic Lens. Hold a lens 
very close to some small thing, and 
move it about a little. A place will^ 
be found where, by looking through 
the lens, the small object will appear 
larger. This is the way a lens \^ 
used in The MICROSCOPE. 

3. Telescopic Lens. Let one per- 
son hold a lens, as in Experiment i, 
and then let the other, dropping th<| 
handkerchief or sheet of paper, looli| 
through a second lens, placed close 
behind it, at the window. Move il 
forward and backward a little till '< 
clear view of objects outside th«i 
window is obtained. This is the wa] 



LEYDEN JAR 



463 



LEYDEN JAR 



lenses are used in the most common 
kind of Telescope. 

4. Burning Glass. On a sunny 
day, hold a lens so as to make a 
bright image of the sun on a board. 
The board will soon begin to smoke 
because of the heat of the image. 

5. Caustic Curve. Instead of hold- 
ing the board squarely in front of 
the lens, tip it so that the rays will 
strike it slantingly. A curve of light, 
called a caustic, will be seen on the 
board. This is because most lenses 
do not turn the rays accurately to 
one spot. 

6. Prismatic Lens. Look through 
a lens at a line of light such as the 
edge of a white house on which the 
sun is shining. It will probably 
appear colored, since the lens acts 
like a Prism. 

7. Water Lens. A good lens is 
made by placing a drop of water on 
a pin-hole in a piece of card-board. 
This magnifies small objects very 
well. 

8. Bottle Lens. A glass bottle 
filled with water may be used as a 
lens, as shows in the illustration. 




Bottle Lens. 
LEYDEN JAR, a device for ob- 
taining large charges of electricity. 
A simple one can be made by filling 
a glass tumbler about two thirds 
full of shot and inserting a silver 
teaspoon (see Fig. i). The tum- 
bler must be held in one hand, while 
the teaspoon is presented to an 
Electric Machine, or an Elec- 
TROPHORUS. If the latter is used, 



it must be lifted and discharged 
several times, a spark passing each 
time to the teaspoon. If now the 
experimenter presents his other hand 
to the teaspoon, the jar will be dis- 




Fig. I. 

charged and he will get a shock 
equal to the sum of all the little 
sparks that have passed to the jar. 
The jar should receive very few 
sparks before its first discharge, to 
avoid giving the experimenter a 
severe shock ; but afterwards the 
number of sparks received may be 
increased till the shock of discharge 
is too great to be borne. 

A better jar, capable of storing 
large quantities of electricity, may 
be made as follows (see Fig. 2.): 
Coat a glass bottle or jar inside and 
out with tin-foil, or, if 
the mouth of the bot- 
tle is too small for 
reaching the inside 
easily, pour in shot. 
The foil or shot must 
reach the same height 
on both sides of the 
bottle, and must not 
come within two or 
three inches of the top. 
Insert in the cork a 
thick iron or copper wire, which 
projects into the shot, or, in case 
foil is used, has a brass chain fast- 
ened to the end, which lies on the 




LEYDEN JAR 



464 



LEYDEN J A] 



bottom and gives contact with the 
inside coating. The upper end of 
the wire should terminate in a metal 
ball. A leaden bullet may be 
soldered to it, or a wooden ball 
coated with tin-foil may be used. 
This jar may be charged and used 
exactly like the one already de- 
scribed, but it is not necessary to 
take it in the hand at all. All that 
is required is that the outside have 
some connection with the ground 
while the knob is receiving shocks. 
This can be effected by winding 
around it, as it stands on the table, 
one end of a metal chain, and let- 
ting the other hang on the floor. 
Such chain can be bought at any 
hardware store. 

To discharge the jar when the 
charge is too great to be taken 
through the body, a discharger is 
necessary, which may be made thus 
(see Fig. 3): Take a bottle, small 




Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 



enough to be held conveniently in 
one hand, and through the cork at 
right angles to the bottle, pass a 
piece of copper wire twelve or 
fifteen inches long. Bend the wire 
into a semicircle curving outward 
from the bottle, and fix balls on the 
ends like that on the jar. By hold- 
ing the bottle in the hand and 
touching one ball to the knob of 
the jar and the other to the outside 
coating, as in Fig. 4, the jar may be 
discharged without injury, the elec- 
tricity passing through the copper 
wire. 

Fulminating Pane, a kind of Ley- 
den jar made of a flat pane of glass 
having tin-foil pasted on both sides. 
The edge of the glass should be left 



uncovered at least an inch all aroun( 
the foil. The pane is charged anc 
discharged just like the jar ; that is 
it is charged by placing one coating 
in contact with an electrical ma 
chine, and the other in connectioi 
with the ground, and discharged b) 
joining the two coatings with som( 
conductor of electricity. 

The explanation of the way ir 
which the jar or pane acts is this 
One coating, being charged with one 
kind of electricity, positive for in- 
stance, attracts the negative electric- 
ity on the other coating, and repels 
its positive to the ground. The twc 
kinds of electricity in the jar are 
prevented from uniting by the glass, 
but when the coatings are joinec 
they rush together. Jars of thii 
glass will hold larger charges, be- 
cause the nearer the coatings are the 
stronger the attraction is; but on the 
other hand, the glass must not be 
too thin or it may be broken. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1. Make a Leyden jar whose coat- 
ings can be removed while it is 
charged. This can be done by using 
a smooth glass tumbler as the jar, 
and making the coatings of several 
thicknesses of foil, so that they will 
keep their shape when removed. 
The coatings are not pasted to the 
glass, and the rod and knob of the 
ordinary jar are omitted. Fasten a 
bit of sewing silk to the inside coat- 
ing. After charging the jar, first lift 
out the inside coating, and then lift 
the glass from the outer coating. If 
the two coatings are now joined there 
will be no discharge ; but after they 
are replaced the jar can be dis- 
charged. The reason of this is that 
the charge is not contained in the 
coatings, but in the substance of the 
glass. 

2. Make a jar whose coatings are 
of mercury, by setting a small tum- 
bler in a larger one, and pouring 
mercury between them and into thej 
smaller one. Charge this jar as be- 
fore, and then, lifting the small glassj 



LEYDEN JAR 



465 



LEYDEN JAR 



out, pour its contents into the large 
glass, and mix the two coatings to- 
gether. Set the jar up as before, 
and the jar can then be discharged, 
though its coatings have been min- 
gled. The reason is the one already- 
given in Experiment i. 

3. Charge a jar, and after letting 
it stand several minutes discharge 
it. Let it stand a minute longer 
when it may be discharged again 
without charging. In this way several 
sparks may often be obtained from 
one charge, each more feeble than 
the preceding. The reason is that 
the electricity penetrates the glass, 
and does not come out all at once. 

4. Take two call-bells ; place them 
on glass dishes and connect one to 
the knob of the jar and the other 
to the outside coating by means of 
chains or wires. Suspend a bit of 
wood coated with tin-foil, the size 
of a small pea, by a silk thread just 
midway between the two bells. The 
jar being charged, the copper will 
swing backward and forward from 
one bell to the other, ringing each 
as it strikes. After a time this will 
discharge the jar, the electricity 
being carried in small quantities 
from one coating to the other by 
the copper. If the experiment does 
not succeed, it may be because the 
bells are too far apart, because the 
bit of copper is too heavy, or 
because the jar is not charged 
enough. 

5. Make a Leyden jar whose outer 
coating consists of varnish sprinkled 
while yet soft with metallic powder, 
for instance the bronze powder used 
in painting. Tin-foil is pasted over 
the bottom, and there is also a band 
of foil about an inch wide around 
the jar at the top of the outer coat- 
ing. The wire connecting with the 
inside coating is bent over on the 
outside till the knob is about three 
quarters of an inch from this band 
of tin-foil. The jar is then hung by 
the wire to the knob of an electrical 
machine (see Fig. 5). When the 
machine is worked, brilliant sparks 



pass between the knob to the outer 
coating, lighting up the jar. 

6. Leyden Battery. A battery is 
made up of several jars, all the outer 
coatings and all the inner coatings 
being joined. This can be effected 
by placing the jars in a wooden box 




Fig. 5. 

lined on the bottom with tin-foil, 
and joining the knobs with copper 
wire. A strip of tin-foil leads from 
the bottom of the box to the edge, 
and when this strip is connected 
with one of the knobs by a dis- 
charger, the battery is discharged. 
The battery gives a powerful spark, 
and the experiments which follow 
can be performed better with it than 
with a single jar. 

7. Through the corks of two glass 
bottles pass crosswise thick copper 
wires or rods, having at one end 
balls like that on the jar, and bent 
at the other into hooks. Glue a 
piece of glass an inch or two square 
fiat on the top o^ the cork of a third 



LEYDEN JAR 



466 



LEYDEN JAR 



bottle, somewhat lower than the 
other two. Place the taller bottles 
so that the knobbed ends of the 
wires will touch the glass plate, and 
be about an inch apart. Connect 
the hooked end of one of the wires 
by a wire or chain to one coating of 
a Leyden jar or battery, and that of 
the other wire to the other coating 
by a discharger (see Fig. 6). A 



spark will pass directly across the 
glass, and through any substance 
placed on it. By this means the 
effect of the electric spark on all 
kinds of substances can be observed. 
By placing pieces of different kinds 
of metal close to the knobs so that 
the spark will pass between them, 
its color can be varied. This is be- 
cause the heat turns a little of the 




Fig, 
metal to vapor, which colors the 
spark. The color can also be varied 
by passing it through different gases 
(see Hydrogen and Carbonic 
Acid). If the charge is passed 
through a small wire it will heat it 
red hot, or perhaps will melt it. 

If gunpowder be placed on the 
glass plate, the discharge will scat- 
ter it without setting it off; but if 
a wet string be placed in the circuit, 
the spark will light the powder. 
The reason is that an ordinary spark 
is too sudden to set the powder off, 
but the wet string makes it a little 
slower. 

If the spark be passed through a 
lump of sugar, one or more eggs, 
or fruit, they will be lighted up and 
shine (if the experiment be tried in 
the dark) for a little while after the 
spark has passed. 

If the spark be passed through a 
sheet of gold leaf pressed between 
two pieces of silk or glass, the gold 
will be turned to a violet powder. 



If the spark be passed through a 
bit of unglazed paper, wet with a 
solution of iodide of potassium, 
brown spots will appear on the pa- 
per. This is because the iodide is 
separated into iodine and potash, 
and the former makes the brown 
spots. 

8. Place a steel wire inside a glass 
tube, and wind around it insulated 
copper wire. Discharge a Leyden 
battery through this wire, and the 
steel wire will become a magnet. 

9. Spin by means of a twirler 
a disk on which are lines, figures, or 
pictures. If the disk spin rapidly 
none of the figures will be visible ; 
but if-the room be darkened, and a 
Leyden jar be discharged, the disk 
will seem to stand still, so that 
everything on it can be seen plainly. 
This is because the spark lasts a 
very short time, so that while it 
lights the room the disk changes 
position very little, and seems to the 
eye to be perfectly still. 



LIGHT MEASURING 



467 



LIGHT MEASURING 



10. Twist together two thickly in- 
sulated pieces of copper wire four 
or five feet in length. (Insulated 
wire may be bought of a dealer in 
telegraph supplies.) Hold the ends 
of one piece in the hands, and dis- 
charge a Leyden jar. A shock will 
be felt, although the two wires are 
not connected. The electric current 
which passes through the hands in 
this case is said to be an " induction 
current." 

11. Place a fulminating pane on a 
table, the lower surface being con- 
nected with the earth. Lay a coin 
on the upper surface, and then 
charge the pane. If any one now 
try to remove the coin he will re- 
ceive a shock. The coin may safely 
be offered to any one who will pick 
it up at the first trial. 

LIGHT MEASURING, or PHO 
TOMETRY. The intensity of light 
is measured in "candle-power;" so 



to measure the brightness of a lamp 
it is necessary to find how much 
brighter or dimmer it is than a 
candle. Two of the simplest ways 
are given below : 

I. About six inches in front of a 
white wall stand a bottle with a 
stick fixed in its mouth (Fig. i). 





Fig. I. 

Place the candle b about two feet 
distant, and the lamp a by its side. 
Each will throw a shadow of the 




Fip:. 



stick on the wall; that thrown by 
the lamp is marked a\ and that of 
the candle b' . By moving either 
lamp or candle sidewise, the edges 
of the shadows maybe made just to 
touch. It will be seen that one is 
not as dark as the other. Now 
move the lamp slowly back, keeping 



the edges of the shadows close to- 
gether, until they are of the same 
shade. Then measure the distance 
of the lamp and candle from the 
wall, and find out how many times 
farther the lamp is than the candle. 
The square of the number thus ob- 
tained will be the candle-power of 



LIVES 



468 



LITTLE LOTS 



the lamp. Thus, suppose the can- 
dle is two feet from the wall, and 
the lamp six feet. It is three 
times as far as the candle, and its 
candle-power is three squared, or 
three times three, that is, nine. The 
standard candle is one weighing one 
sixth of a pound, and burning 120 
grains an hour. A " number six " 
sperm candle with the wick kept 
trimmed to about half an inch will 
be nearly right. Fig. 2 shows the 
same kind of comparison made be- 
tween a lamp, C, and a candle B. 
The screen is a sheet of paper held 
between two books, and the object 
that throws the shadow is an un- 
lighted candle, A. The shadows 
are shown at E and F. 

2. On apiece of smooth, unglazed 
paper make a grease-spot the size 
of a quarter-dollar, so that light 
will shine through it evenly and 
clearly. Pin the paper to two books 
set up on each side of it, and place 
the candle on one side and the lamp 
on the other, at equal distances. 
From the candle side the spot will 
now appear light on a dark ground, 
and from the lamp side it will look 
dark on a light ground. The rea- 
son of this is that the grease-spot 
lets through the light, hence it looks 
brighter on the side opposite the 
brighter light. Now move the lamp 
slowly away, or bring the candle 
nearer, till the spot appears of the 
same shade as the surrounding 
paper. Measure the distances of 
lamp and candle, and find the can- 
dle-power as before. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1. Find the candle-power of a 
lamp and then put a piece of glass in 
front of it, and find the candle-power 
again. It will be much less, as only 
part of the light gets through the 
glass. 

2. Find the candle-power of a 
lamp with the flame turned broad- 
side and then edgewise. It will be 
greater in the former case. 

LIVES, a game of cards, played 



by any number of persons with a 
full pack. The dealer gives each 
player, in order, one card. Each 
player in turn, beginning at the 
dealer's left, now has the right to 
exchange his card for that of his 
left-hand neighbor. If he does not 
choose to do so, he says, " I stand." 
If he does choose, the neighbor is 
obliged to exchange with him, un- 
less he holds a King. The dealer, 
instead of exchanging, cuts the 
pack, if he wishes, and takes a card 
from the middle. As the object is 
to avoid holding the lowest card, the 
players who have high cards should 
" stand," and those with low ones 
should exchange. Ace counts as 
the lowest card. If a player ex- 
change an Ace, Two, or Three, he 
must announce it aloud and those 
who have higher cards will of course 
stand. Any player who gives to 
his right-hand neighbor a worse 
card in exchange will also stand. 
The holder of the lowest card, when 
all have either stood or exchanged, 
is said to " lose a life," If the 
dealer, in drawing from the pack, 
get a King, he loses a life. Any 
player losing three lives must re- 
tire from the game, which is con- 
tinued till only one player is left, 
who is declared the winner. 

This game is called in England 
" Ranter-go-Round." It resembles 
Commerce, and may be the original 
form of that game. A former way 
of scoring was with counters on a 
board resembling a Nine Men's 
Morris board, the players' counter 
being pushed nearer and nearer to 
the centre as his " lives " were suc- 
cessively lost. When the counter 
reached the centre, its owner went 
out of the game. 

LETTERS. See Logomachy. 

LITTLE LOTS, a solitaire game 
of CARDS, played with a Euchre 
pack. The cards are dealt in eight 
piles of four each, only the last or 
top card of each pile being turned 
face upward. Any two top cards 
that match must be laid aside, and 



LIVING STATUARY 



469 



LOGOMACHY 



the next cards turned up in their 
places. This is repeated as long as 
possible, and if all the cards can be 
thus matched the game is won. 
Should any pile remain, containing 
only two cards, the player may look 
at them, and if they match they are 
laid aside like the others. 

This game is said to be a favorite 
in Switzerland. 

LIVING STATUARY, tableaux in 
which the performers are dressed 
to represent statues, either singly 
or in groups. The statues are 
draped entirely in white cloth, wear 
canton flannel skull-caps to which 
cotton wicking is sewed for hair, 
white stockings, white slippers or 
sandals, and white cotton gloves, 
to which are sewed sleeves made of 
white cotton stockings. The face 
is whitened with fine chalk, mag- 
nesia, or bismuth. If the drapery 
is arranged skilfully and the stat- 
ues can remain perfectly motion- 
less, the effect Is fine. Celebrated 
statues or groups may thus be imi- 
tated, or entirely original ones may 
be arranged. Pedestals may be 
made of tables and boxes covered 
with cotton sheeting. The statues 
show best against a black or dark 
background in a pale blue light, 
which may be produced by putting 
light blue glass in front of the 
lamps. All the " properties " that 
appear in the groups must either 
be covered with white cloth or 
painted white. 

Living statuary is sometimes used 
in connection with ordinary tab- 
leaux, to adorn a royal palace or 
garden. 

LOGOMACHY, a game played by 
any number of persons with small 
squares of cardboard, on each of 
which is printed a letter of the al- 
phabet. It is sometimes called "Let- 
ters, "and "Word-making and Word- 
taking." The players sit around 
a table, in the middle of which the 
cardboard letters are heaped, blank 
side upward. They are thoroughly 
mixed and then each player draws a 
letter to see which shall open the 



game. He who draws a letter nearest 
to the beginning of the alphabet is 
the first player. After the letters 
thus drawn have been returned to 
the pile, which is mixed again, the 
first player draws a letter and places 
it, face upward, by itself on the table 
to begin what is called the pool. 
The player on his left does likewise, 
and so on, in order, till some one 
draws a letter which forms a word 
with others in the pool. He then 
places those letters in front of him 
so that they spell the word. The 
next player may take his word from 
him by combining with it his drawn 
letter, or any letters in the pool, or 
both, so as to form a different word 
or he may combine his drawn letter 
with others in the pool to form an- 
other word. If he can do neither, 
he places his drawn letter in the 
pool like the others. So the game 
goes on, each player having the 
chance of taking a word from any 
other player, making a new word 
of his own, or adding his letter to 
one of his own words. He wins 
who first gets a number of words 
agreed upon beforehand (usually 
ten) and holds them while a round 
is played. Thus, A may get ten 
words, but he has not won till B, C, 
D, and the others have each a 
chance to take one or more from 
him. If they cannot, A is the win- 
ner; but if one of his words is taken 
from him, the game goes on as be- 
fore. 

In this game, the practised player 
knows by heart the words that can 
be taken away, and what letters can 
take them, so he plays quickly; but 
the beginner must study each word 
carefully. If he can take no word, 
he should add his letter to one of 
his own words, if possible, to pre- 
vent its being taken by another 
player. Some words, especially the 
small ones are almost sure to change 
hands at once. Thus, " pat " can 
be taken by <? (making "pate," or 
"tape") by h ("path"), by 71 
(" pant "), by r ("rapt " or " part") or 
by s ("spat" or "past"). This is 



LOGOMACHY 



470 



LOTO 



evident, but few see before 
some study (for instance) tiiat 
" stream " can be talcen by a j 
(making " mastery ") or others still 
more difficult. 

It is a good plan for a beginner to 
practice alone, forming words, and 
twisting them about in every pos- 
sible way, so as to become familiar 
with the changes that may be made. 
I f the player can make a word either 
from the pool or by taking one 
from another player, he should in 
general prefer to make the one 
that is least likely to be taken 
from him. But if one of the play- 
ers has nearly ten words, the others 
should try, first of all, to reduce 
his number. 

The rules of Logomachy differ 
with the players. Certain points 
should always be settled before the 
game, such as the dictionary to be 
used as a standard, the use of plu- 
rals, etc., and the length of time to 
be allowed for each play. The 
rules that follow may thus be modi- 
fied to suit the players. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. No one shall touch the pile of 
letters but the one whose turn it is 
to play. 

2. The player must draw the let- 
ter which he touches first. 

3. While he is considering his 
play, his letter must lie on the 
table, in plain sight. 

4. A letter must be played within 
two minutes after it is drawn. 

5. Each player's words must be 
in plain sight, and turned so that 
the others can read them most 
easily. 

6. No player may form a word 
that he cannot define, at least well 
enough to show that he is not form- 
ing it at random, in hope that such 
a word may be found in the dic- 
tionary. 

7. Singulars and plurals shall be 
considered different words. [Some- 
times a plural in s is considered the 
same word as its singular.] 



8. If any player can form or take 
a word with the letters in the pool, 
he may do so before drawing his 
letter. 

The word Logomachy is formed 
Greek words, and means from two 
Word-contest. 

LONDON BRIDGE, a game played 
by any number of children. Two 
leaders form an arch with uplifted 
hands, under which the others 
march in line, singing, " London 
Bridge is falling down, my fair 
lady !" When they desire, the lead- 
ers lower the arch, catching one of 
the players. The one thus caught 
is asked which of two articles he will 
have, and according to his answer, 
as previously agreed, he is made to 
stand behind one or the other of the 
leaders. When all have been caught, 
the leaders and their followers end 
the game by pulling against each 
other as in a TuG OF War. Some- 
times the song sung while the line 
is marching has several verses. 

History. This game is mentioned 
by the French author, Rabelais, in 
1533, under the name of "Fallen 
Bridge." In Germany the keepers 
are called Devil and Angel, King 
and Emperor, or by other names. 
In France the game is called 
" Heaven and Hell." The Germans 
of Pennsylvania call it " Die Holldnd- 
isch Briick " (The Holland Bridge), 
and in Massachusetts it is some- 
times called " Charlestown Bridge." 
In parts of Ireland an actual bridge 
is made of boards, and one player 
takes the part of the Devil, who 
breaks it down at intervals, while 
the song is sung. 

LOTO, or L O T T O, a game of 
chance played by any number of 
persons, with numbered cards and 
counters. The cards are usually 24 
in number, and each is divided into 
27 squares in three rows. Five of the 
nine squares in each row have num- 
bers on them and four are blank; 
thus there are 15 numbers on each 
card. The whole 24 cards have 
thus 360 numbers, which are the 



LOTO 



471 



LUMINOUS PAINT 



numerals from i to 90 four times 
repeated. The numbers on each 
card are not selected with any sys- 
tem, but are put down at random ; 
thus, one of the cards may appear as 
in the figure. The counters are 
shown below. 






^^ h°^«Pi " 



iiifliiiiii' 



© 0©©© © © ©©a 

Loto-Card and Counters. 

For convenience, the numbers 
from I to 9 are placed in the first 
column, those from 10 to 19 in the 
second, and so on. Each person is 
given one or more of these cards, 
according to the number of players, 
and each has also 15 counters for 
each card. One of the players, or 
some one not in the game, holds a 
bag filled with counters numbered 
from I to 90, and drawing them one 
at a time, reads each aloud as it is 
drawn. Whenever a number is 
thus read each player who has it on 
one or more of his cards places a 
counter over it on each card. He 
who first covers all the numbers on 
one card wins the game. Loto par- 
ties are often given, at which the 
winners receive prizes, and the game 
is sometimes varied by giving prizes 
to those who first have two, three, 
four, and five counters on the same 
line. The game is almost entirely 
one of chance, the only effort re- 
quired being to watch the cards 
carefully as the numbers are read 
out, to make sure that each one 
read is covered. 

Object, or Spelling Loto. The 
numbers are replaced by letters, 
each line on the cards spelling the 
name of an object, a picture of 
which is shown at the end of the 
line, as in the illustration. 

Other varieties, bearing pictures of 
flowers, or other objects, are known 
as Historical, Botanical, or Geo- 



graphical Loto, and are played in 
the same manner as numbered or 
spelling Loto. 

History. Lotto is Italian for lot. 
In the time when Genoa was a re- 
public, a magistrate of that city 
chose the members of his council, 
it is said, by placing 90 names in an 
urn and drawing five. The people 
began to bet on the successful 
names, and soon, substituting num- 



' '^- A ^ *frn A "• * 





Spelling Loto-Card. 

bers, devised a gambling game which 
became very popular. From this 
our Loto is derived. It was taken 
from Italy to Germany about 1750, 
and to France in 1776. In France 
the numbers on the cards are some- 
times given curious names. For 
instance, the 4 is called " The Com- 
missary's Hat," the 22 "The Two 
Chickens," and the 69 " The Infalli- 
ble." In the western United States 
the Loto numbers are placed in a 
vessel of peculiar shape, and drop 
out one by one on pressing a spring. 
The game is then called Keno. 

LUMINOUS PAINT. Paint which 
will glow at night may be made as 
follows : Wash oyster shells per- 
fectly clean in warm water, and heat 
them for half an hour in a coal fire. 
When they are cool, pound them m 
a mortar, removing and throwing 
away all gray pieces. When the 
white part has been reduced to 
powder, put some of it into a cruci- 
ble with an equal quantity of flow- 
ers of sulphur, in alternate layers. 
Cement the lid of the crucible with 
sand mixed with glue, and bake it 



LYCOPODtUM 



472 



MAGIC LANTERN 



for an hour in hot coals. The re- 
sulting powder should be white, and 
any of it that is gray should be re- 
moved. Make the white powder 
into a paint with gum arable and 
water. The powder is sulphide 
of lime formed by the union of the 
lime of the oystershells and the 
sulphur. Objects painted with it 
will glow faintly for a long time 
after dark. If the interior of a room 
be covered with it, the room will be 
filled with a faint light even on the 
darkest nights. 

LYCOPODIUM, Experiments with. 
Lycopodium consists of the spores 
or seeds of a kind of moss, and is 
one of the finest and lightest pow- 
ders known. It may be bought at 
a druggist's. 

1. Put a little of the powder on a 
piece of paper, and blow it into a 
candle-flame. There will be a sud- 
den flash of light. This method is 
sometimes used on the stage to imi- 
tate lightning. 

2. Half fill a bottle with the pow- 
der, and tilting it forward and back- 
ward, observe how it runs almost as 



freely as water. This is because the 
particles are very fine and slip over 
each other easily. 

3. Dust a layer of the powder 
over the surface of water in a basin. 
Plunge a finger into the water an 
inch or so. It will not be wetted 
at all, but will have a little of the 
dry powder on it when it is with- 
drawn. The reason, as is easily 
observed, is that a layer of the pow- 
der envelopes the finger as it enters 
the water, and keeps it from getting 
wet. 

4. Lower a coin into the water by 
a thread. It will be kept from get- 
ting wet in the same manner. 

5. Drop water on the layer of 
powder. It will gather itself into 
drops like beads. 

6. Dust Lycopodium over a piece 
of glass, and look through it at a 
candle-flame. A halo will be seen 
around the flame as if there were a 
fog or mist between it and the ob- 
server. This effect is produced by 
the smallness of the particles, which 
are about the size of the water-drops 
in fog. 



M 



MAGIC LANTERN, an arrange- 
ment for showing lighted pictures 




Magic Lantern. 

in a dark room by means of lenses 
(see Lens, in C. C. T.). The pict- 



ures, which are on slips of glass 
called slides, are either photo- 
graphed, or painted with transpar- 
ent colors. They are lighted from 
behind, and an enlarged image of 
them is thrown by the lenses on 
the wall or on a screen, where it 
may be seen by a large number of 
people. The lamp E (see figure) is 
generally enclosed in a case B, of 
sheet-iron or tin, at one end of 
which the lenses AA' are fixed. 
Between these and the lamp is a 
place where the exhibitor may push 
in the glass slides on which are the 
pictures. The farther the lantern 
is from the wall or screen on which 
the pictures are thrown, the larger 
the pictures will be ; but as the same 
quantity of light has then to be 
spread over a larger surface, they 



MAGIC LANTERN 



473 



Magic Lantern 



will be dim unless the light is 
powerful, I n the large lanterns used 
at public entertainments, where 
the pictures are often 20 or 30 feet 
in diameter, the lamp is a calcium 
light (see Calcium in C. C. T.) or is 
furnished by the electric arc (see 
Electric Light) ; but in the 
smaller ones, sold at toy stores, an 
oil lamp is generally used, which 
gives enough light for pictures sev- 
eral feet in diameter. 

Magic Lantern pictures may be 
thrown on a smooth white wall, or 
on a sheet, stretched so that there 
are no wrinkles in it. If the for- 
mer, the lantern must be placed 
among, or behind, the spectators ; if 
the latter, it may be placed on the 
other side, for the pictures will 
show through the sheet. Before 
giving an exhibition the best dis- 
tance for the lantern must be de- 
cided on by trial. The lantern is 
first placed where the spot of light 
is as large as the wall or screen will 
admit. A picture is then slipped in, 
and the outer lens-tube C D pushed 
in and out (called focusing) till the 
picture on the wall is clear and 
distinct. Some lanterns are focused 
by turning a little screw on the lens- 
tube. If the picture is not bright 
enough, the lantern is moved a 
little nearer and focused again. 
The pictures will be reversed on the 
wall, so they must be put into the 
lantern upside down, and pushed to 
the right when they are to move to 
the left of the screen. 

A set of pictures is usually sold 
with each lantern, but they can 
be bought separately. Sometimes 
amusing pictures are made to move 
or change suddenly before the eyes 
of the spectators. The exhibitor 
may make his own pictures by 
painting them on slips of glass, or 

by PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Dissolving Views, magic lantern 
pictures, one of which appears to 
change slowly into another. Two 
lanterns are so placed that they 
throw their pictures on exactly the 



same spot. Each has a cover which 
can be placed over its lens-tube. 
A picture is placed in each, one of 
which is shown while the other is 
shut off. If the cover be placed 
slowly on the lens-tube of the first, 
while that of the second is with- 
drawn gradually, the first picture 
will fade out while the other ap- 
pears. The effect is better if, in- 
stead of covering the lenses, the 
light can be turned off and on with- 
out opening the lanterns. One 
lamp is then turned down and the 
other is turned up at the same time, 
making the change much more 
gradual. A simple magic lantern 
can be made at home by placing a 
kerosene lamp in a wooden box 
from one to two feet square, cutting 
a hole above the chimney for 
draught. Opposite the lamp must 
be cut a round hole about two 
inches in diameter, and just inside 
this hole is placed a small globe, 
such as is used for fish, full of water. 
Several inches from the globe, out- 
side the box, is placed the picture, 
and beyond it is held an ordinary 
burning glass, or single magnifying 
glass. By moving it forward and 
backward, the position will be found 
where a clear and distinct picture 
is cast on the screen. 

Instead of a lamp, a beam of sun- 
light from a heliostat may be 
used. With this, pictures must be 
shown in the day-time, but they may 
be enlarged greatly, since sunlight 
is so powerful. The lenses may 
be simply set in holes in blocks 
of wood so that they will stand up- 
right on the table in front of the 
heliostat, and the picture is held in 
one hand at the proper distance. 
Not only magic lantern pictures, 
but images of ell sorts of small ob- 
jects may be thrown on a screen in 
this way. 

Water Lantern. A simple substi- 
tute for lenses is the Water Lan- 
tern, represented in the picture, 
which is made as follows : In a 
wooden box, open at one side, fix a 



MAGIC LANTERN 



474 



MAGIC LANTERN 



mirror at an angle of 45°, held in 
place by slats nailed to the sides of 
the box and facing the open side, 
so as to reflect upward the horizon- 
tal beam from the heliostat. In 
the top of the box is a hole, five 




Water Lantern. 



inches m diameter, in which rests a 
hemispherical glass dish five and 
one half inches across, made by 
cutting off part of a plain glass fish- 
globe or gas-globe. When filled 



with water this takes the place of 
the condensing lens of the magic 
lantern. The smaller lens is sup- 
ported on a shelf, which stands on 
a wooden slide with a slot in it, 
enabling it to be fixed at any height 
by tightening a screw, as shown in 
the illustration. This lens is made 
like the other, but is about four 
inches in diameter and correspond- 
ingly shallow. On the sides of the 
shelf are two upright pieces of 
wood, between which is swung a 
looking-glass about seven by four 
inches. 

The beam of light, passing up- 
ward through the two water-lenses, 
may be sent in any desired direction 
by this upper mirror. If placed at 
an angle of 45°, it will direct the 
beam horizontally toward the 
screen. The picture or object to 
be shown is to be laid on the lower 
lens, and focused by raising or low- 
ering the upper shelf. A magic 



90°, 



V 



90^ 



B 



E 




Plan of Attachment for Showing Photo- 
graphs. 

lantern may be made to show ordi 
nary photographs, engravings, etc. 
but as they do not transmit light 
like the glass slides, they must be 
placed where the light will shine 
full on their faces, and yet where 
they will be directly before the lens, 
To do this, the arrangement of the 
lantern has to be changed a little, 



MAGICAL MUSIC 



475 



MAGIC WHEELS 



a slightly larger box being required, 
because the lamp has to stand on 
one side. An arrangement which 
can be used with an ordinary magic 
lantern can be made as follows : 
A five-sided box is made, whose 
top and bottom have the shape 
shown in the diagram. The sides 
A B and E are each 51 inches long, 
and the others, C and D, 3^ inches. 
The lens-tube is unscrewed from 
the nozzle of the lantern, and a hole 
just large enough to receive it is 
cut in the side "B. In the side C 
another hole is cut to receive the 
nozzle. The two holes must have 
their centres at the same height. 
In the side E a square hole is cut a 
little larger than a cabinet-sized 
photograph, and in it is fitted a 
shutter, to whose inside a photo- 
graph may be fastened by little 
clips or buttons turning over the 
corners, or in any other way de- 
sired. The light in such an ar- 
rangement requires to be very 
strong to throw a good image more 
than a few feet, but with a calcium 




Lantern with Attachment. 

light an image of almost any object 
can be thrown to a great distance. 
The lantern with its attachment is 
shown in the last figure. 

MAGICAL MUSIC. See Hide 
THE Handkerchief. 



MAGIC PICTURE. Fasten to- 
gether two panes of clear glass about 
a foot square, so that they are sepa- 
rated by a very thin space, about 
one twenty-fifth of an inch, or the 
thickness of about seven of the 
leaves of this book. This can be 
done by placing bits of pasteboard 
of this thickness between the panes 
at the corners. The panes are fast- 
ened at their edges by a paste made 
of powdered chalk and white of egg, 
and then bordered with paper, a 
small aperture being left to pour 
into the space between the glasses 
the following composition : 

Melt together at a low heat 150 
grains of tallow and 15 grains of 
white wax ; add 30 grains of clear 
linseed oil. When well mixed, 
fill with the mixture the space be- 
tween the panes, and close the 
aperture. The mixture will be 
opaque when cold, but a slight de- 
gree of heat, such as that obtained 
by holding it in the sun's rays, will 
make it transparent. If an engrav- 
ing or chromo be now glued to one 
of the panes with its face toward 
the glass, it will be invisible till the 
glass be slightly heated, when it 
will appear. 

MAGIC PICTURES. Draw pict- 
ures on paper with a mixture of gal- 
lic acid and mucilage. This will not 
be visible when dry, but if the paper 
be sprayed with a solution of cop- 
peras in an ordinary atomizer, the 
lines will turn black. An exhibi- 
tion of magic portraits may be ar- 
ranged by hanging up sheets on 
which comic pictures have been 
drawn with the mixture. A mem- 
ber of the company is asked whether 
he wishes his portrait taken, and 
the spray is directed on one of the 
pictures, which is then given him to 
examine. 

MAGIC WHEELS, THE, an optical 
toy, made as follows : Cut out of 
card board two wheels about an inch 
in diameter, each having at least 
eight spokes. The wheels need no 
rims, as the spokes alone produce 



MAGIC WHEELS 



476 



MAGNETS 



the desired effect, 
be like Fig. i, or 



The shape may 
Fig. 2. Fix the 




Fig. I. Fig. 2. 

wheels about a half inch apart on a 
splinter of wood, an inch and a half 
long, which passes through their 
centres, forming a sort of TOP or tee- 
totum. Spin this on something 
which will contrast with the spokes ; 
— on a dark ground if the card-board 
be white, and on a light ground if it 
be dark. While it is spinning, look 
at it at an angle, so that the spokes 
on one side of the upper wheel will 
overlap those on the opposite side 
of the lower wheel, which are mov- 
ing in the contrary direction. An 
appearance will be seen like that in 
Fig. 3. By moving the eye up and 




Fig. 3. 
down, so that more or less of the 
upper and under spokes will over- 
lap, the curves will change their 
position and form. The same can 
be seen by using only one wheel and 
spinning it beneath a lamp, or in 
sunlight, so that the shadow will 
take the place of the second wheel. 
The same toy can be made in larger 
form by nailing slats crosswise on 
one another and mounting them on 
an axle. When the wheels are 
twirled with different velocities the 



curves will change. The curves can 
also be seen by twirling an inverted 
Japanese umbrella like a top, being 
formed by the ribs and their sup- 
ports. 

Another form of the toy can be 
obtained by making a teetotum with 
one wheel, like that described above, 
and spinning it over a sort of grat- 
ing of bars, cut from card-board. 
The curves seen will be different 
from those in the picture. The 
curves which are seen result from 
the fact that the spokes, in re- 
volving across one another, cut off 
the light more of the time in some 
places than in others. These there- 
fore appear more opaque, and in the 
cases given above they form curves. 

MAGNESIUM, Experiments with. 
Magnesium is described in C. C. T. 

1. Coil a strip of magnesium rib- 
bon around a lead-pencil. Hold the 
coil by putting a piece of iron wire 
through, it and light one end of the 
ribbon with a match. It will burn 
brightly. 

2. See Carbonic acid. Experi- 
ment 6. 

MAGIC STICK, THE. See GUESS- 
ING THE Sign. 

MAGNETS, Experiments with. 
Magnets and their properties are 
described in C. C. T. *^Bar or 
horse-shoe magnets can be obtained 
at toy stores. The horse-shoe shape, 
shown in the illustration, is for 
convenience. The 
bit of metal laid 
across the ends is 
called an armature. 
If the north and 
south poles of his 
magnet are not 
marked, the experi- 
menter should first 
find out which they 
are. This can be 
done with a bar mag- 
net, by placing it in 
a little sling made of 
Horse-shoe cloth or thick paper, 
Magnet. and suspending it by 

a thread, so that it hangs horizon- 




MAGNETS 



477 



MAGNETS 



tally. No articles of iron or steel 
should be anywhere near it. It will 
presently point north and south, and 
the ends can then be marked with the 
letters N and S, or in any other way 
desired. Or the poles can be discov- 
ered at once by means of a pocket 
compass. The end of the magnet 
which attracts the north end of the 
compass magnet is its south pole. 
The same pole should repel the south 
end of the compass magnet. It is 
just as well to test the magnet, even 
if the poles are marked, for it maybe 
a French magnet ; and as in France 
the words north and south, ap- 
plied to the poles of a magnet, mean 
just the opposite of what they do 
here, the result would be confusing. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1. Magnetization. Lay a needle 
on the table, and draw one of the 
poles of the magnet over it several 
times, always in the same direction. 
The needle will become magnetic, 
the end at which the magnet pole 
began to be drawn over it becoming 
a pole of the same name. A better 
way is to use opposite poles of two 
magnets, bringing them together in 
the middle of the needle, and draw- 
ing them apart toward the ends. It 
is well to magnetize several needles 
of different sizes, for use in the fol- 
owing experiments. 

2. Try to magnetize pieces of soft 
iron — nails, for instance. It will be 
found that they became magnets in- 
stantly, as soon as the magnet 
touches them, or even when it is 
held near them ; but when it is taken 
away the magnetism leaves them, 
except, perhaps, a very slight trace. 
To detect very feeble magnetism, 
not strong enough to attract even 
very small bits of iron, use a pocket- 
compass. Apply the compass to 
the ends alternately, and if one end 
of the needle is attracted at one end 
and the other at the other, it is cer- 
tain that the object is a magnet. 

3. Magnetization by the Earth. 
Hold an iron poker nearly, but not 



quite, vertical, the lower end point- 
ing a little to the west of north. 
By testing with a compass-needle, 
as above, it will be found to be a 
magnet ; but as soon as it is held in 
any other position it ceases to be so. 
It may be made to retain some of 
its magnetism for a short time by 
striking it several sharp blows with 
a hammer while it is held in the 
position just described. 

4. A String of Magnets. Apply 
a small nail to the end of a magnet 
held in the air. The nail becomes 
a magnet for the time being, and will 
thus support another nail. In this 
way a long string of nails can be 
hung from the original magnet when 
it is a strong one. But if the first 
nail be pulled from the magnet, its 
magnetism leaves it, and hence the 
whole string of nails falls apart. 

5. Magnetic Transparency. Put 
a piece of paper between the magnet 
and a piece of iron. The iron will 
be attracted as strongly as before. 
If iron filings be scattered on a sheet 
of paper, they will arrange them- 
selves in different figures if the pole 
of a magnet be moved about under 
the paper. Substances through 
which a magnet will attract in this 
way are called " magnetically trans- 
parent." It will be interesting to 
try a large number of substances, and 
see which are magnetically trans- 
parent and which are not. The 
substances must all be thin, unless 
the magnet used is very strong. 

6. Magnetic Curves. Place a 
sheet of paper over a magnet, and 
scatter over it fine iron filings. 
Gently tap the paper, and the filings 
will arrange themselves in lines, 
following what are called the " lines 
of force " of the magnet. If two 
or more magnets be used mstead 
of one, and placed in different posi- 
tions, the lines of force become 
quite complicated. They will differ 
according as the magnets are laid 
on their sides, or held under the 
paper endwise, one pole touching 
the paper. The illustration shows 



MAGNETS 



478 



MAGNETS 



them as they appear over the poles 
of a horse-shoe magnet. To pre- 
serve these curves, prepare the paper 
by rubbing over it a piece of wax, 
the end of which has been warmed. 
The paper will thus be coated thinly 
with wax. When the filings have 
arranged themselves, hold the paper 



over a hot stove ; this will melt the 
wax, which, when it has cooled, will 
retain the filings in place. A small 
magnetic needle suspended close 
over the curves, while the magnet 
is still beneath, will set in the direc- 
tion of the curve at the point where 
it is. A method by which the filings 




Magnetic Curves. 



may be made to arrange themselves 
as they fall, without any jarring, 
and hence may be arranged directly 
on a freshly-varnished pane of glass, 
is as follows : Magnetize two needles 
of the largest size so that the point 
of one and the eye of the other shall 
be north poles. Stick them side by 
side in a piece of cork, and the free 
ends will then be opposite poles. 



Pick up a quantity of filings with 
these needles, shake off the loose 
ones, and then, holding them over 
the glass under which is the large 
magnet, jar them off a few at a time. 
Each filing has been magnetized by 
its contact with the needle, and 
hence will arrange itself properly as 
it falls. 
Drop a little melted paraffine on 




Experiment 7. 



the first layer of filings, and hold 
over them a hot fire shovel that it 
may melt and run in among them 
thoroughly. Then shake on another 
ayer in the same way as the first, 



and so on. In this way the curve! 
may be built up into the air, pre] 
sentlng many striking forms. 

7. Magnetic Poles. Take two bai 
magnets of equal strength, and hold- 



MAGNETS 



479 



MAGNETS 



ing one horizontally, hang a nail or 
key from one of its poles A. Then 
slide the other over it, the pole B 
of opposite name to the end from 
which the nail hangs being in ad- 
vance. When it comes above the 
nail, the nail will drop, the influence 
of the two opposite poles balancing 
each other. 

8. Fill a glass tube with steel fil- 
ings, or small steel brads, and mag- 
netize it as in Experiment i, taking 
care not to shake it. It will act in 
all respects like an ordinary magnet, 
but if it be shaken, so as to alter 
the position of the filings, the mag- 
netism will disappear. This is not 
because the filings are demagnet- 
ized, but because, their poles being 
turned in opposite directions, the 
effects balance each other. 



9. Take a short iron bar, a stove- 
holder, for instance, and lay it on a 
table near a compass, so that one 
end of the holder may be on one 
side of the north end of the compass- 
needle, near enough to draw it aside 
a little. Approach the north pole 
of a magnet to the other end of the 
stove-holder and the compass- 
needle will recede. The reason is, 
that at first the compass-needle 
made the iron a magnet with its 
nearest end a south pole, but after- 
ward the influence of the stronger 
magnet turned it into a magnet with 
poles reversed. If, instead of the 
northpole of the magnet, the south 
pole be presented to the stove- 
holder, the compass-needle will be 
attracted more strongly instead of 
being repelled. 



3 

A 



r^ 



5a 



55 






/ 






\ i 



86 



"-T.-* 



u 



,•--. \ 



,.J 4 



h — ^ — ^ 

18 a 




Floating Magnet Figures. 



10. Try the above experiment, us- 
ing a large mass of iron, a stove, for 
instance, instead of a small bar. 
The result will be the same, but 
will take place more slowly. The 
reason is that magnetism takes time 
to travel through iron, and this 
time may be noticeable in the case 
of a large mass like a stove. 

11. Repellent Magiiets. Tie two 
bits of iron wire to the ends of a 
thread several inches long, and 
hang them by the middle of the 
thread over a pin in the ^(\^^ of a 
mantel, or in any way so that they 
do not touch the wall. Then bring 
either pole of a magnet underneath 



the wires, and they will repel each 
other more and more, as the mag- 
net is held nearer. The reason is, 
that the wires both become mag- 
nets under the influence of the 
magnet under them, and their like 
poles being near each other, they 
repel each other. If sewing-needles 
be used instead of iron wire, they 
will continue to repel each other 
slightly after the magnetism is taken 
away, having become permanently 
magnetized. 

12. Floating Magtiet Figures. 
Magnetize any number of steel sew- 
ing-needles of the same size, so 
that their points are north poles 



MAGNETS 



480 



MAIDS AND BACHELORS 



and float them vertically in water 
by sticking them through bits of 
cork so that their eyes just project 
above the cork. The pieces of cork 
should be as small as will sustain 
the needles. Hold the north pole 
of a strong magnet above the float- 
ing needles, and they will group 
themselves in regular figures, de- 
pending on the number used. Some 
of these are shown in the figure. 
It will be seen that sometimes the 
same number of needles can form 
more than one figure, and jarring 
the vessel of water often causes one 
figure to change into another. In 
the diagram, the number of magnets 
in the figures is marked over or un- 
der each, and when the same num- 
ber form more than one figure, the 
different ones are denoted by letters. 

13. Magnetism and Heat. Heat 
a nail red-hot and then try to attract 
it by a magnet. It will be found 
impossible, but as the nail cools it 
will be more and more attracted, 
till when it has entirely cooled it 
will be attracted as strongly as ever. 

Heat a magnet red hot. It will 
lose its magnetism completely, and 
will not regain it on cooling. 

14. Magnet and Needle. A horse- 
shoe magnet must be used for this 
experiment. Magnetize a threaded 
needle by rubbing it always in one 
direction on one pole, returning it 
in an arc through the air. Taking 
the end of the thread (which may 
be only an inch or two long) be- 
tween finger and thumb, suspend 
the needle over the pole that at- 
tracts it, the point being about 
quarter of an inch from the magnet. 
Then, with a circular sweep of the 
hand, to keep the point in its posi- 
tion, draw the eye down toward the 
other pole. If this is done skil- 
fully, the needle will remain sus- 
pended horizontally just above the 
magnet. 

Electro-Magnets. A bar electro- 
magnet can be made by winding 
insulated copper wire around a bar 
of soft iron. To make horse-shoe 



magnets, which are more generally 
useful, a bent bar is similarly wound, 
but it must be remembered that if 
one pole is wound from left to 
right, the other must be wound 
from right to left. The wire will 




Electro-Magnet. 

then be arranged as if a single bar 
had been wound in the same direc- 
tion for its entire length and then 
bent. This will be seen by winding 
string around a flexible stick, and 
then bending it. 

The size of wire used depends on 
circumstances. The larger it is, 
the less resistance it has to the elec- 
tric current ; but on the other hand, 
the larger it is, the farther removed 
each successive layer of wire is from 
the bar, which lessens its effect. 
So, if the magnet is to be used in a 
long circuit, where the resistance is 
great any way, and the addition of 
more makes little difference, small 
wire should be used ; otherwise, 
larger wire. Several layers of the 
wire should be wound on : trial will 
show the best number in each case. 
The ends of the winding wire being 
connected with an electric bat- 
tery, some of the experinents d( 
scribed above may be repeatec 
(See also Telegraphs.) 

MAIDS AND BACHELORS, a gai 
played by equal numbers of bo) 
and girls. The boys go into an ac 
joining room, and then each boy an] 
each girl chooses a trade or emplo} 
ment, which must not be the saml 
for any two boys or two girls. Thl 
girls march around in a circle, eacl 



MAKING A WILL 



481 



MANOMETRIC FLAME 



making signs to represent the oc- 
cupation she has chosen ; the car- 
penter pounding nails, the washer- 
woman washing clothes, and so on. 
The boys then form in line and 
march in, each representing his 
chosen trade in like manner. The 
boys walk around the girls in the 
opposite direction and, at a signal, 
each seeks the one with the same 
trade as himself. Those left with- 
out partners are called Maids and 
Bachelors. 

MAKING A WILL, a game played 
by any number of persons, one of 
whom represents a lawyer, and the 
other his client, who is about to 



make a will. The lawyer writes 
down a numbered list of articles 
supposed to belong to his client, and 
then asks him to say to whom he 
will leave each, mentioning them 
only by number. He writes down 
what the client says, and when the 
latter has bequeathed all, the lawyer 
reads them, with the names of the 
persons to whom they have been 
left. Two other players are then 
chosen as lawyer and client. 

MANOMETRIC FLAME, Experi- 
ments with. Take a piece of pine, 
A (See Fig. i), one inch thick, one 
and one half inches wide, and nine 
inches long, and bore, one inch 




Fig, I. Manometric Flame Apparatus. 



MANOMETRIC FLAME 



482 



MANOMETRIC FLAME 



from its top, a hole an inch in di- 
ameter, and one eighth of an inch 
deep. In a block, B, of the same 
width, three quarters of an inch 
thick and two inches long, bore a 
similar hole. Bore a half-inch hole 



through the first piece in the centre 
of the shallow hole, and through 
the second piece bore two three- 
sixteenth inch holes; one straight 
through the centre, and one oblique- 
ly downward just below it, but open- 





Fig. 2 

ing into the shallow hole, 
short glass tubes E and C into the 
half-inch hole, and the oblique three- 
sixteenth inch hole, and into the 
other hole fit a glass jet, D (see 
Chemical Experiments), bent at 
right angles. All the tubes can be 
fitted by wrapping them in paper 



Manometric Flames. 

Fit coated with glue. Over the shallow 
hole in A, glue a piece I, of very 
thin sheet-rubber, and then glue the 
other block to this, so that the rub- 
ber separates the shallow holes. 
Remember that the end of the nine- 
inch piece with the hole in it goes 
to the top, and that the oblique hole 



MANOMETRIC FLAME 



483 



MAP MAKING 



in the other block, must point down- 
ward. Fasten the two blocks firmly 
together with twine. Secure the 
nine-inch piece to a board, so that 
it will stand alone. Attach to the 
largest tube a piece of large rubber 
tubing with a paper cone, G, at the 
end, like that used in some of the 
experiments on sound figures. 

From a piece of wood one foot 
long, four inches wide, and quar- 
ter of an inch thick, cut a square, 
with two rods, H and K, projecting 
from it, as shown in the illustration. 
On each side of the square fasten a 
piece of thin silvered glass M, by- 
winding twine around the top and 
bottom. Point the shorter rod 
bluntly, and with it make a dent 
for it to be twirled in, in a piece of 
wood, K, which is glued on the end 
of a brick, L. Connect the oblique 
tube C with a gas burner by rubber 
tubing. The gas will enter one side 
of the box formed by the shallow 
holes in the blocks, and, issuing at 
the jet, may be lighted. Now, if a 
note be sung into the cone, the vi- 
bration of the air on the other side 
of the sheet-rubber will push it in 
and out, and so make the gas-flame 
rise and fall. To see it rise and fall, 
however, the mirror must be used. 
Hold the mirror by the longer rod, 
and placing the shorter in the dent 
prepared for it, just in front of the 
flame, twirl it between the finger 
and thumb. When no sound is 
made, the flame as seen in the mir- 
ror will be drawn out into a long 
band of light. But when a note is 
sung into the cone, this band breaks 
up into a row of tongues of flame, 
showing that the gas-jet is jumping 
up and down very rapidly. The 
appearance of the tongues differs 
with the note sung, or the noise 
made in the cone, and many inter- 
esting experiments can be tried with 
different notes and sounds. Fig. 2 
shows some of the various appear- 
ances. 

These flames are the invention 
of Prof. Konig, a German scientist. 



and are called " Manometric," from 
the Greek manos, thin, and inetron, 
measure, because the varying den- 
sity of the air on one side of the 
rubber is, as it were, measured by 
the jumping up and down of the 
flame. 

A simpler apparatus than the 
above, which often gives good re- 
sults, is made from a tin tube nar- 
rowed at one end, so that by means 
of rubber tubing a glass tube may 
be fastened to it. The end of the 
glass tube, which is drawn out to a 
jet, is placed in the middle of a can- 
dle-flame. By singing into the tube 
and examining the flame with a re- 
volving mirror, as before, the vibra- 
tions may be observed. 

MAP MAKING. The simplest 
kind of map to make is one of a 
room, or what is called a "ground 
plan." The first thing to decide on 
is the scale, or size, of the map. 
This should depend somewhat on 
the division of the scale or rule 
used. If the inches are divided into 
tenths, then five feet may be repre- 
sented on paper by one inch, so that 
one foot would be represented by 
two-tenths of an inch. But if the 
inches are divided into eighths, then 
it would be better to represent four 
feet by an inch, so that one foot 
would be represented in this case 
also by two of the small divisions. 
The simplest kind of a room to map 
is one where all the corners are 
right angles. All that is needed is 
a " square " or " triangle " having 
one right angle, so that a " square 
corner " can be drawn from it. 
Begin at any corner of the room, 
measure to the nearest corner, and 
then draw on the paper a line of 
corresponding length. Measure the 
next side and draw the next line at 
right angles to the first. Keep on 
in this way till the starting point is 
reached. If the last angle does not 
come out a right angle, some mis- 
take has been made. 

If the room has not all its corners 
right angles, as for instance the one 



MAP MAKING 



484 



MARBLES 



shown in Fig. i,then instead of meas- 
uring tiie line A C, the dotted lines 
A B and B C must be drawn on the 
floor, taking care that B is a right 
angle. These are laid down on the 
map in light pencil lines, and then 




Fig. I. 

the points A and C are joined, after 
which A B and B C can be rubbed 
out. D E and D F are used in like 
manner. The lines can be made on 
the floor with thread attached to 
pins, or by laying down sticks. 
Some rooms have curved walls, as 




Fig. 2. 

in Fig. 2. These curves are almost 
always parts of circles, and the first 
thing to do is to find the centre of 
the circle. This is done by taking 
any two points, A B, joining them 
by a line, finding the middle and 
then drawing there a line at right 
angles to it. The same is done with 
two other points C and D, and the 
point O, where the two lines meet, 
is the centre of the circle. By 
measuring the perpendicular dis- 
tance of O from the nearest wall, its 
place may be found on the chart, 
and then by using a pair of com- 
passes the circular part of the wall 
can easily be drawn. 

To draw the plan of a whole 
house the same method is followed. 
In drawing the plan of a piece of 
ground in the same way, the plot, 
if irregular, should be inclosed as 



nearly as possible by straight lines 
at right angles, and by parts of 
circles. When these have been 




Fig. 3. 

mapped, as in Fig. 3, the irregular 
lines may be drawn by the eye. 

MARBLES. The manufacture of 
marbles is described in C. C. T. 
Many games are played with them, 
most of which are variations of 
those described below. 

Ring Game. A ring is drawn on 
hard ground with a pointed stick, or 
on a pavement or floor with chalk, 
and each player places in it one or 
more marbles, as agreed before- 
hand. A line is drawn six or seven 
feet distant, and each player shoots 
a marble from it toward the ring, he 
who comes nearest to the centre 
being allowed the first turn. This 
is sometimes called "lagging." 
The players in turn now shoot at 
the marbles in the ring, trying to 
knock one or more of them out. 
As long as any one succeeds, he con- 
tinues to play, shooting each time 
from the spot where his own marble 
rested after the previous shot. The 
marbles he strikes out of the ring 
become his property if the game is 
" for keeps," or " in earnest," but 
are given back to their former 
owners at the close, if the game is 
" for fun." When a player fails to 
strike any marbles out of the ring, 
he ceases to play, leaving his own 
marble where it lies. Any player 
may shoot at another's marble left 
thus outside the ring, instead of at 
those in the ring. A marble thus 



MARBLES 



485 



MARBLES 



hit is said to be " killed," and the 
player who kills it wins not only 
that marble but any that its owner 
has already won in the game. If a 
player's marble remain in the ring, it 
is " dead" also, and its owner must 
place back in the ring all the 
marbles he has won. The owner of 
a marble dead in either of these 
ways takes no further part in the 
game. 

Marbles are often simply tossed 
by the hand, but the proper way of 
shooting is to flip them from the 
closed hand with the thumb. The 




Manner of Shooting. 

second, third, and little fingers are 
closed tightly, the thumb bent, its 
end being caught under the middle 
finger, and the forefinger, then bent 
over so that its tip touches the 
thumb. The marble is placed on 
the forefinger nail, and then by 
straightening the thumb it can be 
sent with great accuracy by a skilled 
player. Sometimes, when the mar- 
bles are simply rolled, instead of 
being shot thus, if an opponent cries 
" Knuckle down tight I" the marble 
must be shot properly, the knuckle 
of the forefinger touching the 
ground. The shooter is often al- 
lowed various privileges if he can 
claim them before his opponent for- 
bids him. Thus, if he say " Round- 
ings," he has the privilege of shoot- 
ing from any point at the same dis- 
tance from his mark. But if his op- 
ponent says " Fen roundings " first 
he cannot take the privilege. The 
word " fen " which is used in all 
similar cases, is thought to be a 
corruption of " defend," in the old 
sense of "forbid." 

The form of the ring, the number 
of marbles placed in it, and the dis- 
tance of the starting line vary in 
different places, and the game is 



often given some fanciful name in 
allusion to the changed shape of 
the ring. Thus, forms of the game 
played in New York City are called 
" In the Fat," and " In the Soup." 

Instead of starting from a straight 
line, or "offing," the players some- 
times shoot from any part of an 
outer circle. 

Fortifications, a kind of marbles 
originally played in France. The 
ground is marked out to represent 
a fort, and the players try to knock 
the marbles fairly outside the 
lines. Each may start from any 
outside line, and make his first shot 
at the marbles in the inside figure, 
called the "fortress." In other 
respects this is like the Ring Game. 

Pyramid. Inside a ring about 
four feet in diameter are placed four 
marbles, three closely together and 
the fourth on top, forming a pyra- 
mid. Each player shoots from a 
spot previously agreed upon. Any 
one who hits the pyramid receives 
as many marbles as he can knock 
out of the ring. Any one who fails 
to hit it, gives a marble to one of 
the players, who has charge of the 
ring, and is called the banker. 
When all the marbles aie gone from 
the ring, another player becomes 
banker. The banker must furnish 
the four marbles which form the 
pyramid at the opening of each 
game. 

Bridge. This is played with a 
board, through which are cut sev- 
eral arches, each of which has a 
number over it. The players take 
turns in serving as banker, as in 
the last game. Each player gives 
the banker a marble before he 
shoots, and the banker pays him 
back a number of marbles equal to 
the number over the arch through 
which he shoots. If he does not 
shoot through an arch, the player 
gets nothing, and if he misses the 
bridge altogether, he gives the bank- 
er another marble. 

Three Holes, a marble game 
based on somewhat the same prin- 



MARBLES 



486 



MATCHES 



ciples as Golf. It is played in 
many ways, but in all three little 
boles are made in a row, each about 
two inches across and one inch deep. 
They may be three or four feet apart, 
or more, if the players are skilful. 
An "offing," or starting-line, is 
drawn about a yard from the first 
hole. The players in turn shoot 
from this line at the first hole, and 
when anyone has lodged his marble 
in it, he shoots from that hole either 
at the second or at the marble of 
any other player. Each marble re- 
mains where it stops, till the owner's 
next turn. Any one whose marble is 
struck is put out of the game. When 
the second hole is made, the third 
hole is shot at from the second, and 
he who first gets his marble into it 
wins the game, and takes all the re- 
maining marbles. But a game may 
be won also by a player who has 
gained only one hole, by striking 
his opponents and putting them all 
out. 

Sometimes, when a player has 
gained the first hole, he can make 
the others, in turn, place their 
marbles in front of that hole and 
shoot at them from the starting- 
line. If he hit, the owner of the 
marble he hits is out of the game, 
and the next in turn puts up his to 
be fired at. But as soon as the 
player misses one of the marbles, his 
turn comes to an end. 

Sometimes the player is required 
to make the three holes, one after 
another, nine times, before he wins, 
but he is allowed to shoot from as 
great a distance from each hole as 
he can measure by stretching out 
his hand, from little finger to thumb. 
This is called " taking a span." 

Battle Game, an in-door game of 
marbles played by two persons 
with equal numbers of marbles, 
representing the soldiers. Players 
sit on the floor, on opposite sides of 
the room, so that the seams of the 
carpet or joints in the floor run from 
right to left. Each player places his 
marbles as he pleases on his own 



side of the seam, or line nearest the 
middle between that and the next 
seam toward him, which is called 
his "dead line." One marble is 
used by both players to shoot with, 
alternately, and the object of each 
is to knock his opponent's men be- 
yond their dead-line. Any man 
driven beyond this line, either di- 
rectly by the shooter, or by one of 
his fellow soldiers, is dead ; and he 
who first " kills " all his opponent's 
men is the winner. The hand must 
not be advanced beyond the dead- 
line in shooting. If a player hit one 
of his own men by accident, driving 
him beyond the middle line, such 
man becomes a prisoner, and may be 
placed by the opponent as one of his 
own. 

MATCHES, Experiment with. 
Place two matches in the end of a 
small pasteboard match-box, as 
shown in the illustration, and a third 




Experiment with a Match-box. 

between them. Light the third one 
in the middle, and then ask the com- 
pany to guess which of the upright 
matches will take fire first. All 
guesses will be wrong. Neither of 
the upright matches will take fire, 
for when the lighted match has 
burned through, the others, acting 



MAY-DAY SPORTS 



487 



MELTING ICE 



as springs, will break it in two and 
throw it aside to some distance, 
putting it out. This experiment 
resembles that of the Toothpick 
Comb. 

MAY-DAY SPORTS. The chief 
sport for May-day (the ist. of May) 
is dancing around the May-pole. A 
pole, decorated with flowers, may be 
set up on any lawn, but in the 
Northern States, where May-day is 
often cold and cheerless, a smaller 
pole may be erected in the house, by 
fastening it to a box or frame, like a 
Christmas-tree. An even num- 
ber of colored ribbons may be tied 
to the top, each being held at the 
end by a child. Half of them hold 
the ribbons in their right hands and 
the rest in their left. All move for- 
ward, half going in one direction and 
half in the other. First those going 
to the right pass under the ribbons, 
and then those going to the left, so 
that finally the ribbons are woven 
around the pole. 

At a May-day party, one of the 
girls should be chosen Queen of the 
May, and should then be given con- 
trol of all tlie games. She may 
select any number of maids of honor 
to assist her. 

May- Baskets, little baskets of 
flowers hung upon the door-knobs 
of friends by children in New Eng- 
land. This must be done silently, 
for it is considered a disgrace to be 
caught. 

History. May-games have been 
common from the earliest times. 
The ancient Romans celebrated a 
festival of the kind called Floralia, 
in honor of Flora, the goddess of 
flowers. In England the Druids 
were accustomed to light bonfires 
on the hills on May-day to welcome 
the spring. On the eve of the day 
the young men of each village, both 
in England and on the Continent, 
went to the woods and cut a May- 
pole, which was decorated and set 
up in some open place, and on the 
following day all the people danced 
about it. Many of our singing 



games are thought to be derived 
from this dance about the May- 
pole. It was also customary to 
choose the prettiest maiden of the 
village as queen of the May. Early 
on May-day morning young men 
brought bouquets or boughs laden 
with blossoms, and placed them at 
some girl's door or under her 
window. These were called in 
England May-buskets (bushes), of 
which our word May-baskets is prob- 
ably a corruption. May games 
were forbidden in England in Puri- 
tan times, but many of the customs 
connected with them survived and 
were brought to this country by the 
earliest settlers. They are not ob- 
served to-day as much as they were 
fifty years ago, but in New England 
the hanging of May-baskets is still 
common, and May-poles are now 
and then put up in various parts of 
the country. Many are to be seen 
in Central Park, New York, every 
May-day, set up by the school- 
children, who march thither with 
them in procession through the 
streets. In some parts of France a 
procession of young girls, dressed in 
white, is formed on May-day. At 
their head is the prettiest, with a 
white veil, a crown of flowers, and 
a candle in her hand. They go from 
door to door, singing and asking 
from every one a contribution for 
the adornment of the churcli altar. 
Similar processions are also to be 
seen in other European countries. 
In Cornwall, England, a miniature 
ship, decorated with flowers, is 
borne about. 

MELTING ICE, Experiments on, 
I. Put lumps of ice into a pail 
of water, and, after stirring for a 
time, take the temperature of the 
water with a thermometer. It will 
be found to be at the freezing point. 
Put the pail over a fire, and con- 
tinually stir the contents. Before 
the ice has melted, test the temper- 
ature again, and it will be found 
still at the freezing point. The 
reason is, that all the heat of the fire 



MENAGERIE 



488 



MENAGERIE 



goes to melt the ice, and does not 
begin to make the water hotter till 
all the ice is melted. 

2. Mix warm and cold water to- 
gether till it has exactly the temper- 
ature of 176° Fahrenheit. Weigh a 
lump of ice, and put exactl}^ the 
same weight of the water into a 
pail. Crack the ice into small bits 
and put it into the water. When it 
is all melted the water will be at the 
freezing point. The experiment 
will not succeed exactly unless the 
pail is a bad conductor of heat, for 
otherwise the heat of the room will 
affect the water. A good plan is to 
arrange the pail as described in Con- 
duction OF HEAT. 

MENAGERIE, a game played by 
any number of persons, each of 
whom has a full pack of cards and 
takes the name of an animal, reptile 
or bird. Each player shufifles his 
pack and then places it face down- 
ward before him. The first player, 
(who is selected in any way the 
company choose) then takes his 
top card and places it, face upward, 
where all may see it. Each in turn, 
toward the left, does the same, and 
on the second and succeeding 
rounds the card that each turns is 
placed on the first, forming a 
second pile of cards for each player. 
When any one turns over a card 
that is the same as any other on the 
table that he can see, he must call 
out the assumed name of its owner, 
and its owner must call out his 
assumed name. Whichever does 
so first must give the other all of 
his cards that are face-upward. He 
who first gets rid of all his cards wins, 
but the game may be continued till 
one of the players is left with all the 
cards on the table. Instead of names 
of animals, any others may be chosen 
that the company agree upon, and 
if they are long and hard to remem- 
ber, the game is more amusing, 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

I. In turning the cards, each 
player must turn the face from him 
and not toward him. 



2. Any dispute, as to which player 
speaks first, shall be decided by vote 
of the players. 

3. When a player has turned over 
the last card of his pile, so that all 
his cards are face upward, he must 
turn the pack face downward and 
proceed as before. 

MENAGERIE, a trick in the form 
of a game. Those who have played 
the game before are taken into 
another room to represent the 
menagerie, while those who are ig- 
norant of it remain as spectators. 
One of the former, chosen as exhib- 
itor, calls the spectators, one by one, 
into the exhibition room, asking 
each as he does so what animal he 
prefers to see first. The spectator 
is led up to what looks like a cage, 
but when a cloth is removed he 
finds himself looking at his own face 
in a mirror. Each spectator re- 
mains in the exhibition room to 
laugh at those who follow. The 
cage can be made of chairs covered 
with a table-cloth or shawl, and the 
mirror should be placed at one end 
so that it looks, when properly 
draped, like a sort of window. 

Another way to play the game is 
to arrange a box about two feet 
square, and from four to six feet 
long, open at both ends, but having 
a sliding door in the middle. The 
whole is draped with cloth. Two 
spectators are admitted at a time, 
and after each has told what animal 
he wishes to see, one is told to look 
in at one end of the den and the 
other at the other. The sliding 
door is then raised and each finds 
himself gazing into the other's face. 
When no box has been prepared, 
a piano, arranged as for a kaleid- 
oscope, may be used instead, the 
sliding door being dispensed with; 
but in this case it must be ar- 
ranged to have the two spectators 
look into the den at exactly the 
same time or the trick will fail. 

MENTAL PHOTOGRAPHS, a 
game played by any number of per- 
sons with pencil and paper. A list 
of questions is first agreed upon as to 



MENTAL PHOTOGRAPHS 



489 



MERCURY BUBBLES 



the likes and dislikes of the person 
addressed, such as " What is your fa- 
vorite color ?" " Who is your favor- 
ite historical character?" and so on. 
One of the players, who acts as lead- 
er, then reads the questions aloud, 
one by one, and the others answer 
them on paper, numbering the re- 
plies to correspond with the ques- 
tions, The papers containing the 
answers are then given to the leader, 
who reads one at a time in connec- 
tion with the questions. The play- 
ers try to guess, from the kind of 
answers given, who the writer is. 
Of course the writer must try to an- 
swer the questions honestly, or else 
there will be no use in guessing from 
the answers who he is. Sometimes 
" Mental Photograph Albums," with 
printed questions, are kept by people 
who wish to record thus the feelings 
of their friends. Such albums were 
very popular at one time. 

The questions should be agreed 
upon by the company, and varied to 
suit the tastes or ages of the players. 
A sample-list is given below : 

1. What virtue do you most ad- 
mire? 

2. What vice do you most abhor ? 

3. Who is your favorite prose 
author ? 

4. Who is your favorite poet ? 

5. What is your favorite novel ? 

6. What is your favorite game ? 

7. In what are you most extrava- 
gant? 

8. How do you prefer to save 
money? 

9. What do you think the pleas- 
antest season ? 

10. What is your favorite picture ? 

11. What is your favorite statue? 

12. What is your favorite flower? 

13. What is your aim in life? 

14. What is the sweetest word ? 

15. What is the saddest? 

16. What is your favorite man's 
name ? 

17. What is your favorite woman's 
name ? 

18. What is your greatest fault ? 

19. What do you most desire ? 
Another way of playing the game 



is to have several written or printed 
sets of answers to questions such as 
those given above. These sets are 
numbered, and are held by the one 
who asks the questions. Each 
player in answer to one of the quer- 
ies gives a number at random, and 
the leader then reads the corre- 
sponding reply. This form of game 
is called in Germany Die Beichte 
(The Confession). 

MERCHANTS, THE, a game in 
which the players personate mer- 
chants, and each guesses, from his 
country and the initial letter of the 
article, what his neighbor has for 
sale. The players being seated in 
line, the one at the end begins, for 
instance: "I am an English mer- 
chant, and I sell C— ." The next in 
line must supply the article, which 
may be carpets, china, cheese, cloth- 
ing, or any production of England, 
but must be nothing not made or 
grown there, like coffee or cinna- 
mon. Any one who violates this 
rule must pay a forfeit, and his 
turn passes to the next. Whoever 
names a correct article then an- 
nounces in like manner his own 
country and the first letter of what 
he sells, and the game goes on thus, 
as long as the players choose. It 
should be played rapidly. 

MERCURY-BUBBLES. Pour into 
a large tumbler a layer of mercury 
about half an inch thick, and place 
it under a water faucet, from which 
water issues at 
high pressure. 
The glass first 
fills, and then 
little balls of 
mercury are 
seen floating 
about in it. 
These balls are 
bubbles of mer- 
cury, filled with 
water, which 

has been car- 
Mercury Bubbles, ^ig^ ^Q^„ by 

the force of the jet, and float in the 
water as soap-bubbles do in air. For 
the success of the experiment it is 




MERCURY FOUNTAIN 



490 



MICROPHONE 



necessary that the water should 
issue from the faucet with force 
enough to carry it down to the mer- 
cury through the water in the tum- 
bler. 

Bubbles can also be blown on the 
surface of mercury under water by 
blowing through a glass tube filled 
with water, whose end is just under 
the mercury surface. 

MERCURY FOUNTAIN. Provide a 
bottle with a rubber stopper having 
two holes (see Chemical Experi- 
ments). Through one of the holes 
pass a glass tube bent into U shape 
at its lower end, and through the 
other a glass tube having its upper 
end drawn out to a jet. Fill the 
bottle with water, and, placing the 
finger over the jet, pour mercury 
into the other tube. When the fin- 
ger is removed, the w^eight of the 
mercury will force the water out of 
the jet in a stream. Six inches of 
mercury in the tube will raise the 
water to a height of several feet. 

MERELLES. See Nine Men's 
Morris. 

MESMERISIVI. atrick in which one 
person pretends to mesmerize an- 
other. The one to be mesmerized, 
called the "subject," who must be 
unacquainted with the trick, is told 
to sit opposite the operator, who 
calls for two soup-plates filled with 
water. By previous arrangement, 
the bottom of one has been black- 
ened by holding it over a candle, j 
and this one is given to the subject. | 
The latter is directed to fix his eyes 
steadily on the operator's face, 
and to imitate every motion as ex- 
actly as possible. The operator 
then dips his finger in the water in 
his plate, rubs it on the bottom, and 
then draws a line on his face, j 
The subject does the same, except ; 
that as the bottom of his plate is j 
blackened, he thus makes a black I 
mark on his face. As his eyes are j 
fixed on the operator's face, he ' 
does not percieve that his finger- 
tip is black. When the operator 
has thus caused him to decorate 



his face as much as he chooses, he 
tells the subject that his will must 
be very strong, as he finds it impos- 
sible to place him under the mes- 
meric influence. The subject may 
then be shown his face in a mirror. 

A variation of this trick is called 
in France Le Singe (The Monkey). 
The one who represents the monkey 
sits opposite another person andeach 
is given a hat but the monkey's 
hat has been previously blackened 
on top. The monkey is told, as in 
the trick just described, that he must 
imitate all the motions of the one 
opposite, who from time to time 
rubs his face with his hat. In this 
trick there is no pretense of mes- 
merism, but the victim is told that 
the motions he is required to imitate 
are very difficult, and that he who 
succeeds in doing so perfectly will 
win the game. 

MICROPHONE, a device for mak- 
ing very low sounds audible at a 
distance. A simple one can be made 
by any one who possesses an elec- 
tric BATTERY and a telephone. 

Cut off two pieces of lead-pencil 
in which the lead is as large as pos- 
sible, one two inches long and the 
other half an inch. Sharpen the 
first at both ends, and split the other 
lengthwise, so that half the lead will 
be in each piece. Make a little pit 
with a sharp knife in each lead, stick 
the short pieces of pencil in holes 
in a board two inches apart, and 
support the long piece between 
them, each of its points resting in 
one of the little pits ; insert a copper 
wire in each of the holes from the 
opposite sides, so that each may be 
in contact with one of the short leads 
One of these wires leads to one pole 
of the battery, and the other, after 
passing through a telephone, to the 
other pole. The board bearing 
the pencils is fastened upright. If] 
now the telephone be held to the 
ear while some one scratches thejj 
board bearing the pencils, theB 
scratch will be plainly heard in thai 
telephone. In like manner other 



MILK-LAMP 



491 



MIND-READING 



slight noises will be reproduced, such 
as the ticking of a watch held against 
the board. In delicate forms of the 
instrument the footsteps of a fly 



walking across the board can be 
heard. The microphone will work 
better if, instead of lead-pencil, 
pieces of gas carbon be arranged 




Microphone. 



in the same way. Gas carbon can 
be obtained at gas-works, or of a 
dealer in electrical supplies, as it is 
used in electric lights. 

The reason why the sound is 
magnified in the telephone is this : 
The " lead " in a pencil (which is 
really not lead at all, but graphite), 
is a substance whose resistance to 
the electric current varies greatly 
with pressure. Scratching on the 
board, or making any other slight 
noise, joggles the pieces of lead- 
pencil. They push against each 
other, their resistance is altered, and 
hence the current passing through 
the telephone varies. Now, a vari- 
able current in a telephone produces 
a sound (see C. C. T., Telephone) 
hence the noise made on the board 
is reproduced. 

The word microphone is from 
the Greek micros, small, 2indphonem, 
to hear. 

MILK-LAMP, THE. Admit a sin- 
gle ray of light intoa darkened room, 
as explained under Prism, and with 
a mirror reflect the beam down into 
a tumbler of water with which a few 
teaspoonfuls of milk have been 
mixed. The milk will shine with a 
brilliant white light, lighting the 
whole room. 

MIND-READING, a game played 
by any number of persons, one 
of whom leaves the room, while 
the others agree on some simple 
thing for him to do. The player 



without is then called in, and one 
of the company takes him by the 
hand, at the same time thinking in- 
tently of the thing agreed upon. 
He must not move unless the first 
player moves. The player who 
went out must keep his mind quiet, 
trying to think of nothing in particu- 
lar, moving in any direction he feels 
impelled to move, and doing what- 
ever he feels impelled to do. The 
player will often do the very thing 
which he was required by the com- 
pany to do. 

People are not agreed as to the 
reason for this. Some think that 
the player's mind is really influenced 
by that of the one who holds his 
hand, others that success is reached 
by mere chance, and others still that 
the player who has his mind fixed 
on the required act thinks of it so 
strongly that he cannot help show- 
ing the other, by unconscious mus- 
cular movements, what is to be 
done. It is generally found that 
certain players succeed better when 
they are leaders, and others when 
they are led. Instead of merely 
taking hands, the player who goes 
out often holds the back of the 
other's hand against his forehead. 
Sometimes the one who goes out 
hold's no one's hand at all, but the 
entire company think very earnestly 
of what they have agreed he shall do. 

Exhibitions of mind-reading ire 
sometimes given in public by men 



MIRRORS 



492 



MISS JENNIA JONES 



who make it a business, and they do 
many wonderful things; but in such 
cases it is hard to tell whether the 
performers are honest in what they 
do, or deceive the spectators by 
some trick. A society has been 
formed in England to investigate 
mind-reading and similar things 
scientifically, and its reports say 
that it has discovered people who 
are remarkable mind-readers. For 
instance, it is claimed that one per- 
son was able to tell the taste of 
different substances placed in 
another person's mouth, and to 
draw figures thought of by other 
people. There are still many people, 
however, who think that there is no 
such thing as mind-reading, and 
that these results were produced by 
chance or deception. However this 
may be, mind-reading, when played 
as a game, as just described, fur- 
nishes much amusement. The tasks 
agreed upon should be very simple 
at first. For instance, the player 
may be required to go and stand 
before some article or person in the 
room. When some one is found 
who seems to be able to do this 
well, the difficulty may be increased ; 
thus he may be required to walk up 
to any object and lift it, to a chair 
and sit in it, or to a person and 
shake hands with him. 

MIRRORS, Experiments with. 
Some of the properties of mirrors 
are described in C. C. T., in the 
article on Light. 

1. Stand between two mirrors 
which face each other directly. A 
long line of images of yourself will 
be seen, the farthest ones vanishing 
in the distance. If a candle or 
other bright object be held in the 
hand, the number of images which 
can be traced is much larger. 

2. Place two small mirrors edge 
to edge, and open and shut them, 
like the leaves of a book, the reflect- 
ing sides being within. Place 
between them a lighted candle, or 
some other bright object, and its 
imajjes will increase in number as 



the mirrors shut together, and lessen 
as they open. (See Kaleido- 
scope.) 

3. In a dark room hold the hol- 
low side of a bright silver table- 
spoon, forming a concave mirror, 
before the face and a candle-flame 
between the spoon and your eyes. 
A small image of the flame, upside 
down, will be seen about half an 
inch in front of the spoon. Hold 
the back of the spoon toward you, 
forming a convex mirror, and a 
small erect image of the flame will 
appear behind it. 

4. Paint the outside of an argand 
lamp chimney black, and look 
through it, toward the light, at a pin- 
hole in a piece of cardboard. It 
will appear as several circles of 
light. 

5. Hold a glass of water above 
the eyes, and look up into it 
through one of the sides. The 
reflection of objects below will be 
seen in the under side of the water 
surface. 

6. Cut out a letter or design from 
thick paper and paste it on a small 
mirror. If letters are used they 
must be turned wrong side out, as 
they appear w^hen viewed in a look- 
ing-glass. If the mirror be held in 
sunlight so as to reflect a beam on 
a shaded wall, the letter or design 
will appear there in black on a 
light ground. 

MISS JENNIA JONES, a singing 
game played by any number of 
children. The following is one of 
many similar versions: A girl 
represents Miss Jennia Jones, and 
another her mother. Miss Jones 
stands behind her mother's chair or 
sits in her lap. The other players 
form a ring around the two, and 
one by one advance and sing a 
verse, the mother answering in like 
manner. The tune is the same as 
in the " Barberry Bush." For 
instance : 

" I've come to see Miss Jennia Jones, 
Miss Jennia Jones, Miss Jennia Jones, 
I've come to see Miss Jennia Jones 
And how is she to-day ? " 



MIXTURE OF LIQUIDS 



493 



MIXTURE OF LIQUIDS 



" She's up-stairs washing, 
Washing, washing, 
She's up-stairs washing, 
You can't see her to-day." 

Each player asks the same ques- 
tion, and the mother returns the 
same answer, substituting in each 
case a different occupation, as 
"cooking," " ironing," or "baking." 
At last she is said to be " sick," 
then "worse," and then "dead," 
when the players sing all together, 

" What shall we dress her in, 
Dress her in, dress her in, 
What shall we dress her in, 
Shall it be blue ? 

" Blue is for sailors, 
Sailors, sailors, 
Blue is for sailors, 
So that will never do." 

Various other colors are then 
suggested, and each is rejected in 
like manner, till white is men- 
tioned, which is accepted. 

Miss Jones is then buried, after 
which the players sing : 

" I dreamt I saw a ghost last night 
Under the apple-tree." 

Miss Jones jumps up, the players 
run in all directions, and she tries 
to catch one, who must represent 
Jennia Jones in the next game. 

History. This game has been 
long played in the Middle States. 
A similar Scotch game has for the 
name of the heroine Jenny Jo 
(Jenny Joy, or Sweetheart) so" Jen- 
nia Jones " is probably a corruption 
of " Jenny, my Jo." The game 
seems to be derived from an old 
love ballad, where the heroine dies 
of a broken heart. The reasons 
given for rejecting the different 
colors vary with the locality. Thus 
red is sometimes said to be " for 
joy," and sometimes "for firemen." 
Yellow may be " for glad folks," or 
"for Orangemen," and so on. 

MIXTURE OF LIQUIDS, Experi- 
ments on: I. Put in a bottle equal 
quantities of mercury, sand, water, 
and olive oil. When the bottle is 
shaken they will form a turbid mix- 
ture ; but when it is allowed to 
stand a few moments, they will sep- 



arate into four distinct layers, the 
mercury at the bottom, the sand 
next, the water next, and the oil at 
the top. They will remain thus, no 
matter how long the bottle is kept. 
This arrangement is sometimes 
called the "phial of the four ele- 
ments," the mercury representing 
fire, the sand earth, the water water, 
and the oil air. 

This experiment may be varied 
as follows : Use as liquids mercury, 
solutions of white and blue vitriol, 
(sulphates of zinc and copper) water, 
and alcohol. Have ready a leaden 
bullet, two balls of wax weighted 
with shot so that they will just float 
respectively in the white and blue 
vitriol, and a cork weighted so that 
it will sink in alcohol but float in 
water. Place these four in the 
bottom of a tall jar and pour in the 
liquids in the order given above. 
All the balls will rise when the 
mercury is poured in, and one will 
be left behind with each of the 
other liquids, so that the balls will 
be distributed throughout the jar at 
the close. If the lightest liquids 
are poured in first, one ball will 
rise as each is introduced. In this 
case each must be poured in through 
a glass tube, so that it will not mix 
with the others. When the glass 
tube is pulled out, it should be held 
an instant in each liquid, so that 
currents will not be formed. The 
liquids used in this case, all but the 
mercury, will mix with each other 
if stirred, so the phial cannot be 
shaken. 

2. Fill a glass half full of water, 
and then make a strong solu- 
tion of blue vitriol in about a quar- 
ter of a glass of water. Put a 
funnel in the glass of clear water, 
the end resting on the bottom, as in 
the figure, and pour into it quietly 
and slowly the solution of blue 
vitriol. Being slightly heavier than 
pure water, it will remain at the bot- 
tom of the glass if it is kept still, 
and by holding it up to the light the 
Ime between the blue liquid and the 



MIXTURE OF LIQUIDS 



494 



MONETA 



water will be seen to be quite sharp. 
Let the liquids stand in a still place 
for a week or more. In a few days 
the line between the two liquids will 
become blurred, and after a time 
they will be completely mixed, the 




blue liquid, though heavier, having 
crept up into the water. This is be- 
cause the particles of liquids are in 
continual motion, even when they 
seem to us to be still. The result of 
this motion is called diffusion. 

3. Color some bi-sulphide of car- 
bon with iodine and pour a few drops 
into a test-tube, or bottle half full of 
water. The colored liquid will sink 
to the bottom. Leave the bottle 
alone for a long time, and, though 
the liquids do not seem to mix, the 
bi-sulphide grows less, and finally 
disappears entirely. The odor near 
the bottle shows that it has evapo- 
rated, though it was under water. 

4. Make some " vegetable parch- 
ment," as described in Experiment 
4, under Sulphuric Acid, and tie 
it tightly over the large end of an 
argand lamp chimney, so that it will 
hold water. Cut about two thirds 
from the small end (see Chemical 
Experiments, directions for Glass- 
working) and fit it with a stopper or 
cork in which is a glass tube. Fill 
the vessel thus formed with a solu- 
tion of blue vitriol, and press down 
the cork so that the liquid will rise 
slightly in the tube. Suspend the 
chimney parchment end downward, 



in a glass of water. In an hour or 
two it will be seen that the liquid 
has risen in the tube. The two 
liquids have been mixing through 
the parchment, but the water, since 
it is lighter, has come in faster than 
the blue vitriol has gone out, so 
there is more liquid in the vessel 
than there was at first. The mix- 
ing of liquids through porous par- 
titions is called Osmose, from a 
Greek word meaning " impulse." 

MONETA, a game played by any 
number of persons with a pack of 
fifty cards, on which are pictures of 
coins of the United States. There 
are five each of the one-cent, two- 
cent, three-cent, five-cent, ten-cent, 
twenty-cent, twenty-five cent, and 
fifty-cent pieces, five silver dollars, 
and one each of the gold dollar, 
quarter eagle,th ree-dollar piece, half- 
eagle and eagle. Four cards are 
dealt to each player, and four are 
placed face upward on the table, 
forming the Bank. Beginning at the 
dealer's left, each in turn may ex- 
change one card at a time for two 
or more of the same value in the 
Bank. Thus, a quarter-dollar may 
be exchanged for two dimes, a three- 
cent piece, and two cents. The 
cards thus taken from the Bank are 
placed by themselves to form what is 
called the player's Safety Fund. Any 
player, if he can take nothing, may 
" build" as in the game of Casino. 
That is, he may place a piece of 
money on another, or others from 
his hand, in the Bank, saying "I 
build," provided he can take them 
at his next turn. Any succeeding 
player may take the pile if he can, 
or add to the build, but the pieces 
cannot be taken separately. If a 
player can neither take nor build, 
he must place a card with the 
others in the Bank. Four more 
cards are given to each player by 
the dealer whenever they are need- 
ed. When all the cards have been 
used, if any remain in the Bank, the 
taker of the last card chooses one. 
the player at his left another, and 






MOON 



40=^ 



MOSAIC 



so on till all are gone. Each player 
scores the money value of the cards 
in his Safety Fund, and, in addition, 
ten cents for each card. Since each 
card counts thus in addition to its 
face value, as many cards as possible 
should be taken ; thus, it is better 
to exchange a dollar for four quar- 
ters than for two half-dollars. 

MOON, Observations on the. The 
moon is described in C. C. T. The 
curious things on its surface may be 
seen by any one who has a common 
opera-glass. The best time to look 
at the moon is not when it is full, 
as people are apt to suppose, but 
when it is waxing or waning. The 
part to look at is the line that di- 
vides the bright from the dark sur- 
face. At this line, it is sunrise on 
the moon when it is waxing, and 
sunset when it is waning. Near it 
the shadows are longer and more 
noticeable, just as they are on the 
earth at sunrise or sunset. The 
outlines of the lunar mountains can 
thus be seen much more plainly 
than when the sun is shining down 
full upon them, as it is at full moon. 
By watching carefully, the shadows 
can be seen to change as the line of 
sunrise or sunset moves slowly over 
the moon's surface. The principal 
things to be noticed on the bright 
surface of the moon are the dark 
patches, which were formerly 
thought to be seas, and the bright 
streaks that run over the surface; 
but with an opera glass these are 
not nearly so interesting to watch as 
sunrise and sunset on the lunar 
mountains. 

MURIATIC ACID, Experiments 
with. See Hydrochloric Acid. 

MORA, or MORRA, A game played 
by any number of persons, who hold 
up fingers and guess at the total 
number. A leader is appointed, 
who counts three, or makes some 
other signal, and at that instant 
each holds up as many fingers as he 
chooses and shouts out his guess. 
He whose guess comes nearest to 
the total number of fingers held up, 



gains a point, and he whose points 
soonest amount to a number pre- 
viously agreed on, wins the game. 
Every one must make his guess and 
hold up his fingers at the signal, if 
he holds up any fingers at all ; but 
any one may guess and hold up no 
fingers. No one must change the 
number held up, and each must 
keep his hand raised till the leader 
can count the fingers. 

Mora is a very ancient game, and 
is played in all parts of the world, 
generally by only two persons. The 
Romans called it Digitis Micare 
(flashing or snapping with the 
fingers), and the Italian name of 
Mora, or Morra, is said by some to 
be derived from Micatura, another 
form of the Roman title. The 
French call it Mouri'-e, 

The game is a great favorite in 
China. In the Friendly Islands a 
kind of Mora is played called Liagi. 
The players sit opposite each other, 
and make signs with the hands at 
the same time. The player whose 
turn it is holds up either his open 
hand, his closed hand, or his fore- 
finger. His opponent does likewise, 
and if he chance to make the same 
sign, it becomes his turn, and neither 
gains. But if the first player can 
make one or other of the signs five 
times in succession without his op- 
ponent's doing the same, he scores 
a point. Five points win the game, 
and the score is kept by throwing 
down little sticks held in the left 
hand. 

MOSAIC, a writing game played 
by any number of persons. Each 
writes a word on a slip of paper, and 
after the slips are mixed, one of the 
players draws and reads them one 
by one. Each writes them down in 
the order in which they are read, 
and must then write a story contain- 
ing the words in that order. The 
game may be made more difficult 
by requiring the story to be within 
a specified length, or written withm 
a certain time; and it may be made 
easier by allowing the players to in- 



MRS. JARLEY'S WAX-WORKS 496 



MUGGINS, OR SMUT 



troducethe words in any order they 
please. 

MRS. JARLEY'S WAX-WORKS, a 

theatrical entertainment suggested 
by the character of Mrs. Jarley and 
her wax-works, in Charles Dickens's 
story of " The Old Curiosity Shop." 
One of the performers, dressed like 
an old woman, takes the part of 
Mrs. Jarley, a little girl represents 
Little Nell, and two boys act as at- 
tendants. The rest of the perform- 
ers represent wax figures, arranged 
singly, or in groups. When Mrs. 
Jarley wishes to exhibit a figure, she 
calls on the attendants to bring it 
forward. They stand, one on each 
side of the figure, double up its 
arms at the elbow, and then each, 
placing his hands under one of the 
figure's elbows, carry it to the front 
of the stage. The figure must hold 
its elbows stiffly at its side, but after 
reaching the front, the arms are 
straightened out by the attendants. 
After giving a comical description 
of the figure, in which Little Nell 
aids by pointing to the various feat- 
ures with her wand, as each is men- 
tioned, Mrs. Jarley orders one of 
the attendants to wind it up, which 
he pretends to do, with a large 
imitation key. At the same time 
a person behind the scenes turns a 
watchman's rattle, to imitate the 
sound of winding. The figure then 
goes through movements, practised 
beforehand, and then is set back in 
its place, as before, by the' attend- 
ants. The motions of each figure 
must be appropriate to the charac- 
ter it is supposed to represent. 
They should be simple-, and per- 
formed in a series of stiff jerks, as if 
worked by badly-oiled machinery. 
The face should be immovable, and 
the can iage stiff and awkward. The 
motion should grow slower toward 
the end, as if the machinery were 
running down, and should stop 
with a jerk in the midst of a move- 
ment. The attendants should then 
bend the arms or body back into the 
original position. 



The attendants may have dust- 
brushes, and carefully dust the fig- 
ures before bringing them forward. 
It adds to the amusement if a care- 
less attendant overturn one of the 
figures. The figure should fall stiflfly 
forward, putting out his hands just 
before he reaches the ground. This 
requires practice, but if well done is 
very effective. The attendants then 
try to lift him, one at the head and 
one at the feet, when he bends at 
the waist, and has to be straightened 
out again. With a little ingenuity, 
many laughable variations may be 
introduced. The figures should 
practise their motions until they are 
perfectly familiar, and they should 
also hear Mrs. Jarley 's account of 
them several times before the per- 
formance, otherwise some of the 
jokes, being unexpected, may cause 
them to lose their gravity. 

The stage should not be crowded 
with figures, and if there are more 
than can be ranged around it at 
once, there should be more than 
one scene. There may thus be 
shown a " Historical Chamber," a 
"Chamber of Horrors," a "Shakes- 
peare Chamber," and so on, at the 
pleasure of the performers. 

MUGGINS, or SMUT, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
usually not more than six, with a 
full pack of CARDS. The cards are 
dealt, one by one, and each player 
places his, face downward, in a pile 
before him, without looking at 
them. Beginning at the dealer's 
left, each one in order then turns up 
a card, and places it face upward, 
forming a second pile for each play- 
er, as the game goes on. When an 
Ace is turned up, it is placed in the 
middle, and on each Ace the other 
cards of its suit must be placed in 
order, as they appear, ending with 
the King. Any card that cannot be 
placed on one of the middle piles 
can be put on any other visible card 
on the table that is just above it or 
just below it in value, without re- 
gard to suit ; thus, if a Ten is turned 



MUGGINS, OR SMUT 



497 



MUMBLE THE PEG 



up, and there is no Nine on the top 
of any of the middle piles, it may 
be placed on a Nine or a Knave on 
top of any player's pile. So long as a 
player can thus dispose of his cards, 
he can continue to turn up ; but 
when he cannot do so, the turn 
passes to the next. Each player's 
object is to get rid of all his cards, 
and the one who does so first, wins, 
if he can sit till the end of the game 
without being " mugginsed." A 
person is said to be " mugginsed " if 
he breaks any of the rules of the 
game, when the players cry " Mug- 
gins," and each gives him a card. 
The rules are very strict, and should 
be studied carefully. They may be 
changed, or new ones may be added 
at the pleasure of the players. Much 
of the fun of the game consists in 
watching for some player to break 
one of the rules. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. No one must touch the table, 
or his cards, except when playing. 

2. Each player, in turning a card, 
must take it with both hands by the 
corners farthest from him, and turn 
it face outward. 

3. As long as he can dispose of 
his card by placing it in the middle, 
or on some other player's pile, he 
may continue to play ; but when he 
can no longer do so, he must place 
his card on the one of his piles 
which is face upward, and say 
" Stop;" but if a player is mugginsed, 
his play ends at once. 

4. A player may not be mugginsed 
for not saying " Stop," till the next 
one has begun to play. 

5. Before a player turns his card 
he must look at the top card of his 
face-upward pile, and see whether 
that can be disposed of. If it can, 
he must place it, and then look at 
the one under it, and so on ; and in 
no case may a card be turned over 
before this is done. 

[For instance, suppose A has on 
top of his face-upward pile a Knave 
and under it a Nine. B's pile shows 



a Knave on the top. A looks first 
at his own Knave, and, seeing that 
it cannot be played, turns up a card, 
which proves to be a Queen. He 
places this on B's Knave, and must 
then place on it his own Knave be- 
fore turning another card. The 
Nine which is thus exposed cannot 
be played, so he turns up another 
card, which we will suppose to be a 
Ten. He places this on B's Knave, 
and then puts on his nine before 
turning again. If he turns up a card 
that cannot be played, he must lay 
it down, saying " Stop."] 

6. If a card can be played either 
in the middle of the table or on a 
player's pile, it must go in the mid- 
dle ; and if it can be put on any one 
of two or more players' piles, it 
must go on the one that is first met 
in moving to the left around the 
table. 

7. When a player's cards are all 
face upwards, he must turn the pile 
over (saying " Flop " as he does so) 
and begin again. 

8. When a player comes to his 
last card he must, before playing it, 
turn it over three times in the air, 
saying " Muggins " each time, then 
blow it thrice and snap it once. 
When it has been played, he must 
not utter a sound during the rest of 
the game. If he does, he is " mug- 
ginsed," receives a card from each 
player, and enters the game again. 
The other players may do what they 
choose (without touching him) to 
make him speak or laugh aloud. 

9. In giving a card to a " mug- 
ginsed " player, each shall draw 
such card from the bottom of his 
back-upward pile, and the mug- 
ginsed player shall place them un- 
der his own pile. 

The game is sometimes called 
Smut, from the old custom of black- 
ening the face of the last player to 
get rid of his cards. 

MULBERRY BUSH. See Bar- 
berry Bush. 

MUMBLE THE PEG (corrupted 
into Mumbledypeg), the name of 



MUMBLE THE PEG 



498 



MUMBLE THE PEG 



two different games. L An out- 
door game played by a number of 
players usually not exceeding four, 
each with a stick of wood about 
eighteen inches long and two or 
three inches thick, pointed at one 
end, called a peg. Each player, in 
an order which is decided before 
the game begins, throws his peg so 
that it may stick in the ground. He 
has but one throw at a time, whether 
he succeeds or not, and in either 
case his peg remains where it sticks, 
or lies, till his next turn. Any 
player, in making his throw, may try, 
in doing so, to knock the peg of 
another player out of the ground, or 
to move any peg that is lying on the 
ground. If he succeed in doing 
either of these, and at the same time 
put his own peg into the ground, he 
must knock the peg so overturned 
or moved as far as he can with his 
own peg, and then try to stick his 
own peg into the ground three times 
before the owner of the other can 
do so once. If he succeed, the owner 
of the other peg is out of the game ; 
if not, that owner holds his peg in 
his hand till his next turn. The 
game goes on till only one player is 
left, who is the winner. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. A peg shall be judged to be in 
the ground when any other peg can 
be placed under it without touching 
it. 

2. When a peg is thrown, it shall 
touch no other before leaving the 
player's hand. This game is very 
old. The Greeks played it, calling 
it Kandalimos. In England it is 
known as Loggats ; in France as 
Riding to Rome, and in Germany 
each locality has a different name 
for it. The Swiss call it Hornig- 
geln (probably The Horn Yell), the 
Austrian s Schmerpecken (probably 
Greasy Sticks), the Suabians Stockles 
(Little Sticks), and the Bavarians 
Pickeln (Picking). 

A game somewhat like it is played 
on horseback by the Turcomans and 



other tribes, in Central Asia and 
India. The Oriental name is Neze 
Baze, and the English call it Tent 
Pegging. A peg like those used in 
fastening tents is driven into the 
ground, and the players in order try 
to knock it out with their lances as 
they ride past. 

II. A game played by any num- 
ber of persons, each with a pocket- 
knife, one of whose blades is open. 
Each player, in turn, tries to throw 
his knife so that it will stick in the 
ground or the floor. Any one who 
does not succeed in three trials is 
out of the game. Any knife shall 
be judged to be in the ground when 
the handle of another knife may be 
held under it without touching it. 
When all have tried, holding the 
knife in one way, another way is 
tried, and so on, till only one player 
is left, who is the winner. The ways 
of throwing the knife, and the order 
in which they come, are different in 
different places. The following or- 
der, or something like it, is com- 
mon : 

I. The knife is held by the handle 
and thrown as in Fig. i. 




Fig. I. 

2. The same, holding the knife 
by the blade. 

3 and 4. The same, with the left 
hand. 

5, 6, 7, and 8. The four preceding, 
making the knife turn a complete 
somersault before striking the 
ground. 

9. The knife is laid lengthwise on 



MUSICAL 



499 



MUSICAL GLASSES 



the palm of the right hand, with the 
blade pointing outward. 

lo. Same, with the blade inward. 

II and 12. Same, with knife held 
across the palm, the blade pointing 
first to the right and then to the 
left. 

13-16. The four preceding, with 
the left hand. 

17-24. The eight preceding, mak- 
ing the knife turn over before strik- 
ing. 

25. Place the point on the knee, 
and throw as shown in Fig. 2. 




^ifi^ 



\xys:^;x^^^;xn^ 



Fig. 2. 

26. The same, with the handle on 
the knee. 

27 and 28. The two preceding, 
with the left hand and knee. 

These are all sometimes repeated 
with the blade at right angles with 
the handle. 

These two games derive their 
names from the custom, still some- 
times followed, of making the loser 
in each pull out with his teeth a 
small peg, which is so driven into 
the ground by the winner that the 
end is level with the surface. 

MUSICAL, a solitaire game of 
CARDS, played with one full pack. 
An Ace, Two, Three, and Four of 
any suit are placed in a line, and 
under them, respectively, a Two, 
Four, Six, and Eight, thus : 



1234 
2468 
In playing, any card may be placed 
on one of the lower line, if the num- 
ber of the former's pips is the sum 
of those on the card it is placed on 
and the one just above ; thus, a Three 
may be placed on the Two, or a Nine 
on the Six. The Knaves count as 
II, the Queens as 12, and the Kings 
as 13. If the sum of the two cards 
exceeds 13, the excess only is 
counted ; thus, Queen and Four, in- 
stead of being 16, counts only as 3. 
Any card that cannot be used is 
placed aside to form Stock, and the 
top card of the Stock can be used 
at any time. The Stock can be 
twice shuffled, and played again. To 
win, all the cards must be placed on 
the piles, when the top cards in the 
lower row will all be Kings. This 
game is entirely one of chance, and is 
not often played successfully. It is 
called Musical because the cards are 
laid out in two scales of numbers. 

MUSICAL FRIGHT. See Going 
TO Jerusalem. 

MUSICAL GLASSES. If the mois- 
tened finger be rubbed around the 
edge of a glass finger-bowl or an or- 
dinary goblet of thin glass as in the 
illustration, a clear musical sound 
will be produced. This note is 
higher or lower according to the 
size of the finger-bowl and the 
amount of water in it. By choosing 




Musical Goblet, 
bowls of different sizes and pouring 
in water to difTerent depths, it is pos- 
sible to tune them to the notes of 
the musical scale, so that tunes can 
be played upon them. A set of 
glasses of the same size may even 



MUSICAL NEIGHBORS 



500 



MY SHIP 



be tuned thus simply by pouring 
different quantities of water into 
them. The giass sounds for some 
time after the finger has left ; hence 
chords can be played by rubbing one 
after another. When the player 
wishes a note to cease, he touches 
with his finger the rim of the glass 
which is producing it. 

MUSICAL NEIGHBORS, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
half of whom are blindfolded. The 
blindfolded players are seated in 
a row, alternate chairs being left 
empty. The others stand in the 
middle of the room till commanded 
by the leader to be seated, when 
they sit quietly in the empty chairs. 
The leader then gives the command 
"Sing," and plays some well-known 
air on the pianoforte. The un- 
blindfolded players sing it together 
till the leader says " Silence," and 
then each of the blindfolded players 
is required to name his right-hand 
neighbor. Each who does so cor- 
rectly changes places with the one 
whose name he guesses, who must 
submit to be blindfolded in turn. 
The unblindfolded players then 
stand in the middle of the room 
again, and the game is repeated as 
many times as the players please. 

To make the game a success, all 
the players must begin to sing at 
the word of command. The voices 
may be disguised at pleasure. The 
game may be varied by allowing 
each to make whatever noise he 
pleases, instead of singing a song. 

MY AUNT'S GARDEN. See Re- 
peating Games. 

MYHOUSE, YOUR HOUSE, agame 
played by any number of persons 
sitting around a table, in the middle 
of which is a circle about five inches 
in diameter. The circle may be 
drawn with chalk, or made of pa- 
per. A slip-noose is made at one 
end of a cord about a yard long, 
and the other end is tied to a cane. 
One of the players holds the cane, 
and the slip-noose is laid around 
the chalk circle. When he says 



" My House," each of the other 
players must touch the tip of his 
forefinger to the table inside the 
circle; and when he says " Your 
House," each must withdraw his 
finger and place it on the table in 
front of him. The commands " My 
House," "Your House," may be re- 
peated as fast as the speaker pleases, 
and in any order he wishes. Any 
one who does not put his finger in 
the circle at the command " My 
House," or who takes it out except 
at the command "Your House," 
must pay a forfeit. When the player 
with the cane says " Your House," 
he is allowed to tighten the noose 
quickly, trying to catch any fingers 
that remain in the circle. If he 
succeed, the person whose finger is 
caught must take his place, and the 
game goes on. 

MY LADY QUEEN ANNE, a guess- 
ing game played by any number of 
persons, who sit in a circle. A ball 
is hidden about the dress of one of 
the players, and another, who stands 
within the circle, guesses where it 
is. First the players in the ring 
sing: 

" My Lady Queen Anne, she sits in the sun, 
As fair as a lily, as brown as a bun. 
The King sends you three letters and bids 
you read one." 

The one in the middle answers: 

" I cannot read one, unless I read all, 
So pray you, , deliver the ball. 

If the person guessed have the 
ball, he changes places with the one 
in the centre, otherwise the game is 
repeated till a successful guess is 
made. 

MY SHIP, a game played by any 
number of persons, some of whom 
have not taken part in it before. 
Each player is asked what his ship 
is laden with, and is expected to 
mention an article beginning with 
the first letter of either of his names. 
Thus if his name is John Smith, he 
may say, for instance, " Jews-harps," 
"Sunfish," "Jelly," or "Soup." Those 
who have not played before are not 



MYTHS 



501 



NEEDLES 



told of this condition, and ^/henever 
they mention something beginning 
with the wrong letter, are told that 
the ship cannot enter port with such 
a cargo. They are usually much 
puzzled by observing that a cargo 
proper for one person is not allow- 
able for another. This game is 
played under several different 
names. In one form, each is asked, 
" What will you take to the picnic," 
and if the answer does not begin with 
the proper letter, the player is told 
that he will not be allowed to go. 

MYTHS, a guessing game played 
by any number of people. One 
player begins by asking a question of 
some other, relating to an historical 
or fabulous event he has in mind. 
The person addressed must reply in 
such a way that the questioner will 
know whether he has guessed it cor- 
rectly or not. If correctly, the 



questioner lets him know by a 
second remark, but without giving 
information to the other players. 
If incorrectly, the questioner must 
guess to what event the player 
thought he referred. If he cannot 
do so, he must tell the company 
what he had thought of, and the 
event thought of by the questioned 
player becomes the " myth." For 
instance, A says " How do you like 
shoes ?" B answers " Made of Glass. " 
A. " Not Cinderella." C. " When I 
want to catch a train, they are in- 
valuable "(guessing correctly that A 
referred to Jack the Giant Killer's 
"shoes of swiftness"). A. "Then 
you should enter for a pedestrian 
contest" (thus letting C know that 
his guess is correct). 

Whenever two players have 
guessed correctly, the subject must 
be told to all the others. 



N 



NAPOLEON. See Euchre. 

NECKTIE PARTY, a young peo- 
ple's entertainment, at which each 
girl wears a colored apron, and pro- 
vides a necktie also of the same 
material. The neckties are placed 
in a room by themselves, and each 
boy, as he enters, must choose one 
and put it on. The girl who wears 
the corresponding apron is under 
his special charge for the evening. 
He must see that she enjoys her- 
self, take her in to supper, and see 
that she reaches home in safety. 
Of course, the same number of boys 
and girls should be invited, 

NEEDLES, Experiment with. 
Having cut out a piece of cork 
somewhat like that in the illustra- 
tion, thrust the point of a needle 
through one side, at A, and let its 
eye rest loosely on the other, at B. 
Stick the point of a second needle 
into the cork through the eye B of 
the first, and stick a third by the 
side of the second. Hold the mid- 
dle of the first needle in the flame 



of a candle, by means of the cork, 
and as it expands with the heat it 
will push the needle in its eye out 




Experiment with Needles. 

of the perpendicular, as will be seen 
by comparing it with the third 



NEGRO MINSTRELS 



502 



NEWMARKET 



needle, which remains upright. On 
taking the cork away from the can- 
dle, the horizontal needle contracts, 
and the other becomes upright again. 
NEGRO MINSTRELS. In such a 
performance, young people some- 
times lose much by omitting details 
that at first may seem obvious or 
well known. In seating a minstrel 
troupe, do not do it in a straight 
line, but in a semi-circle with the 
ends towards the audience. Put 
the funny men at the ends, and in 
the middle put the " interrogator," 
or serious man, whose dignity is in- 
tended to make the others seem the 
funnier. Let the funny men ask 
their conundrums of him, and let 
him do no interrupting; the funny 
men must do all that. It's well for 
the interrogator to repeat each 
conundrum very distinctly. If 
" Bones " or " Sambo," asks in negro 
dialect, " Mr. Johnsing, why am you 
like de mudder of General Jawge 
Washington ?" let the interrogator 
repeat very distinctly, " Why am I 
like the mother of General George 
Washington.^" Unless this is done, 
the question of the conundrum is 
very apt to be lost amid the laugh- 
ing and confusion of such a show. 
In some shows, the interrogator re- 
peats the answer too. 

Although the piano has no place 
in a minstrel show, there is no se- 
rious objection to playing it behind 
the scenes in connection with the 
music made before them. 

NEWMARKET, or STOP, a game 
of cards, played by any number of 
persons with a full pack, from 
which the Eight of Diamonds has 
been removed, and with four addi- 
tional cards, called the pool. The 
pool-cards, which are the Ace of 
Spades, King of Hearts, Queen of 
Clubs, and Knave of Diamonds, are 
laid face upward, by themselves. 
Before the deal, each player places 
counters agreed on on whichever of 
the pool-cards he pleases. Not all 
the pool-cards need have counters 
on them, and several players may 
place their counters on the same 



card. The entire pack is dealt, one 
at a time, including an extra hand, 
which is placed face upward where 
all can see it. The eldest hand 
now leads, generally the lowest card 
he holds of any suit where he has 
the King, or if he has no King, of 
his longest suit, and he declares the 
card as he leads. (Ace ranks below 
the Two.) The holder of the next 
higher card must then play and 
name it, then the holder of the card 
above that, and so on till no one 
else can play. He who plays the 
last card, which is called a stop- 
card, takes the trick and leads for 
the next. The stop-cards are the 
four Kings, because there are none 
higher ; the Seven of Diamonds, and 
the cards just below those in the 
extra hand, because the next higher 
ones are not in the game ; and all 
cards just below any which have 
been already led. He who first gets 
rid of all his cards receives from 
each of the other players a counter 
for every card remaining in that 
player's hand. During the game, 
whenever a card is played corre- 
sponding to a pool-card, he who 
plays it takes all the counters on the 
pool-card, and any player not getting 
rid of a card corresponding to a 
pool-card must place upon the 
pool-card, for next hand, as many 
counters as are already upon it. 

A card cannot be declared until 
it is shown. 

Only one card can be declared at 
a time. 

There is often a doubt whether a 
stop-card has been declared in time 
to stop another one declared appar- 
ently simultaneously. In this case, 
and in all others, the dealer is 
referee ; or the player at his left, if 
the dealer is interested ; or the 
player next at the left, if the ques- 
tion happens to concern the two 
first mentioned. 

The game, as above detailed, is 
subject to the following variations : 

Sometimes the pool-cards are all 
hearts, and the ten is added. 

Sometimes the eldest hand alone 



NEWMARKET 



503 



NINE MEN'S MORRIS 



puts counters on the pool-cards, or 
"garnishes," putting one counter 
on the lowest, two on the next, etc. 

Sometimes the " extra hand " is 
dispensed with. Beginners had 
better do so. 

Sometimes the Seven of Dia- 
monds is an " arbitrary" stop-card, 
that is, can be played whenever its 
holder pleases, he thus seizing the 
lead. 

Sometimes the Nine of Diamonds 
is also made an arbitrary stop-card. 
In this case, when one arbitrary 
stop-card is played, the holder of 
the other can follow with it if he 
sees fit. The use of the two arbi- 
trary stop-cards is recommended. 

Sometimes the choice of suit for 
arbitrary stop-cards is auctioned off, 
the dealer acting as auctioneer, and 
the eldest hand making first bid. 

If no bids are made, diamonds re- 
main the suit. If another suit is 
bid for, diamonds may then be bid 
for also. After the auction : 

{a) The successful bidder places 
the counters he bids, in the centre 
of the table. 

(d) The player first "out" takes 
the aforesaid counters. 

(c) If the players adopt that form 
of the game in which the pool-cards 
are all hearts, the other suit of the 
same color as the one chosen by 
auction, is entitled, as played, to the 
counters on the pool-cards. 

The skill shown in this game is 
in knowing what to lead, and in 
remembering what has been played, 
so as to know when any card be- 
comes a stop-card. The preferable 
leads are from suits in which the 
leader holds a stop-card. When the 
lead cannot be kept in this way, aces 
and the cards just above those in the 
extra hand should be led. Arbitrary 
stop-cards should not generally be 
played early in the hand. 

History. Newmarket is derived 
from an old form of the game called 
Pope Joan, in which the Nine of 
Diamonds was called the Pope, and 
entitled the holder to certain priv- 



ileges. In the play " A School for 
Scandal " Sir Peter Teazle speaks 
of " playing Pope Joan with the 
Curate." Pope Joan is the heroine 
of a legend of the Middle Ages, 
which tells how a woman, dressed 
as a man, became a priest and was 
finally elected Pope. The name 
Newmarket is probably from the 
English town of the same name. 

NIGGER BABY. See Roly Poly. 

NINE HOLES. See Roly Poly. 

NINE MEN'S MORRIS, a game 
played by two persons, each of whom 
has nine pieces, or men on a board 
like that in the illustration. 

None of the pieces, which are of 
two colors, are on the board at the 
opening of the game. The players 
take turns in placing their men, one 
at a time, on the places marked with 
numbers in the diagram, and after- 
ward in moving them from one 
spot to the next, in any direction, 
along the lines. Each player's ob- 
ject, both in placing the men and 
in moving them, is to form a row of 















<? 


4 




6 


a 






7 




8 


9 








12 13 




11 


1:6 


14 

'-a 






17 








20 




2.1 








2 


3 






.4 



Morris-board. 

three of his own pieces; and when 
this is done, he may take from the 
board any hostile piece (called 
"pounding"); but he must not dis- 
turb a row of three, if there is any 
other that he can take. Usually he 
who first takes off all the hostile 
pieces wins, but sometimes, when a 
player is reduced to three men, he 
loses the game. The game is played 



NItRiC ACID 



5^4 



NIVERNAISE 



also on a board with diagonal lines 
at the corners, and sometimes, when 
either player has had all his men 
captured but three, he is allowed to 
" hop," that is, to play a man to any 
vacant spot on the board. 

The player must avoid crowding 
his men together, and try to place 
them on the corners. He should 
devote himself to blocking his op- 
ponent, as well as to getting his own 
men into lines. When possible, it 
should be arranged to make more 
than one line in successive moves. 
When by moving one man back- 
ward and forward two lines can be 
alternately made and broken, the 
player is said to have an " open 
and shut." 

Thus, if a player has pieces at 17, 
20, 23, 21, and 24, by moving that at 
17 to 18 and then back again, he can 
continue to make rows of three till 
his opponent can bring up a piece 
to block him. 

History. Nine Men's Morris was 
played at least five hundred years 
ago, and the board then in use was 
exactly like the one in the illustra- 
tion. In France, it was played with 
pawns or men, but in England com- 
monly with stones. Shepherds in 
England sometimes cut the lines in 
the ground and make holes for dots. 
Shakespeare, in describing a stormy 
season, says : 

"The Nine Men's Morris is filled 
up with mud." The game was 
called also Five-penny Morris, and 
Nine-penny Marl. The French call 
it Merelles, which is from a Greek 
word meaning divisions or par- 
titions. Morris may be from the 
same word, but it is also the name 
of a dance, and some think that the 
game was so called from moving 
the pieces backward and forward as 
in a dance. 

NITRIC ACID, Etching with. 
Nitric acid is described in C. C. T, 
To etch with it on copper or brass, 
warm the metal, and then rub it 
with a piece of wax so that the 
metal will be covered with a thin 



layer of wax. After it has cooled, 
draw in the wax the design to be 
etched, with the point of a knife, a 
needle, or any other sharp instru- 
ment, taking care to reach the sur- 
face of the metal. Then cover the 
metal with strong nitric acid. Soon 
bubbles will appear along th( 
scratches made by the knife. Let 
the metal stand a few minutes 
longer, and then wash it in watei 
and remove the wax, either by heat- 
ing and rubbing, or with turpentine. 
The design will be found etched 01 
eaten into the metal surface. This 
is because Nitric Acid does not act 
on wax, hence the wax layer protects 
the metal, except where the layer 
was scraped away with the knife. 

Pour Nitric Acid on a bit of 
" Dutch leaf," which is very thin 
brass or bronze used by sign painters. 
The leaf will dissolve in the acid. 

Put a bit of real gold leaf in each 
of two test-tubes or bottles, pouring 
Nitric Acid on one, and Hydro- 
chloric Acid on the other. 
Neither will dissolve the gold, but 
if the contents of the bottles be 
mixed, the gold will dissolve. This 
mixture of acids is called aqua regia 
(Latin for royal Water), because it 
is the only liquid which is able to 
dissolve gold. 

NITRIC OXIDE, Experiment with. 
To make Nitric Oxide gas, ar- 
range the apparatus exactly as for 
making hydrogen, except that 
copper clippings are put into the 
bottle instead of zinc, and Nitric 
Acid poured into the water instead 
of sulphuric. When a jarful of the 
gas has been collected over water, 
remove the jar and turn it mouth 
upward. The gas, being lighter 
than air, will rise; but, though it was 
colorless in the jar, as soon as it 
enters the air outside it appears as a 
cloud of reddish brown vapor. The 
reason of this is that it unites with 
the oxygen in the air to form another 
gas called Nitric Peroxide, whose 
color is red. 

NIVERNAISE, a solitaire game 



NOBLESSE OBLIGE 



5<^5 



NOKSENSE 



of CARDS played with two full 
packs. The player lays the first four 
cards played in his left hand in a 
vertical line, and four more on nis 
right, and then places six piles of 
four each, one pile at a time, in a 
row between. The Aces and Kings 
in the side rows, or on top of the 
piles, are now removed and placed 
in two rows below, Aces in one row, 
Kings in another. Any Ace or 
King thus uncovered in a pile is 
placed in like manner. The player's 
object is to build up families by 
suits, downward from the Kings and 
upward from the Aces. He may 
use, in building, the top card of any 
pile, or any card in the side rows. 
Vacancies in the side rows are filled 
either from the top of the piles or 
from the pack. When all possible 
cards have thus been used in build- 
ing, four more are placed on each 
pile, and so on till the pack has been 
used. The piles may be shuffled 
and relaid till the families are com- 
pleted, the number of times the 
player is obliged to do so being a 
measure of his skill. 

NOBLESSE OBLIGE, a game of 
CARDS played by three persons with 
a Euchre pack. The dealer, who 
is determined by the lowest cut, lays 
aside the four Aces, and then deals 
the other cards one by one, placing 
the last, or twenty-eighth card, face 
upward on the table. The dealer, 
if he can, leads a card of the same 
suit as the twenty-eighth card. If 
he cannot, the lead passes to the 
next, and if the next cannot, to the 
third player. Who ever leads thus 
places the twenty-eighth card in front 
of him and counts it as a trick. 
Play now goes on, as in Whist, but 
with the following differences : If 
a player hold both court cards and 
plain cards in any suit, he cannot 
win a trick second or third hand un- 
less a court card has already been 
played in that trick. If no court 
card has been played, he must play 
his lowest plain card, losing the 
trick. If he hold only plain cards, 



or only court cards, in any suit, 
there is no limitation on his play. 
The winner of the last trick takes 
also the four Aces. 

The score is one for each trick 
won (including the twenty-eighth 
card), two for the four Aces, and 
one for each court card held at the 
opening of the hand. The player 
with the highest score wins, each 
hand being a game by itself, or the 
players may agree on a number of 
points to be played for. 

RULES OF THE GAME, 

1. If there is a misdeal, the deal is 
lost, and passes to the next player 
on the left. 

2. If a card be exposed, it is 
named, and the dealer takes posses- 
sion of it, placing it on one side. 
The exposer loses one point. 

3. A revoke, or attempt to win a 
trick where the rules forbid, loses 
the offender all score for honors, 
and the tricks gained, by thus break- 
ing the rules. 

4. The dealer must see all penal- 
ties enforced. 

5. Only the trick preceding the 
one in play may be seen. 

Noblesse Oblige is a French prov- 
erb, meaning " Rank imposes obli- 
gation," that is, more is expected of 
a noble than of a common citizen. 
The name is given to this game on 
account of the obligation not to 
take the trick which the holding of 
" nobles " (court cards) imposes on a 
player. 

NONSENSE, a game played by 
any number of persons, sitting in a 
circle, who make a comical sentence 
by each furnishing one part of 
speech. One of the players begins 
by whispering to his left-hand neigh- 
bor an article: the latter whispers 
to his left hand neighbor an adjec- 
tive, and then in turn the others 
whisper in like manner a noun sin- 
gulur, a verb, an adverb, a number, 
an adjective, and a noun plural. 
Each in order then tells the word 
whispered to him, and a sentence is 



NORSEMAN 



506 



NORSEMAN 



thus formed; for instance, " The 
solemn grasshopper ate gleefully 
forty-three infuriated lobsters. " The 
parts of speech may be varied to 
suit the players. 

They are sometimes printed on 
cards of different colors, the nouns, 
for instance, being blue, the adjec- 
tives red, and so on. These are 
dealt to the players, and then e^ch 
one reads a card of the proper color 
at random. A kind of solitaire 
may be played with these cards, 
the player arranging them in rows, 
backs upward, in the proper succes- 
sion of colors, and then turning 
them over. 

The following are examples of 
other arrangements of the parts of 
speech. Article, adverb, adjective, 
noun, adverb, verb, article, noun. 
Adverb, adjective, noun-plural, 
verb, noun-plural, conjunction, verb, 
adjective, adjective, noun. 

NORSEMAN, a game of cards 
played b)'' two to ten persons, with 
a full pack. Only a Euchre pack 
of 32 cards is used in playing, the 
remainder, called the " Low Pack," 
being used only to determine the 
trump. The two-handed game will 
be described first. The deal is de- 
cided by cutting, the lowest card 
dealing. In both cutting and play- 
ing the cards rank as in Ecarte, 
the Ace ranking between the Ten 
and the Knave. The dealer gives 
each player five cards, one at a time, 
and then cuts the Low Pack for his 
opponent to turn the trumps, of 
which there are two, one in a red 
and the other in a black suit. The 
top card of those remaining on the 
table is turned for the first trump, 
and the next one of a different color 
for the other. Each of these trump 
suits counts as such only in its own 
color. Thus, if Spades and Hearts 
be the trumps, a Spade will take any 
Club, but is treated like a card of 
an ordinary suit with regard to 
Hearts and Diamonds. When the 
trumps are turned, each player has 
the privilege of discarding three 



cards or less, and supplying their 
places from the stock. The elder 
hand discards first, and if he take 
less than three, the dealer may take 
what he leaves in addition to his 
own three. Either or both may re- 
fuse to discard at all. Both must 
discard before either take cards 
from the stock. After the discard, 
each of the players throws two dice, 
one with red and one with black 
spots. The sum of the spots on the 
two black and two red dice, respec- 
tively, determine two cards, one in 
the black and one in the red trump 
suit, which are the highest trumps 
in those suits for that hand. These 
are called Rovers, or SpecialTrumps. 
Thus, if one player throw a red 
five and a black four, and the other 
a red four and a black six, the Nine 
of the red trump suit and the Ten of 
the black trump suit are the Rovers. 
The Ace counts as either one or 
eleven, and the Knave as twelve. 
The King and Queen are never 
Rovers. If the sum of the spots in 
either color should be less than 
seven, there is of course no Rover 
in that color, since seven is the low- 
est card in the Euchre pack. When 
the dice of one color are Ace and 
Ace, or Ace and Two, the trumps 
of that color are degraded to the 
rank of ordinary cards for that 
hand. When Spades are trumps, 
the Knave of Spades is called 
" Norseman," and will take any card 
in the pack. Norseman is the only 
card that is a trump outside its own 
color. 

Each player now looks at his 
hand, and if either has both Rovers, 
or Norseman and a Rover, he wins 
the game at once, without playing 
a card. This is called winning " by 
hand." If Norseman be also a 
Rover, his holder also wins by 
hand. If no one wins thus, the 
elder hand leads, and the cards are 
played as in Euchre, or any ordinary 
two-handed game of cards. 

Suit must be followed if possible ; 
if not, a trump of the same color as 



NORSEMAN 



507 



NORSEMAN 



the card led must be played. If 
neither of these things can be done, 
a card of the other color may be 
thrown away. Norseman and the 
Rovers may be " reneged," that is, 
their holder is not obliged to follow 
suit with them, but may play them 
when he pleases. Each trick taken 
counts one, and the same player 
continues as dealer till one of them 
has won the game, either by making 
five points, or " by hand," as de- 
scribed above. 

Four - handed Norseman. Two 
play as partners against the other 
two, partners sitting opposite, as in 
Whist. Five cards are dealt to 
each. The dealer and elder hand 
throw the dice to determine the 
Rovers. The players discard in 
order, beginning with the elder 
hand. He and the next player may 
not discard more than three apiece ; 
but if they take less, the others may 
each take what his partner left. 
Thus, if the best player takes two 
cards and the second none, the 
third may take four and the fourth 
six. In this way twelve cards, all 
that remain in the stock, may be 
taken. In other respects the game 
is played like two-handed Norse- 
man. 

Three handed Norseman. The 
Low Pack is not used. After deal- 
ing, the dealer places the stock be- 
fore the player on his right, who is 
called Poney, and cuts. Poney 
turns up the top card of those re- 
maining on the table, as first trump, 
and the next of the other color as 
the other trump. The intermediate 
cards, if there be any, he takes into 
his own hand, where they are called 
Reserved Cards. Each player must 
discard his whole hand, or none at 
all, and if Poney discard, he must 
reckon the Reserved Cards as part, 
or all, of the cards he takes in. 
Should there be more than five Re- 
served Cards, he may return which 
he pleases to the stock. If Poney 
does not wish to discard, he must 
lay aside all his Reserved Cards. 



The holder of a Rover, or Norse- 
man, must lead it at the first op- 
portunity. 

Norseman as a Round Came. 
Any number less than ten may 
play, and five cards are dealt to 
each from the full pack. Each 
player has two dice, one with red 
and one with black spots. To de- 
termine the dealer, the cards are 
thrown around, and he to whom the 
first Ace falls, deals. The trumps 
are determined before dealing, the 
player on the dealer's right cutting 
while the dealer turns them up. 
After the deal, each player throws his 
dice, and each one's dice, with those 
of the dealer, determine the Rovers 
for his own hand. Before playing 
begins, each one in turn, beginning 
with the eldest hand, either lays his 
Rovers face upward on the table, 
securing one for each, or declares 
that he has none. Rovers thus laid 
down remain so till played. In 
play, the Rover last played is al- 
ways considered the highest. Thus, 
if one player put down the Ten of 
Hearts, it being a Rover, and the 
next the Three of Hearts, it being 
also a Rover, the latter takes the 
trick, unless some one else plays 
another Heart, Rover, or Norse- 
man, afterward. Each trick counts 
one point, except the last, which 
counts two. Whenever Norseman 
is played, its holder scores two at 
once. The first player to score ten 
wins the game. The elder hands 
thus have an advantage, which is 
offset by that given the younger 
hands in allowing the later Rover 
always to take the earlier. The 
deal does not pass to the left, but is 
determined anew each hand, as at 
first. 

Instead of turning trumps before 
the deal, there may be no trumps 
at all, in which case the sum of the 
red spots, for instance, on the dice 
thrown by any player and the dealer 
makes a red card of either suit in 
that player's hand a Rover. In this 
case, two Rovers of the same color 



NORTHERN SPELL 



508 



OATS-PEAS-BEANS 



count only one point, though they 
must both be laid on the table. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. A misdeal loses the deal, and 
one point is deducted from the deal- 
er's score. 

2. No hand can be altered after 
all have discarded. 

3. A revoke or a neglect to play 
a trump of the same color, where it 
is possible, loses the offender one 
point. 

4. The dice must remain on the 
table, as thrown, throughout the 
hand. 

5. A card played out of turn can- 
not be taken back. 

6. Any player may count the 
stock, or ask about exposed or 
played Rovers (This rule applies 
particularly to the Round Game). 

NORTHERN SPELL. See Knurr 
AND Spell. 

NOUGHTS AND CROSSES. See 

TiT-TAT-TO. 

NOVELS. A game played by any 
number of persons, with pencil and 
paper. The players usually sit 
around a table, and after they have 
agreed on the title of the novel 
they are to write, one of them be- 
gins it, writing a given number of 
lines. He then folds over the paper 



so as to hide what he has written, 
and then hands it to the player on 
his left, telling him only the last 
word he wrote. That player must 
continue the story as well as he 
can, and then each in turn takes it 
up, each writing the same number 
of lines and each telling his neigh- 
bor the last word. The last player 
must write an ending to the story, 
which is then unfolded and read 
aloud. If it is desired, more than 
one story can be written at the 
same time, each beginning and end- 
ing at different players from the 
others. Besides the subject of the 
novel, the names of its hero and 
heroine can also be agreed upon 
beforehand, 

NUMBER ELEVEN, a SOLITAIRE 
game of cards, played with one or 
two full packs. The cards are played 
so as to form two rows, six in one and 
and five in the other. Any two cards 
on the table, the sum of whose pips 
is II, are now laid aside, and their 
places filled from the pack. If 
King, Queen, and Knave are in one 
row, or of one suit, they also may 
be removed. This goes on till the 
pack is out, or there are no cards 
on the table which can be removed. 
If the former is the case, the player 
has won. 







OATS - PEAS - BEANS, a game 
played by any number of children, 
who join hands in a circle and 



dance about a boy who stands 
within. As they dance they sing 



Oats, peas, beans and bar - ley grows. Oats, peas, beans and bar - ley grows. 







nor no - body knows how oats, peas, beans and bar - ley grows. 



Then they stop, and letting go of 
hands sing to the same tune. 

Thus the farmer sows his seed, 
Thus he stands to take his ease, 
Stamps his foot and claps his hands, 
And turns around to view his lands. 



While the first line is sung, each 
swings his hands as in sowing seed ; 
during the second, each rests his 
hand son his hips ; during the third, 
each stamps his foot and claps his 



OBSERVATION 



509 



OBSERVATION 



hands ; and in the fourth, each turns 
around. Then joining hands again, 
they circle about as before and sing 
to the same tune, 

Waiting for a partner, 
Waiting for a partner, 
Open the ring and take one in, 
And kiss her when you get her in. 

The circle then stops and the boy 
within selects a girl from the play- 
ers, whom he kisses, and who niust 
then stand beside him in the ring. 
Joining hands again, the players 
circle about them, saying : 

Now you're married you must obey, 
You must be true to all you say, 
You must be kind, you must be good, 
And make your husband chop the wood. 

The boy now joins the other play- 
ers in the circle, leaving the girl 
alone within, and the game begins 
anew, the only difference being that 
a boy is chosen from the circle in- 
stead of a girl. 

This game is said to be unknown 
in Great Britain, but it is common 
in most of the other countries of 
Europe. It is mentioned by the 
chronicler Froissart in the 14th cen- 
tury. In France, Spain, and Italy, 
there are also verses telling how the 
farmer reaps, and describing his 
other labors. Some people think 
the game was originally played by 
peasants in seed-time, in the belief 
that it would make the corn grow. 

OBSERVATION, a game played 
by any number of persons, each with 
a pencil and paper. Any number 
of articles, of any kind are placed 
on a table in the centre of a room, 
and the players, forming in line, 
march into the room, around the 
table, and out again. Each then 
writes on his paper the names of as 
many of the articles on the table as 
he can recollect. The longest list 
is then read, and the reader scores 
for each article as many points as 
the number of players who have not 
its name on their lists. As each ar- 
ticle is read, its name is crossed off 
by all who have it, and, when the 
longest list has been exhausted, any 
remaining names on other lists are 



read in like manner. When a dis- 
pute arises as to whether any article 
has been sufficiently or properly de- 
scribed, it may be decided by a ma- 
jority vote, or by an umpire, not one 
of the players, especially chosen for 
the purpose. 

Unconscious Counting, a kind of 
Observation, in which each player 
tries to tell at a single glance the 
number of dots on a piece of paper. 
The dots, from 10 to 15 in number, 
are made in irregular order, and the 
paper is then shown quickly to each 
player for so short a time that it is 
impossible for him to count them 
one by one. The best plan is to 
make large dots and hold the paper 
up for an instant where all can see 
it at once. If it is shown to each 
separately, it is hard to make the 
intervals of time exactly equal, and 
therefore strictly fair to all. He 
who comes nearest to the right 
number scores a point; or if the 
nearest guess is made by two or 
more players, each scores a point. 
Another group of dots is then made 
and shown to the players. 

After this has been repeated a 
number of times agreed on before- 
hand, he who has made most points 
is declared winner. The one who 
makes and shows the points does 
not take part in the guessing, and 
is chosen from among the players 
for each game. Another method 
of scoring is to give each player the 
difference between his guess and 
the real number of dots. The one 
who has the fewest points at the 
end of the game is then the winner. 
To avoid the influence one player's 
estimate might have on the others, 
each must write his guess on a piece 
of paper before any of the guesses 
are announced. 

The power of thus estimating, or 
unconsciously counting a number of 
objects, is largely increased by prac- 
tice. An English arithmetician 
named Dase could thus give the 
number of sheep in a flock, or of 
books on a shelf, up to thirty, at a 



ODD AND EVEN 



510 



OLD STAGER 



single glance. Nearly any one is 
able thus to count three or four, and 
sometimes more, and the number is 
easily extended. In practising un- 
conscious counting, the number of 
dots should be gradually increased, 
and arranged at first in regular or- 
der, the arrangement being made 
more and more irregular. 

ODD AND EVEN, a game played 
by two persons, one of whom holds 
any number of small objects, while 
the other guesses whether that 
number is odd or even. If he guess 
correctly, he wins. The objects are 
usually such as can be held in the 
closed hand, such as pennies, beans, 
or pebbles, but fingers may be held 
up instead. 

History. This amusement is very 
old. The Romans called it Par 
Impar (Odd-Even) and the Greeks 
named it also Zuga e Azuga (Yokes 
or no Yokes), for what reason is un- 
known. The name may be a cor- 
ruption, since the similar Sanskrit 
words yuj and ayuj mean odd and 
even. 

OLD MAID, a game played by any 
number of persons, usually not more 
than six, with a pack of cards, from 
which three of the Queens have been 
taken. The remaining Queen, usu- 
ally the Queen of Hearts, is called 
the Old Maid. The cards are dealt 
one by one, and then each one 
throws on the table all the matches 
or pairs of like cards that he has in 
his hand. Each then, beginning at 
the dealer's left, draws a card from 
the hand of the player at his right. 
If the card so drawn matches any 
that he has, the two are thrown on 
the table; otherwise the turn passes 
to the player at his left. When all 
the cards have been matched ex- 
cepting the Old Maid, the player 
holding that card is said also to be 
the Old Maid. Much of the amuse- 
ment of the game is caused by the 
efforts of the player who finds the 
Old Maid in his hand so to place 
her that she will be drawn by his 
neighbor. Sometimes the matches, 



instead of being thrown out all at 
once, are played in turn, one at a 
time, so that, if one player begins to 
draw before his neighbor, he may 
break one of that neighbor's pairs 
in drawing. Sometimes, instead of 
taking out three Queens at the begin- 
ning, a card is drawn from the pack 
at random and laid aside, and at the 
end of the game one of the mates 
of that card is left in a player's 
hand, the other two having been 
matched. This form of the game 
is not so interesting as the other, as 
in it no one knows what card is Old 
Maid. 

Packs of special Old Maid cards 
are sold at toy stores, bearing all 
kinds of comic figures, including 
one of the Old Maid. With these 
the game is played in the same way 
as with ordinary playing cards, save 
that no cards are thrown out of the 
pack at first, as there is but one Old 
Maid. 

In Germany this game is called 
Schwarzer Peter (Black Peter), 
though it is not like our game of 
that name. Instead of a Queen, 
one of the Knaves is used, and the 
player left with it has his face black- 
ened with soot. 

OLD SLEDGE. See All Fours. 

OLD STAGER, THE, a solitaire 
game of cards played with two 
packs. Three rows of thirteen cards 
each are first laid down. Whenever 
a King falls directly below a card of 
the same suit, it may be removed to 
the adjoining place and the space 
left is filled with the next card. 
The Aces, as they come, are laid in 
a row, and families are piled on 
them in order, by suits, ending with 
the Kings. For this purpose only, 
the lowest row of cards can be used, 
except when there is a free space 
below some other card, when that 
card may be taken. Cards allowable jij 
to play 'thus are called free cards. ■ 
Any free card can also be placed on ■ 
any other free card just above or 
just below it in value, following suit. 
Useless cards are laid aside to form 



OLD WITCH 



OLIVER TWIST 



stock, of which the top card can be 
used to build, or to fill a space in 
the rows. The next card on the 
pack can also be used for these pur- 
poses, except when the vacancy is 
in the top row, when only the stock- 
card may be used. If the families 
are not formed by the time the 
pack is gone, the three bottom cards 
of the stock may be taken in hand 
and played as before. 

OLD WITCH, a game played by 
not more than ten children, one 
representing a mother, one a witch, 
and the others daughters, of whom 
the eldest is often called Sue, and 
the others are named after the days 
of the week, Sunday, Monday, Tues- 
day, etc. The mother, going out, 
charges her eldest daughter to take 
care of the rest. The witch then 
calls, and steals one of the children. 
This is repeated till all the children 
are gone. The witch then names 
each child after some eatable (often 
after different kinds of pies), and 
offers them to the mother to eat. 
The latter recognizes her children 
one by one, and sends them home. 
There are many varieties of this 
game, some of which are played 
partly in verse. Instead of Sue, a 
servant is left in charge in some 
versions of the game. The witch 
gets the servant out of the way by 
telling her that the kettle is boiling 
over. On the mother's return, the 
eldest daughter, or servant, when 
asked where the stolen child is, 
offers all kinds of excuses, suggest- 
ing that he is down cellar or under 
the table. The methods of playing 
the game are many, but its main 
features are the same everywhere. 
Sometimes the witch is named 
"Old Mother Cripsy Crops," or 
" Hipplety Hop." 

History, The game of Old Witch, 
in various forms, is common in 
Europe, and is probably many cen- 
turies old, being a sort of drama 
founded on a fairy tale. There are 
many German forms, of which one, 
"Old Urschel," corresponds nearly 



to ours. In Sweden the mother is 
called Lady Sun. In some countries 
a hen and her brood are substituted 
for the mother and children. Some- 
times the children represent pots of 
honey, as in the game of Honey- 
Pots. 

OLIVE OIL, Experiment with. 
Pour a little oil into a glass of water. 
The oil will float on the surface of 
water. Pour some into a glass of 
alcohol, and the oil will sink. The 
object is now to make such a mix- 
ture of alcohol and water that the 
oil will neither rise nor sink in it, 
but stay wherever it is placed. This 
is done by trying various propor- 
tions. When the right one has been 
obtained the oil will sink just below 
the surface and form a perfect 
globe. By pouring more of the 
mixture above it, the globe of oil 
is made to float motionless in the 
centre of the fluid. The reason the 
oil forms a globe is that that is the 
natural form of any mass of liquid 
when there is nothing to pull it out 
of shape. 

OLIVER TWIST, a game played 
by any number of persons, with a 
pack of cards on which are pict- 
ures representing the characters in 
Charles Dickens's story of "Oliver 
Twist." Each character is on two 
cards, except Oliver Twist and the 
Artful Dodger, who have but one 
each. All the cards are dealt to the 
company, one by one, and then the 
holder of Oliver shows it to the 
company and returns it to his hand. 
Each now places on the table all 
the matches, or duplicates, in his 
hand, and then each in turn, begin- 
ning at the dealer's left, draws a 
card from his right-hand neighboi- 
and throws on the table the match, 
if any, that it makes with a card in 
his own hand, as in Old Maid. 
When anyone draws Oliver, he 
shows it and calls "More," where- 
upon each of the others gives him a 
card. The holder of Oliver need 
not matcli unless he chooses. The 
holder of Artful Dodger is allowed 



ONE OLD OX 



512 



OXYGEN 



to draw two cards at a time, save 
when he is also the holder of Oliver. 
The game goes on till no cards are 
left but Oliver and Artful Dodger, 
when the latter must be thrown on 
the table, and the holder of Oliver 
wins. 

ONE OLD OX. See Repeating 
Games. 

ONE, TWO, AND THREE, a game 
played by any number of people, 
one of whom leaves the room, while 
the others agree on three objects or 
persons. These are numbered, and 
the player outside is then called in 
and asked what he will do with one, 
two, and three. If he decides to do 
what is possible under any circum- 
stances, another person takes his 
place; but if one or more of his 
wishes are impossible, he pays a 
forfeit for each and goes out again. 

For instance, the company may 
decide on the steeple of Trinity 
Church (one); the president of the 
United States (two); and a goat 
(three). On being called in, the 
player who left the room says, " I 
will paint One sky-blue; I will en- 
close Two in a dry-goods box and 
ship it to Australia; and I will hold 
a conversation in Latin with Three" . 
The first two, though absurd, are 
possible, but the third is not, under 
any circumstances whatever, so the 
player pays one forfeit and leaves 
the room again. 

OPERA GLASS, Experiment with 
an. It is an interesting experiment 
to find the magnifying power of 
an opera-glass, which can easily be 
done as follows: Hold one tube 
of the glass in front of one eye and 
nothing before the other eye, so 
that two images of the object looked 
at will be seen at once, one natural 
size and the other magnified. It 
can then be easily estimated how 
much higher one is than the other. 
In ordinary opera-glasses the height 
is magnified from two and a half to 
three times. Field-glasses some- 
times magnify as much as seven 
times. To tell the magnifying 



power still more exactly, a tape- 
measure should be looked at through 
the glass in the same way. If one 
foot on the magnified image is as 
long as two feet eight inches, for 
instance, on the natural image, the 
glass magnifies two and two-thirds 
times. Instead of a tape-measure a 
brick wall may be looked at, or any- 
thing having regular divisions. 

OTI-DAMA. See Jack-stones. 

OXYGEN, Experiments with. 
(Names and processes merely allud- 
ed to in this article are fully ex- 
plained in chemical EXPERIMENTS. 
Oxygen gas is described in C. C. T.) 
To make it, equal quantities of pow- 
dered chlorate of potash and black 
oxide of manganese are mixed, and 
a glass phial about two inches long is 
one-third filled with the mixture. 
The neck is closed with a cork, 
through which passes a tube, whose 
other end is arranged to collect 
the gas under water. The bottle is 
supported on its side by two blocks 
of wood so that it can be heated by 
an alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner 
placed under it. Heat first the part 
of the mixture nearest the delivery- 
tube. If the gas is made too rapid- 
ly, remove the flame for a moment. 
The oxygen can be stored in a gas- 
holder, if desired, and kept for future 
use. The oxygen made in this way 
comes from the chlorate of potash 
(see Potash, C. C. T.), and is sepa- 
rated from the other elements in that 
substance by the heat applied to it. 
The only use of the oxide of man- 
ganese is to cause the gas to escape 
slowly and regularly, thus prevent- 
ing an explosion; but how it does 
this has not been satisfactorily ex- 
plained. 

Another way of making oxygen 
is to heat red oxide of meroury in 
the apparatus just described. Oxy- 
gen is a little heavier than air, so if 
the jar in which it has been collected 
over water be turned right side up 
very carefully, the gas will not es- 
cape if the air is still; but it is bet- 
ter to lay a piece of glass over the 



OXYGEN 



513 



OXYGEN 



mouth of the jar. The glass may- 
be slipped under the jar before it is 
removed from the water, which will 
prevent any loss while it is being 
turned over. 

Experiments. Light a splinter of 
wood, and after it has burned a few 
seconds, blow out the flame, so as to 
leave the end glowing, and then 
plunge it into the oxygen. It will 
light again with a puff, and burn 
brightly. This is because pure oxy- 
gen feeds flame much better than 
when it is diluted with nitrogen, as 
in ordinary air (See Air, C. C. T.). 
For the same reason any substance 
will burn more brilliantly in oxy- 
gen than in air. Substances used 
are best held in the oxygen in a 
deflagrating spoon, but may be in- 
troduced in any other way. Most 
substances so burned produce dis- 
agreeable fumes, which may be 




Deflagrating Spoon in Jar. 

kept from escaping by covering the 
jar with a piece of pasteboard 
through which the handle of the 
spoon passes: The things that burn 
with the prettiest effects are : char- 
coal (a piece the size of a pea ; light 
it by holding the spoon in a gas- 
flame before putting it into the oxy- 



gen); sulphur (observe the same 
directions) ; and iron. The iron 
should be in the form of fine wire, 
or a steel watch-spring may be used. 
Heat the end of the wire and then 
dip it in powdered sulphur, some 
of which will stick. Then light the 
sulphur, and thrust the iron into the 
oxygen. The burning sulphur will 
presently light the iron, which will 
burn, sending out brilliant sparks. 

Oxygen will not burn in air, as 
may be seen by trying to light a jet 
of it from a gas-holder. But it will 
burn in hydrogen, as can be shown 
thus, with a little skill. Cut the 
bottom from a bottle and hang it by 
its neck from a nail. Through the 
cork pass a tube from a gas-holder 
full of hydrogen, and regulate the 
flow so that when the gas is lighted 
at the bottom of the bottle it will 
burn there quietly. Do not light 
the gas till the air is all driven from 
the bottle. From another gas-holder 
pass a stream of oxygen through a 
glass jet, and raise this jet into the 
bottle. As the jet passes through 
the burning hydrogen, the oxygen 
issuing from it will take fire, and it 
will continue to burn in the hydro- 
gen within the bottle. The reason 
of this is that when most things 
burn they unite with the oxygen of 
the air; but as oxygen of course can- 
not unite with itself, it is necessary 
to surround it with some other gas 
for which it has a liking. Instead of 
hydrogen, ordinary illuminating gas 
may be used, and instead of a bottle, 
a lamp chimney, or anything of glass 
that is open at both ends. In all 
cases the upper end •must be tight, 
so that the hydrogen may not escape 
at the top. 



P'S AND Q'S 



514 



PANTOGRAPH 



P'S AND Q'S, a game played by 
any number of persons. Each in 
turn gives the name of a historical 
personage, and his left-hand neigh- 
bor names the place where that per- 
sonage has gone to fight. The lat- 
ter must be either the native place 
of the character, or the name of 
some battle in which he took part, 
and must begin with no letter pre- 
ceding P and Q in the alphabet. 
Each player warns the next to 
''mind his P's and Q's." If this 
rule is broken, the offender pays a 
forfeit, and the next player names a 
place which does not violate the 
rule. For instance : 

1. "Julius Csesar has gone to 
fight at"— 

2. " Pharsalia. Grant has gone to 
fight at"— 

3. " The Wilderness." "Sherman 
has gone to fight at" — 

4. " New Hope Church." 

This last requires a forfeit, since 
its first letter, N precedes P in the 
alphabet. 

The fifth player supplies a proper 
answer; for instance, "Savannah," 
and the game goes on till the players 
are tired, or a sufficient number of 
forfeits have been collected. 

PAIR OF SHOES, a game played 
by any number of persons with two 
packs of cards, one bearing pictures 
of men of various trades or profes- 
sions, and the other pictures of 
shoes. In both packs each picture is 
borne by two cards. At the beginn- 
ing of the game the shoe cards are 
in a pile on the table, face upward. 
Four of the other cards are dealt to 
each player, and four on the table, 
face upward. When any player's 
cards are gone, the dealer gives him 
four more, and so on till the pack is 
exhausted. Each player, in turn, 
takes from the table any card which 
he can match from his hand, places 



the two cards by themselves, and 
then takes the top shoe-card. If he 
can match nothing, he places his 
card on the table with the others, 
not taking a shoe-card. If a player 
have a card with a policeman on it 
(called a police-card) he can either 
take all the cards on the table, and 
two shoe-cards, or lay it on the table, 
saying " Police," when all the players 
must place their cards on the table, 
and the holder of the police-card 
may take as many matches as there 
are, with a shoe-card for each. But 
if he call " Police" and any player 
have the other police-card, the latter 
may take the former and three shoe- 
cards. Each player keeps his shoe- 
cards by themselves, and at the 
chose of the hand throws out all 
those not in pairs. The rejected 
ones are used in the next hand, and 
so on till they are all paired, when 
the holder of the most pairs of shoes 
wins. Any hand comes to an end 
when the shoe-cards have been all 
taken, no matter whether the other 
cards have all been dealt or not. 

PALMISTRY. See Fortune- 
telling. 

PANTOGRAPH, an instrument 




Pantograph. 



PANTOGRAPH 



515 



PANTOMIME 



for copying maps or drawings, or 
enlarging or reducing them in size. 
A simple one may be made by fast- 
ening four pieces of wood together, 
as shown in the diagram. They 
can turn freely on each other at C, 

B, G, and H. At A is fixed a lead- 
pencil, and at C a metal point. The 
end F is fixed to the table, so that 
it will turn freely. Now, if a map be 
placed under C and a piece of blank 
paper under A, and if C be moved 
along the lines of the map, A will 
draw a similar map twice as large. 
If the pencil be placed at C and the 
metal tracer at A, the map will be 
reduced in size one half. These 
proportions may be altered by 
changing the positions of the points 
G and H where the pieces of wood 
are hinged together, so long as the 
opposite sides of the figure C, G, 
H> B, are always kept equal. 

All parts of the pantograph should 
be supported at the same distance 
from the table, so that the motion 
may be even. The best way is to 
form the hinges at G, H, and B by 
screwing in ordinary screw-eyes from 
below, and to put in a fourth close 
by the pencil A, or a sharpened 
screw with two nuts, as L, may be 
used. The tracer C may be a steel 
nail of such a length as just to clear 
the table when the machine rests 
on the screw-eyes, and the end F 
turns on a steel nail in a small block 
of wood screwed to the table. The 
heads of these screws must be sunk 
in the block so that they do not pre- 
vent the stick from turning, or the 
block may be of the shape shown at 
K, with the fastening screws at the 
sides. If the pieces of wood be 
marked off m inches and fractions 
of an inch, it will be easy to vary the 
size of the drawmg. This can be 
done by bearing in mind that the 
line drawn by the point A is always 
as much larger than that drawn by 

C, as the Ime A B is larger than C 
H. Hence if the drawmg at A is to 
be made four times as large as that 
at C, the hinge must be moved half 



way up to C. Since the opposite 
sides of the diamond must be kept 
equal, G must also be moved half 
way down to B. 

A simpler pantograph than this, 
though it is not nearly so exact, can 
be made as follows : Take an elas- 
tic band from one eighth to one 
quarter of an inch wide and cut it 
open, so as to make a single straight 
piece. Stick a pin through each 
end, and drive one of these pins into 
the table. Between the pins tie the 
elastic band tightly around a lead- 
pencil, as near the point as possible. 
If the free pin be now moved over 
the lines of any figure with the right 
hand, the pencil will trace the same 
figure on a reduced scale. The 
elastic m.ust always be straight from 
pin to pin. It will be necessary to 
press lightly on the pencil with the 
left hand, to make it mark distinct- 
ly, but care must be taken that it is 
allowed to follow its own course. 
The drawing is always reduced, 
never enlarged, by this kind of pan- 
tograph. The scale depends on the 
position of the pencil ; if it is half- 
way between the pins, the drawing 
will be reduced to one half the orig- 
inal size ; if it is at one fourth the 
distance from the fixed to the free 
pin, the drawing will be one fourth 
the original size, and so on. 

PANTOMIME, acting without 
speech. An entire play may be given 
m pantomime, or charades may be 
acted in it. Inany case, the plot must 
be simple and the incidents such as 
to be easily understood by the specta- 
tors without the aid of words. Pan- 
tomimes generally depend for their 
efifect largely on stage machinery, 
by whose aid strange or comical 
transformations take place. Many 
of these can be arranged only on a 
large stage, but others are more sim- 
ple. For instance, objects can be 
made to disappear suddenly from the 
stage by fastening thread to themand 
jerking them to one side; and a ta- 
ble is easily provided with one or 
more holes in the top through which 



PAPER BANDS 



516 



PAPER BANDS 



an unseen performer takes away ar- 
ticles or supplies their places with 
others. Similar devices of many 
kinds may be arranged, and any one 
practised in sleight-of-hand tricks 
can introduce many variations. 

In acting a pantomime, certain 
gestures and expressions are almost 
always used to express the same 
passions or feelings ; thus, Anger 
is represented by scowling fiercely 
and clenching the fists ; Hate, by 
turning away the head and making 
a motion as if pushing some one 
away with the palm ; Love, by press- 
ing the hands over the heart, with 
or without kneeling; Sorrow, by 
weeping or wringing the hands, and 
so on. Pointing with the finger is 
a gesture often used, and a ques- 
tion is denoted by raising the eye- 
brows. In comic pantomime, boards, 
or pieces of pasteboard, with words 
printed on them in large letters, 
are sometimes displayed where an 
idea cannot be conveyed by signs. 
Noises are often introduced, such 
as the barking of dogs, whistling, 
or crowing. 

The custom of " mummers " or 
maskers, persons dressed in odd 
costumes parad ing about the streets, 
which is still kept up in some places 
in this country on Fourth of July 
or New Year's Day, and in Europe 
at the Carnival, was a sort of pan- 
tomime. The illustration shows 
some ancient English maskers. 



PAPER BANDS, Experiments 

with. Take three strips of paper, 
each about an inch wide and six 
inches long, and make them into 
bands by pasting the ends together. 




Paper Bands. 

In pasting the first bring the ends 
together squarely to make an ordi- 
nary ring, as at i in the illustration; 
with the second, give one end a 




English Maskers. 

twist before pasting it to the other, 1 two twists, as at 3. Cut each band 
as at 2 ; and with the third, give it I in two lengthwise along the dotted 



PARLOR RACE 



517 



PATCH ESI 



line. From the first will be obtained 
two separate rings as at i'; from 
the second, a single ring of half the 
width and twice the diameter, as at 
2' ; and from the third, two rings 
linked together, as at 3'. 

PARALLELS. See Proverbs. 

PARLOR RACE, a, game played 
by four to eight persons, with 52 
cards, each bearing the name of a 
race-horse. Each name is on four 
cards, so that there are thirteen 
horses in all. The horses are num- 
bered from I to 13. There are 
three ways of playing the game, 
called respectively the Flat Race, 
the Hurdle Race and the Scrub 
Race. 

Flat Race, Enough of the cards 
numbered 13 are thrown out to 
make each player's number the 
same, and the remainder are then 
divided equally. Each names his 
favorite racer, which should be the 
one of which he has most in his 
hand. The eldest hand leads a 
card, calling out its number, and 
the next player puts down any card 
he pleases, adding its number to that 
of the previous card, and calling out 
the sum. Each in turn does the 
same, until some one plays a card 
which makes the sum 31. This 
card is called the winner of the heat, 
and its holder leads for the next 
heat. Every player must win if 
he can. If a player have no card 
that will make the sum 31 or less, 
he must say " I pass," and the next 
in order must play. If all the play- 
ers pass, it is a " dead heat." When 
the cards are out, they are dealt 
again, and the game goes on till 
some racer has won four heats. 
The player who named it as his 
favorite wins the game. It makes no 
difference whether a player's favor- 
ite wins in his own hand or in that 
of some one else. Often a player 
is obliged to win a heat with an- 
other's favorite. By watching the 
cards as they fall, it is possible for 
a player to guess in whose hands 
his favorites are, and to play in such 



a manner that they will be obliged 
to win. 

Hurdle Race. The sum of the 
cards played may be as large as 33, 
but no card w^hich makes it either 
29 or 30 must be played. The 
number 31 is called the Hurdle, 
and a racer making the sum 31 is 
said to "stumble on the Hurdle," 
and is not allowed to win the heat. 
When the sum is 28 or less, any racer 
making it either 32 or 33 *' leaps 
the Hurdle" and wins the heat. 
When a horse stumbles, the next 
player counts from the number 
from which the stumbler started. 
No player is allowed to pass to 
avoid stumbling. In other respects 
the Hurdle Race is like the Flat 
Race. 

Scrub Race. All the cards are 
dealt. The leader lays down a card, 
and those like it must be played at 
once. If any player has more of 
them than any other player, he 
takes the trick but if each have one, 
or if two have two a piece, the trick 
belongs to no one. This is entirely 
a game of chance. 

PATCHESI, or PARCHESI. A 
game played on a board like the 




one in the illustration, by two, three, 
or four persons, each with four 



PATCHESI 



518 



PATCHWORK STORY 



pieces, or men, and one die. The 
players sit around the board, and 
each places his men in the circle 
at his right. Thus, the player who 
sits at A places his men in B, and 
so with the others. In the beginning 
The players throw their dice, with- 
out taking turns, until some one has 
thrown a five. That player enters 
one of his men on the colored space 
at the left of his circle ; for in- 
stance, if it be A, he enters his 
man at C. The players then take 
turns in throwing, beginning at his 
left hand. Each makes one throw 
at a time, but no one can play till he 
throws a five, when he enters one 
man, like the first player. When 
his next turn comes, he moves his 
man forward a number of spaces 
equal to the number he throws 
with his die. If he throw another 
five, he may enter another man, 
or move the one on the board for- 
ward five spaces, as he pleases. 
Each player moves his men around 
the board, going from right to 
left, till they reach the red path 
directly in front of him (called his 
gravel path), and then up this path 
into Home. (A's gravel path is 
indicated by the letter G). 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

I. If a player throw a six, he plays 
twelve, and must throw again. A 
second six gives him the same privi- 
lege ; but if he throw six a third 
time in the same turn, he must 
place his foremost man in his circle 
to be entered again as at the begin- 
ning of the game. 

II. If a player can move any of 
his men into a space already occu- 
pied by a single man belonging to 
an enemy, he may do so, and take 
that man up, placing him in the 
circle where he began the game, 
where he must be entered as before. 

III. No man can be taken up 
when he is on a colored space 
(called a safety point) ; and as only 
one man at a time can occupy such 
a point, a player loses his turn if 



the only moves he can make bring 
him into occupied safety points. 
[As the space on which a player 
enters his men is a safety point, he 
cannot enter if it is occupied either 
by an enemy's man or one of his 
own.] 

IV. Two of the same player's 
men in one space form a blockade, 
which neither he nor any one else 
may pass, and neither of the men in 
a blockade can be taken up. 

V. More than two men cannot be 
placed on the same space. 

VI. When a player is on his 
gravel-path he cannot move if he 
throw a number larger than is nec- 
essary just to take him home. [For 
instance, if he is on the fifth space 
from the end, he cannot play a six, 
and if he is on the last space, he 
can play only an ace.] 

The game of Patchesi resem- 
bles Russian BACKGAMMON, from 
which it differs by requiring always 
the same number to enter, by al- 
lowing not more than two men on 
one point, by giving a separate 
space to each player when he 
throws off his men, and by the use 
of safety points and blockades. 
Some of these differences make it 
more complicated, but the fact that 
each player has only four men tends 
to simplify it. 

History. This game, which is of 
Hindoo origin, is called in India 
Pachisi. It is widely played in 
Asia, in some countries with flat 
tamarind seeds instead of dice. 

The Spanish explorers found at 

the court of Montezuma, the Aztec 

ruler of Mexico, a similar game, 

called Patolli, played like Back- 

i gammon, but on a cross-shaped 

I table. Marked beans supplied the 

; place of dice. Some people think 

j the game had been brought to 

I Mexico from Asia. 

PATCHWORK STORY, a story 
made up of words and sentences 
cut from newspapers and pasted 
on a sheet of blank paper. Several 
persons may join in the amusement, 



PATERNAL 



519 



PEANUT BUM 



one of whom superintends it, and 
pastes the words on the paper, 
while the others look over news- 
papers for suitable words and sen- 
tences, and cut them out. Each 
word, or combination of words, 
should be cut out cleanly and care- 
fully. The paster makes a line of 
mucilage on the paper before him, 
and then, taking up the word or 
letter he wants with a pin or the 
point of a sharp knife, presses it 
into place. By using care, even 
separate letters may thus be com- 
bined into a word, which looks as if 
it had been printed as it stands. 
An amusing effect is produced by 
inserting sensational headings, or 
cuttings from advertisements, at in- 
tervals in the story. Care should 
be taken to have the paper look 
neat, and each sentence should be- 
gin with a capital, as in writing. 
Punctuation marks may be filled in 
with a pen and ink, or cut from a 
newspaper, like the letters. 

The plot of the story may be 
decided on beforehand, and then 
newspapers may be searched for 
suitable words and sentences ; but 
a better way is first to cut out all 
sorts of word combinations, and 
then fit them together to make the 
story, searching only for a word or 
words now and then to make the 
connections. In this way a very 
laughable tale may be put together. 
Instead of a story, a patchwork let- 
ter may be written to some absent 
friend, even the address being made 
in the same way and pasted on the 
envelope. 

PATERNAL, a solitaire game of 
CARDS, played with a full pack. 
The four Aces are first placed in a 
row, and then the other cards are 
laid, as they come, in piles of three, 
spreading each pile a little, so that 
all the cards in it can be seen. The 
suits are to be completed by placing 
all the cards in order on the Aces. 
For this purpose only the top card 
of a pile can be taken, except that, 
once during the game, a card may 



be drawn from the interior of a 
pile — but this privilege should gen- 
erally be reserved till the end. In 
addition, any top card of a pile may 
be placed on any other top card of 
the same suit just above or just be- 
low it in rank, thus freeing the one 
beneath. The piles may be twice 
taken up, shuffled together, and re- 
laid. Sometimes, instead of allow- 
ing the player to re-lay the cards 
and to draw one, he is given the 
privilege of taking a King from the 
top of any pile, to form the bottom 
card of a new pile. 

Skill must be used in changing 
about the top cards so as best to 
aid the completion of the suit piles. 

Trios, a variation of Paternal. 
The Aces are not laid down at first, 
but put down with the rest of the 
cards in the piles as they come. 
The last two piles contain only two 
cards each. The Aces are put out 
as they are freed by changing the 
top cards and the rest of the suits 
placed on them in order, as before. 
Top cards may be placed on other 
top cards of the next higher rank 
only, but without regard to suit. A 
face card may also be placed on a 
similar face card. 

No pile may contain more than 
three cards at any time during the 
game, and there is no drawing nor 
relaying. 

PATIENCE, GAMES OF. See 
Solitaire. 

PEANUT BUM, a scramble for 
peanuts, in which any number of 
persons may take part. A bag of 
peanuts, containing at least a bushel, 
is emptied in the middle of a large 
room with a bare floor. The con- 
testants stand around in a ring, and, 
at a signal, rush forward. The object 
of each is to get the most peanuts, 
and to prevent the others from get- 
ting any, if possible, by pushing and 
pulling. 

History. The Peanut Bum was 
once a common sport at Yale Col- 
lege, but is now discontinued. Early 
I, in the college term one was held at 



PEANUt SPREE 



520 



PEAKUT SPREE 



each of the Freshmen society halls, 
the carpets being taken up and 
everything prepared for the event. 
Only Freshmen and Sophomores 
took part, the members of the two 
upper classes looking on. The 
Freshmen were expected to pro- 
vide the peanuts, but the Sopho- 
mores, being better organized, and 
having the advantage of experience, 
generally succeeded in carrying 
away most of them. Many quarts 
of the nuts were trampled under 
foot in the struggle, and the bag 
containing them was torn into pieces, 
which were borne away as trophies. 
The sport seems to have begun 
about 1865. In 1880 the college 
authorities abolished the Freshmen 
societies, and since that time no 
Peanut Bums have taken place. 

PEANUT SPREE, an entertain- 
ment in which various feats are 
performed with peanuts, the win- 
ners receiving prizes. Any number 
of persons may take part, but from 
six to ten is best. A leader is chosen, 
who arranges the programme of 
events, calls the names of those who 
are to take part, takes down their 
records with pencil and paper, an- 
nounces the winner, and decides 
disputed points. Several quarts of 
peanuts are then spread on a table 
in the middle of the room. A list 
of events is given below, and others 
may be devised to suit the fancy of 
players or the leader. 

1. A dish of any kind is filled with 
peanuts, and each player guesses 
how many it contains. He who 
comes nearest to the right number 
wins a prize. 

2. He who can hold the greatest 
number of peanuts in one hand, 
without the assistance of the other 
in placing them there, wins a prize. 

3. A peanut is suspended by a 
thread, and on the floor is placed a 
vase whose neck is just large enough 
to receive it. Each player, holding 
the thread so that the peanut is a 
foot or more above the vase, tries to 
drop it in. The one who succeeds 



wins a prize. If no one succeeds at 
the first trial, each has another, and 




Peanut Spree, No. 3. 

SO on. If two or more succeed, 
they try again, holding the peanut 
higher, until only one is able to do 
it. 

4. Each person is given five pea- 
nuts, and at a signal all begin to 
shell them. He who finishes first 
wins a prize. The inner skins must 
be carefully removed, and no nut 
must be split into more than the 
two pieces into which it naturally 
divides. If a nut be broken, the 
player may take another to replace 
it. 

5. Five peanuts are placed on a 
chair at one end of the room. Each 
player in turn must take them one 
by one and place them on a 
chair at the opposite end of the 
room, returning them in like man- 
ner. The one that does this most 
quickly wins the prize. Throw- 
ing the peanuts is allowed, but if 
one so thrown does not remain in 
the chair, the player loses his chance 
for the prize. 

6. A large pin is stuck upright in 
the floor, and each player in turn 
pitches five peanuts at it, one by 
one. He who succeeds in making 



PEANUT SPREE 



52t 



PEA-SHOOTER 



a peanut remain nearest the pin 
wins the prize. 

7. Each shells a number of pea- 
nuts, and he who can catch the 
greatest number in his mouth, in 
succession, after throwing them in- 
to the air, wins a prize. 

8. A player is chosen by lot to 
stand at one end of the room with 
open mouth, while each of the 
others try to pitch five peanuts into 
it, one at a time. He who is most 
successful wins a prize. The one 
into whose mouth the nuts are 
thrown may be the player making 
the worst record in the event just 
preceding. 

9. Peanuts are strewed over the 
floor of the room about a foot apart, 
and he who takes the least time to 
ga from one end to the other and 
back, without treading on a peanut, 
wins the prize. 

Other events may also be intro- 
duced, in which peanuts play no 
part. For instance : 

10. A finger-ring is suspended 
from a chandelier. He who can 
walk up to it and, without pausing, 
stick a pencil or penholder through 
it, wins a prize. 

11. A row of chairs is placed in 
the middle of the room, and he who 
can go in the least time from one 
end to the other, passing to the 
right of one chair and the left of 
the next, without touching a chair 
wins a prize. 

12. A passage is selected from 
some book not familiar to any of 
the company, and he who can read 
it correctly, upside down, in the 
least time, wins the prize. 

13. He who reads a similar pas- 
sage at the greatest distance wins a 
prize. The book may be propped 
upright on a table, and each player 
in turn advances toward it till he 
can read the passage, which he 
whispers to the leader, to make sure 
that he has done so correctly. His 
distance from the book is then 
measured. 

The prizes, which equal the events 



in number, should be wrapped up 
in packages, so that it is impossible 
to tell what they are, and placed 
by themselves. Each prize-winner 
chooses his own prize and opens it 
immediately. One or two of the 
prizes should be useful or valuable 
articles, and the others ridiculous, 
or merely blanks. It increases the 
fun if the packages be marked 
with laughable titles or mock direc- 
tions to the opener. Sometimes a 
prize is given to the person who 
gains most prizes during the enter- 
tainment. 

PEA-SHOOTER. A tin tube two 
or three feet long is commonly used, 
and a supply of peas is usually 
kept in the mouth. Instead of peas, 



Pea-shooter. 

little wads of paper or lumps of putty 
may be used, and the toy is then 
sometimes called a Putty Blower. 
For shooting at a target little darts 
may be used, whence the toy is often 
known as Puff and Dart. The 




Darts. 

darts may be bought at toy shops 
or made from bits of stick consider- 
ably smaller than the tube, and about 
two inches long. A wad of yarn or 
worsted, like the bottom of a short 
tassel, is fastened to one end, by 
winding with linen thread, and a 
small steel nail is fixed in the other 
end, so that the dart will stick in the 
target. Great care must be used to 
shoot these darts only at a target, as 
some one might be hurt by them. 
In shooting, the aim should be quick, 
and as there can be no sighting, 
since the tube is held in the mouth, 



I. 



PEASE PORRIDGE 



522 



PEG-TOP 



the " point of aim " for different dis- 
tances must be ascertained, exactly 
as in Archery. The natives of 
Borneo use tubes ten or twelve feet 
long as weapons, blowing through 
them poisoned darts. For the toy, 
a tube about three feet long will do. 
PEASE PORRIDGE, a game play- 
ed by two persons, who sit opposite 
each other and strike each other's 
hands, keeping time to the following 
verse : 

" Pease porridge hot, 
Pease porridge cold, 
Pease porridge in the pot 
Nine days old." 

The movement of the hands varies. 
A common method is as follows : 
For the first, second, and fourth 
lines, each player slaps His knees with 
both hands ; then each slaps the 
other's right hand with his own, 
palm to palm ; and then the same is 
done with the left hands. For the 
third line the order is, slap the knees, 
both hands at once, the one player's 
right to the other's left, right hands, 
and left hands. 

PEDRO SANCHO. See All 
Fours. 

PEEL-AWAY, a game played by 
any number of persons on a field 
divided into three parts by two 
parallel lines, generally from 100 to 
300 feet apart. The two outer parts 
of the field are called goals, as is 
shown below. Sometimes the field 



GOAL, 




has side lines (dotted in the figure,) 
beyond which no player may go, but 
often the field is unbounded at the 
sides. At the beginning, one of 
the players stands in the middle of 
the field facing the others who 
are in one of the goals. He cries 
" Pom, pom, peel-away, come away, 
I'll get you away," and they must 
then run toward the other goal. 



As they do so, he tries to touch as 
many as possible, while they are be- 
tween the goal-lines. All touched 
must join him in the centre of the 
field. They all shout " Pom, pom, 
peel-away" together, and the other 
players then run back across the 
field to the goal where they were at 
first, the ones caught aiding in try i ng 
to touch them. The game goes on 
till all have been touched, the last 
one touched being the winner. The 
one touched first stands in the 
middle of the field to begin the next 
game. The game is played best on 
the ice by skaters. Instead of the 
shout given above, the single word, 
" peel-away" is often used. 

This game is called in England 
King Caesar, or sometimes Rushing 
Bases. The player who first stands 
in the middle of the field is called 
the King, and he must clap each 
one he catches three times on the 
head, saying each time, " I crown 
thee King Caesar." A player is 
allowed to return to the same goal 
If he hops out of it ; but if he put 
down both feet, he must run to the 
opposite one. Unless a player is 
properly crowned, he may return to 
his goal, and when the Kings 
greatly outnumber the others, they 
may run in and try to pull the latter 
over the base-line. 

PEG-TOP, or PEG IN THE RING, 
a game played by any number of 
persons, each of whom has a com- 
mon wooden Top with an iron point, 
or peg. A circle about a yard in 
diameter is drawn on the ground 
with a stick, or on a pavement with 
chalk or charcoal, but bare ground 
is best. Any one who wishes begins 
by spinning his top in the circle, 
and the others follow in order, try- 
ing at the same time to split one of 
the tops in the ring. If any player 
fail to cast his top into the ring, or 
to set it spinning, or if it remains in 
the circle after it stops spinning, he 
must let it stay for the others to 
throw or " peg" at; but if it spin or 
roll out, or is knocked out by any 



PENCIL SKETCHES 



523 



PENDULUMS 



other top, the owner may take it 
up, and play as before, in his turn. 
Each player thus tries to split one 
of the tops without driving any 
from the ring, but this is usually 
very difficult. The tops used are 
best made of hard wood like box- 
wood, and should have long pegs, 
as they are then more apt to spin 
out of the ring. If a top that 
"sleeps," or spins in one place, is 
used, it generally stays in the ring 
and becomes a mark for the other 
players. In spinning, the cord 
should be wound several times 
around the peg, as well as the top, 
and the string should have a button 
at the end. Skilful players are 
able so to cast their tops as to hit 
any spot they wish. As the game 
is sometimes played, any one that 
knocks a top out of the circle is 
allowed to keep it. 

PENCIL SKETCHES, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
each with pencil and paper. Each 
player first draws the head of a man, 
woman, or animal, and then folds 
down the top of the paper so as to 
hide all the drawing except a very 
little at the bottom. Each then 
passes his paper to his left-hand 
neighbor, who adds a body to the 
head, folding and passing as before. 
The feet and legs are next drawn, 
and then the papers are unfolded 
and shown to the company. The 
sketches are often very amusing. 

PENDULUM, a lawn game played 
with rings and a pendulum. The 
rings, which are 8 inches in diam- 
eter, are not more than six in num- 
ber, and each has a different color 
and a different value. They are 
fitted with prongs several inches 
long, so that they can be made to 
stand upright in the ground. The 
pendulum is a heavy ball suspended 
by a rope eight feet long from a 
ring sliding on a wire between two 
posts eight feet high and six feet 
apart. The rings are placed in line 
between the posts, and the object of 
each player, after choosing a ring, 



is to swing the pendulum so as to 
catch it and pull it from the ground. 
If successful, he scores the number 
marked on the ring, and has an- 
other turn until he fails. A line 
may be made on the opposite side 
of the rings, and anv ring carried 




Pendulum. 

over it may score double its number. 
If a player hits a ring he did not 
choose, it is accounted a miss. The 
game may be played by any num- 
ber of persons, each for himself, or 
divided into opposing parties. The 
winning score is fixed upon before- 
hand, or the game may be played 
for a certain length of time, at the 
end of which the person or side 
with the highest score wins. 

PENDULUMS, Experiments with. 
The best pendulums for these ex- 
periments are made of the bobs 
used by carpenters for their plumb- 
lines, which can be bought at any 
hardware store. Or any small heavy 
object can be used, if it is easily 
fastened to a string. Suspend the 
pendulum bobs by twine of different 
lengths to screw-eyes fastened in 
the upper part of a door-casing. 
One should be made so that it can 
be lengthened or shortened at will, 
by passing the twine through the 
screw-eye, and holding it in the 
hand, or winding it loosely about a 
tack driven in the side of the door- 
way. By pulling on this string the 
pendulum will be shortened. 



L 



PETER CODDLE'S TRIP 



524 



PHOSPHORUS 



EXPERIMENTS. 

1. Set all the pendulums swing- 
ing. The longer they are, the slow- 
er they will swing. 

2. Make one of the pendulums 
swing an inch or so, and then make 
It swing two or three feet. It will 
take just as much time to make the 
short swing as the long one. 

3. Count the number of swings 
any of the pendulums makes in a 
minute, and then arrange the ad- 
justable one so that it makes twice 
the number. It will be just quarter 
the length of the first. 

4. Take down all the pendulums 
but one. Set this swinging, and 
then, when it is at its lowest point, 
strike it sidewise. It will keep on 
swinging, but in a different direc- 
tion. Strike it when it is at one 
end of its swing, and it will then 
move in a circle. 

5. Make a heavy pendulum by 
suspending a chair with stout twine. 
Tie a fine piece of sewing-silk to 
the chair. Try to swing the chair 
by giving a single pull on the silk 
and it will break; but it may be 
made to swing by a series of gentle 
pulls given at equal intervals. To 
know at what interval to give the 
pulls, hang the movable pendulum 
so that its bob is at the middle of 
the chair, and then swing it. Give 
the silk a slight pull at each swing 
of this pendulum. 

See also Double Pendulum. 

PETER CODDLES. TRIP TO 
NEW YORK, a game played by any 
number of persons The story of a 
countryman's trip to the city is 
printed in a little book, with blanks 
left for many of the words. Words 
to fill these blanks are printed on 
small cards, one on each card. One 
of the company is appointed to read 
the story, and the cards are distrib- 
uted equally among the others. 
When the reader comes to the first 
blank, the player on his left reads 
his first card to fill it, and the other 
blanks are filled in the same way by 
the other players, in order. The 



players should listen carefully for 
the blanks, and read the cards quick- 
ly, so that the story may be as 
smooth as possible. 

There are a multitude of games 
of this kind, and a new one can be 
made by any ingenious person. 
Among those to be bought at toy 
stores are, " Jotham Podd's Trip to 
Paris," -'Japhet Jenkins," "Travels 
of Sam Slick," and " An Excursion 
to Coney Island." 

PHIAL BAROMETER. See Hy- 

GROSCOPE. 

PHIAL OF THE FOUR ELE- 
MENTS. See Mixture OF Liquids. 

PHILOPENA. See Flower AND 
Fruit Sports. 

PHOSPHORUS, Experiments with. 
Phosphorus is described in C. C. T. 
In experimenting with it, great care 
is necessary, because it takes fire on 
exposure to the air. It must be 
kept, handled, and cut under water. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1. Cover a piece of phosphorus 
the size of a pin- head with a tea- 
spoonful of lamp-black (see Car- 
bon, Exp. 3), which has been heated 
and allowed to cool. The phos- 
phorus will melt and finally take 
fire, owing to contact with oxygen 
absorbed from the air by the lamp- 
black. 

2. Dissolve a bit of phosphorus 
in bisulphide of carbon, and wet a 
piece of unglazed paper with the 
liquid. The paper should not be 
held on the hand, but on the end of 
a wire. Take it into a dark room, 
and as it dries it will shine beauti- 
fully and finally take fire. Letters 
or designs can be marked on the 
paper with a brush dipped in the 
liquid, but the brush must be put 
into water as soon as it is used. 

3. Phosphorus Torpedo. Cover a 
bit of phosphorus, the size of a pin- 
head, with powdered chlorate of 
potash, and twist it up in a bit of 
tissue-paper. On being struck with 
a hammer, it will explode. 

4. To Jiiake Red Phosphorus. Heat 



PHOTOGRAPH WHIST 



525 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



a ymall bit of phosphorus in a test- 
tube or bottle with a very little 
iodine. The phosphorus will turn 
red, and will be found to have al- 
most none of the properties of com- 
mon phosphorus, being odorless, 
not giving off light in the dark, and 
not being easily lighted by rubbing. 

5. Place a piece of phosphorus 
under hot water. It will melt. Now 
bring a current of oxygen into con- 
tact with it and it will burn under 
water. 

6. Put a crystal of iodine on a 
slice of phosphorus. They will 
take fire at once. 

7. The Phosphorus Sun. Place a 
bit of phosphorus the size of a pea 
on a piece of chalk about an inch 
square, having its top hollowed a 
little. Fill with oxygen a fish-globe 
about a foot in diameter, and invert 
it over the phosphorus, first lighting 
the latter with a hot wire. The 
phosphorus will burn in the oxygen 
with great brilliancy. 

8. Place in a bottle a tablespoonful 
of ether and a piece of phosphorus 
twice the size of a pea. Let it stand 
several days, shaking it occasionally. 
The resulting liquid will make the 
hands or face shine in the dark 
when they are rubbed with it. If a 
little be poured on a lump of sugar, 
which is then thrown into hot water, 
the phosphorus and ether will rise 
to the surface and take fire. 

Put a bit of phosphorus into a flask 
containing a little water, and then 
boil the water; the phosphorus will 
burn with great brilliancy. 

PHOTOGRAPH WHIST, a game 
played by four persons, with any 
number of old card-size photographs, 
which are dealt as in whist. Each 
plays one in turn, and the ugliest 
photograph " takes the trick. If 
there is doubt, a fifth person should 
be chosen as umpire, to decide. 
This game is productive of a good 
deal of amusement for a few min- 
utes, but care should be taken, in 
selecting the photographs, that no 
one's feelings are likely to be 



wounded. It is best played at home 
with photographs from an old album. 
PHOTOGRAPHY. If adouble con- 
vex lens (C. C. T.,Lens), such as that 
in an ordinary magnifying glass, be 
held at the proper distance between 
any^object and a white screen or wall, 
an image of the object will be thrown 
on the wall. Thus, if such a lens be 
held near a wall having a window 
opposite it, and moved backward 
and forward, a position will be found 
where the lens throws on the wall a 
distinct picture of the window, up- 
side down. In photography, such a 
picture is thrown by a lens on a sur- 
face covered with some substance 
very sensitive to light. Light 
changes the color of the substance, 
so that the whole picture is printed 
on the prepared surface. The effect 
of the light, however, is not visible 
till the picture is washed in another 
chemical, called a "developer." It 
is then washed in a third fluid to 
" fix" it, or make it permanent. If 
the lights and shadows are arranged 
in the picture as they are in nature, 
it is said to be a "positive"; but gener- 
ally the chemical used is turned 
black by light, so that the lights and 
shadows are reversed. Such a pict- 
ure is called a " negative" and to 
make a positive from it, it is fixed 
over a sheet of chemically prepared 
paper. The light shines through the 
negative, blackening those parts of 
the paper most that are most ex- 
posed, that is those that are light in 
the negative; hence the lights and 
shadows are reversed again on the 
paper, and appear in their proper 
places. This is called " printing." 
The ordinary instruments and 
processes used in photography will 
now be described. 

Camera. The photographic cam- 

j era is a box with a lens at one end 

for throwing an image of the object 

! whose picture is to be taken. The 

i image is formed at the back of the 

j box, on a piece of ground glass, 

which can be adjusted at the proper 

distance from the lens. The most 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



526 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



important part of the instrument 
is the lens. Cameras can be bought 
as low as two dollars, but the lenses 
of such cameras are poor and will 
not make a clear image. Experts 
advise the beginner to pay at least 
ten dollars for his camera. Modern 
cameras are made in many different 




Camera. 



Styles, and fitted with many patent 
devices, which it is impossible to 
describe here. The best cameras 
have what is called the " single 
swing," by which the ground glass 
can be tilted forward or backward, 
so that parts of a landscape at differ- 
ent distances may all be brought to 
a distinct focus. The best cameras 
have also a shifting front, by which 
the lens can be raised or lowered, 
thus bringing more or less of sky or 
foreground into the picture. These 
and other arrangements are useful 
but not essential. 

Lens, A good lens must have 
depth of focus, that is, it must clearly 
define both distant and near objects; 
a good field, that is, it must take in 
many objects at once; and it must 
be fairly rapid in its action. It 
should be provided with "stops," 
that is, covers with holes of various 
sizes, so that more or less light may 



be admitted to the plate. For in- 
stantaneous pictures very expensive 
lenses are needed. 

Focussing-cloth. This is to cover 
the operator's head when he is ad- 
justing the camera, to keep out the 
light. It should be about a yard 
square, of any material that is per- 
fectly opaque. It may be made of 
water-proof cloth, so as to protect 
the camera in case of rain. 

Focussing-glass. This is a little 
magnifying glass used to examine 
the image on the ground glass to 
see if it is perfectly distinct. 

Plate-holder, This is a device for 




Plate-holder, 
keeping the sensitive plate from the 
light till it is ready to be used. It 
is then fixed on the back of the cam- 
era, in place of the ground glass, 
being so arranged that when a slide 
is withdrawn the sensitive surface 
of the plate receives the image. 

Dark Room. For handling the 
plates before and after taking the 
picture, it is necessary to have a 
room or closet into which no light 
can possibly penetrate. The door 
must be tight and there should be 
no windows. A large closet will 
answer all purposes, but many ama- 
teur photographers have rooms 
specially built for this purpose. The 
closet should be as large as possible, 
to avoid discomfort from heat and 
bad air. It may be ventilated by 
means of crooked tin tubes, painted 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



527 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



black on the inside, fastened to a 
hole in the outer wall. It should 
be remembered that the faintest 
glimmer of outside light may spoil 
tne plates. To enable the worker 
to see, a "ruby lantern" must be 
used. This is a lantern covered 




Lantern for Dark Room. 

with ruby-red glass, the light from 
which does not affect the plates. 
Many kinds are in the market, one 
of which is shown in the illustration. 
Instead of it, a lamp with a close 
shade of red tissue-paper may be 
used, but the lantern is best. In this 
room must be placed all arrange- 
ments for developing and fixing the 
negatives, as described below. These 
include shelves, a sink, running 
water, and three shallow trays of 
iron, glass, or rubber, for immersing 
the plates or prints. The same 
chemical should always be used in 
the same tray. The illustration 




Rubber Tray. 

shows a hard rubber tray, which may 
be bought of dealers in photo- 



graphic supplies. The sink may be 
made of a large baking-pan having 
a pipe soldered to the bottom to 
carry off the water to a pail below. 
Running water may be obtained by 
putting a faucet in an ordinary 
wooden pail, which stands on a shelf 
above the sink. Over the faucet is 
slipped a rubber tube long enough 
to reach to the sink. For preparing 
the proper solutions, four "gradu- 
ates" or measuring-glasses, are need- 
ed, one each of eight, four, and two 
ounces, marked with drams and one 
to measure minims, and for weigh- 
ing chemicals a pair of scales is 
necessary. 

Plates. Formerly every photog- 
rapher prepared his own plates, but 
now they are generally bought ready 
for use. There are many kinds, 
some for landscape, some for instan- 
taneous pictures, some for transpar- 
encies, and so on. All come in dif- 
ferent sizes, and are packed by the 
dozen in paper boxes. The face, or 
sensitive side, of the plate can always 
be told from the back by its duller 
lustre. In preparing to take a pict- 
ure, the first thing is to fill the plate- 
holder, which must be done in the 
dark room, the face of each plate 
being carefully brushed with a broad 
soft camel's-hair brush to remove 
dust. Each plate should be held at 
the corner only. Plate-holders 
generally hold two plates, and these 
should be put in back to back, so as 
to face outward. It requires prac- 
tice to do this without touching the 
sensitive side of the plates, especi- 
ally as the light in the dark room is 
very dim. 

faking the Picture. Place the 
camera so that the lens points to- 
ward the object or view to be taken, 
and then, throwing the focussing- 
cloth over the head, move the rear 
part of the camera forward or back- 
ward till the image on the ground 
glass is distinct. It often requires 
practice to see any image at all, 
at first, but by moving the eye back- 
ward and forward, it can be made to 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



528 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



appear. Before the final focussing, 
the camera should be moved so that 
just the objects desired appear on 
the ground glass. To include more 
of the upper part of the landscape, 
the sliding front may be raised. If 
this throws some of the lower ob- 
jects off the glass, the camera should 
be moved farther back. The focus is 
now made perfectly distinct for 
some one object in the middle fore- 
ground, the operator viewing its 
image carefully with the focussing- 
glass. The images of more distant 
and nearer objects will probably 
now be a little blurred. To remedy 
this, one of the "stops" must be put 
on the lens. The largest should be 
tried first, and then a smaller one, 
till all parts of the picture are equally 
distinct. No smaller one than ab- 
solutely necessary should be used, 
as the smaller the stop, the less light 
falls on the plate. If there is an ob- 
ject in the very near foreground, it 
will be necessary to use the swing- 
back to make its image distinct. 

The cap must now be placed over 
the lens, the ground glass removed, 
and the plate-holder put in its place, 
the focussing-cloth being thrown 
over it as it is taken from the box 
where it is kept, and remaining over 
it till it is returned to the box. 
This is necessary that light may not 
reach the plate through some crack 
in the holder. The slide is with- 
drawn, and then the light is admitted 
to the plate by removing the cap 
from the lens, taking care not to 
shake the camera in so doing. 
When the exposure is finished, the 
lens is recapped, the slide returned, 
and the plate-holder replaced in its 
box. 

For the time of exposure, no rules 
can be given. It must be deter- 
mined in every case by experience, 
as it varies with the light, the lens, 
the plate, the stop used, and the 
kind of picture. The time may 
thus vary from almost nothing, with 
a very sensitive plate and bright 
light, to 10, 15, or 20 seconds with 



poor light. In general a hazy or 
yellow light requires a longer time 
than clear weather, and the hours 
near noon less time than late after- 
noon. Spring foliage requires less 
time than the same in summer, and 
a sea view than a landscape. After 
the photographer has had experience 
he will judge of the time required 
by comparing the kind of view, the 
light, and the other conditions, with 
those of some previous picture he 
has taken. A second or two more 
or less is not fatal to success, but 
over-exposure is easier to remedy 
than under-exposure. The be- 
ginner should make several expos- 
ures of the same view, and note 
which one turns out best. The 
plate-holder should be marked after 
each exposure with the time, stop 
used, and other data to be remem- 
bered. 

Developing. This process requires 
great care, and must be carried on 
in the dark room. There are many 
developing fluids, each of which has 
its advocates. The following direc- 
tions show how to make one of the 
best. The solution is made in two 
parts, which are mixed as they are 
needed. Each may be held in a 
twelve-ounce bottle. The following 
chemicals are needed : 

Sulphite of soda, crystals, i lb. 

Carbonate of potash, granulated, " 
Carbonate of soda, " " 

Pyrogallic acid, 4 oz. 

Sulphuric " i " 

Bromide of potash, i " 

Solution I. Dissolve two ounces, 
by weight, of sulphite of soda in 
eight measured oimces of soft 
water, add slowly half a dram of 
sulphuric acid, and then 240 grains 
of pyrogallic acid. Pour in enough 
water to make eight ounces of mix- 
ture. In warm weather fifteen grains 
of bromide of potassium may be 
added to prevent too rapid working. 
This solution is labelled " Pyro." 
It must be used only so long as it is 
perfectly clear. 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



529 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



Solution 2. Dissolve one ounce 
each of carbonate of potash and 
soda in five ounces of water. Add 
enough water to make eight ounces. 

Each solution should be poured 
into its bottle through a wad of 
clean cotton placed in a funnel. 

When the developing solution is 
needed, the two solutions are mixed 
and diluted, in the proportion of 
one part of each to two parts of 
water. 

To develop the plate, lay it in 
one of the trays, face upward, and 
pour the solution over it with a 
sweeping motion. Then move the 
tray so that it will be washed evenly, 
gently breaking all air-bubbles with 
the finger-tip. The picture will 
shortly begin to appear on the plate, 
the very light parts first (which of 
course are black in the negative). 
If the plate is under-exposed, the 
details of the picture will refuse to 
appear; if over-exposed, the whole 
picture will appear suddenly. The 
negative should be examined by 
holding it up to the light from time 
to time, and as soon as the details 
are distinct enough, the plate is 
thoroughly washed with a stream of 
clear water from the rubber tube. 
If it is known beforehand that a 
plate is over-exposed, only half the 
ordinary quantity of the second so- 
lution is used, and a few drops of a 
solution of bromide of potash are \ 
added (50 grains to the ounce of; 
water). The bromide makes the 
process slower, the second solution 
hastens it; so by varying the propor- 
tions, a developer may be made to 
suit a plate more or less over-ex- 
posed. 

Fixing. Two solutions are needed 
for fixing: one composed of one part 
of alum to ten of water, the other 
of one part of hyposulphite of soda 
(called " hypo " for short) to five of 
water. The trays for fixing should 
be about two inches deep, and 
enough solution is placed in each to 
cover a plate. When the negative 
has been washed, after developing. 



it is placed in the alum solution for 
four or five minutes, washed again, 
and then in the "hypo" solution 
till no whiteness is seen on the plate, 
looked at from the back. This 
should take not more than ten min- 
utes; the " hypo " should be renewed 
if it works slowly. Fixing may be 
carried on in a weak light, and after 
it is finished the plates may be ex- 
posed to strong light without injury. 
If the fixing is not thoroughly done, 
however, the negative will not last. 
After fixing, the plates are placed in 
a large pail of water, for several 
hours, the water being changed 
every twenty or thirty minutes, and 
they are then allowed to dry, with- 
out being heated. 

Varnishing. This is not necessary 
unless the plates are to be preserved 
a long time. Prepared varnish (to 
be bought of a dealer in photo- 
graphic supplies) is poured on the 
plate, which is lowered first at one 
end and then at the other, so that 
the varnish flows evenly over the 
surface. The surplus is drained 
into the bottle from one corner, the 
plate being rocked to and fro to 
prevent drying in ridges. 

Printing. Paper all ready for 
printing may be bought, or it may 
be prepared by soaking albumenized 
paper in a bath of nitrate of silver, 
composed as follows: 

Water, 64 ounces. 

Nitrate of silver, 8 " 

Ammonia nitrate, 2 " 
Magnesia, " i ounce. 

Ammonia, one drop to each 
ounce of solution. 

This solution is used over and 
over again, adding nitrate of silver 
and ammonia from time to time. 
The condition of the solution may 
be tested by putting enough shot 
into a glass tube closed at one end to 
float it upright in a bottle of the 
liquid. Make a scratch on the tube 
at the level of the liquid. As the 
latter gets weaker the tube will sink 
lower, and enough nitrate of silver 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



530 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



must be added to float the tube at 
the same level. 

The silver solution is poured into 
a glass tray, or one of shellacked 
wood, and the sheets of paper floated 
on it, albumen side down. One 
corner should touch the surface first, 
and the rest of the sheet be lowered 
evenly, so that no air-bubbles may 
get under it. Light bits of wood 
are laid on the paper to keep the 
corners down. The paper should 
be floated from one minute and a 
quarter to two minutes (longest in 
winter), and then pressed between 
blotting-papers and hung up to dry 
in the dark. Before printing, the 
paper, whether ready-prepared or 
home-made, must be exposed for 
from fifteen to thirty minutes to the 
vapor of ammonia, longest in cold 
weather. This is done most con- 
veniently by hanging the sheet over 
twine in a box, in the bottom of 
which is a tray of strong ammonia 
water. 




Printing-frame. 

For printing, a frame like that 
shown in the illustration is usually 
used. The negative is placed in it 
film up, and on it is laid the sensi- 
tive paper, film down. The two are 
secured by the springs pressing 
against the back of the frame, and 
then exposed to sunlight. The pro- 
cess must be watched carefully, by 
opening the back of one side of the 
frame to see how far it has pro- 
gressed. The print should be much 



darker than the finished picture is 
to be. After printing, the pictures 
must be washed in clear water, 
which is changed thrice, letting 
them remain each time about ten 
minutes. 

Toning. This process changes the 
color of the print from reddish 
brown to brownish black. A stock 
solution should first be made by 
dissolving 15 grains of chloride of 
gold and sodium in 15 ounces of 
water. To make a toning bath for 
twenty prints, add three ounces of 
this to 10 ounces of water in which 
have been dissolved a pinch of 
cooking-soda and a pinch of com- 
mon salt. The bath must be kept 
slightly alkaline, and should be 
tested with litmus paper (see Test 
Papers). If it does not turn red 
litmus paper blue, more soda should 
be added. The prints are to be 
toned, about a dozen at a time, by 
laying them one by one face down- 
ward into a tray partially filled with 
the bath. It should be seen that 
they do not stick together. The 
bath should be kept at a tempera- 
ture of about 70°, which in a cold 
room may be done by setting the 
tray on a hot-water bottle. In ten 
or fifteen minutes the red color of 
the prints will turn to a purplish or 
brownish black. If the process is 
kept up too long they will become 
slate-colored. 

If the prepared silver-paper be 
used, the following recipe gives 
better results : Add to the gold so- 
lution a solution of cooking soda, 
drop by drop, till it turns red litmus 
paper blue. Add 10 grains of ace- 
tate of soda and 18 ounces of water. 

Fixing the Prints. Soak them 
fifteen or twenty minutes in a 
bath formed by dissolving in one 
gallon of water a pound of hyposul- 
phite of soda and a tablespoonful 
each of cooking-soda and common 
salt. The part used should be 
thrown away. After fixing, the 
prints should be soaked three or 
four minutes in strong salt and 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



531 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



water. They should then be thor- 
oughly washed, the water being 
changed eight or ten times. 

Blue Prints. These are made on 
blue or cyanotype paper (Greek, 
cyanos, blue). The process of print- 
ing is as already described, the paper, 
as manufactured, being all ready to 
put into the printing-frame with the 
negative. No toning and fixing is 
necessary, the print requiring only 
to be washed in pure water till the 
drippings cease to be yellowish. 

Hydrochloric acid makes the color 
bluer, and sulphuric acid renders it 
greenish. A few drops of either are 
sufficient. Ammonia turns the color 
to purple and makes it lighter. 

The ease of blue printing has 
made it popular with amateurs, and 
many use it for taking "proofs" 
even when they desire to print after- 
ward in the regular way. 

Bromide Prints. Bromide of silver- 
paper is very sensitive, and is used 
where quickness is sought and for 
enlargements. The paper is so sen- 
sitive that thin negatives are best 
printed by the light of a kerosene 
lamp. To enlarge a picture, the 
negative should be fixed in a hole 
in the wall in front of a heliostat, 
and a lens so placed that a sharp 
enlarged image of the negative is 
thrown on the sensitive paper, which 
is supported on an upright board. 
No light should enter the room ex- 
cept that which comes through the 
lens. 

The print does not show at first, 
but requires to be developed, so 
that it cannot be told directly when 
the printing is finished, as with an 
ordinary photograph. The photog- 
rapher must learn the proper time 
for exposure in various cases by ex- 
perience, as in taking the picture. 

Bromide prints are developed and 
fixed as follows : The developer is 
made by mixing three solutions, 
which are kept on hand separate- 

Solution I. One pound of oxalate 
of potash to three pints of hot water. 



Add sulphuric acid till it turns blue 
litmus paper red. 

Solution 2. One pound of proto- 
sulphate of iron to one quart of hot 
water. Add one-half dram of sul- 
phuric acid. 

Solution 3. One dram of bromide 
of potassium to one quart of water. 

Just before developing, mix six 
ounces of No. i and one ounce of 
No. 2, and use cold. No. 3 is used 
to restrain the action in over-expos- 
ure, but too much of it spoils the 
print. The developer, when mixed, 
should be of a clear dark red. If 
turbid, it is unfit for use. The image 
appears slowly. When it is done, 
wash the print several times in a 
solution of one ounce of citric acid 
in a quart of water, then rinse in 
pure water, and finally fix in a solu- 
tion of three ounces of "hypo" to 
a pint of water. Fixing takes about 
ten minutes. Wash the print, place 
it in the aljum bath, and then wash 
again. Dry by hanging on a line, 
not between blotters. Bromide 
prints last much longer than ordi- 
nary ones. They may be used for 
book illustrations, without mount- 
ing, by soaking in five ounces of 
glycerine mixed with twenty-five 
ounces of water. 

Mounting. Before mounting, the 
print should be trimmed to the de- 
sired shape, which is generally done 
by laying on it a glass or metal form 
and cutting around the edge. A 
knife may be used, but specially 
made cutters, formed of a small 
wheel, are preferable. The print 
should be laid, when cutting, on a 
piece of glass covered with paper. 
Glass alone dulls the cutter, and 
wood is too soft. 

The prints are secured to the 
cardboard mounting with paste, 
which must be very smooth and free 
from lumps. All air-bubbles must 
be pressed out from between the 
print and the card, and no more 
paste used than is absolutely neces- 
sary. 

Burnishing. After mounting, the 



l>IANO 



532 



PIANO 



pictures may be passed through a 
burnisher, like that shown in the 
picture. The photograph should 
not be perfectly dry, and should 
have its face rubbed with fine scrap- 
ings of castile soap. 

Taking Portraits Indoors. The 
sitter should be placed obliquely 
near one window in the room, the 
light being shut out from all others 
by white muslin or paper shades. 
If the shadows are too strong, light 
should be reflected from the oppo- 
site side from a sheet hung over 
a clothes-horse. The background 
should be plain and simple. 

Hints on Landscapes. A land- 
scape should not be photographed 
from the shadow side, as it appears 
too sombre. The best time for 
taking landscape views is in the 
morning or early afternoon, but late 
afternoon is the best time for cloud 
effects. When a body of water 
appears in the picture, a point of 
view should be chosen where the 
water will not appear as a sheet of 
white. Distant views are best taken 
when the air is clear and free from 
haze or smoke, though a partially 
cloudy sky gives an excellent light. 

Flash-Llght. Places which are 
always too dark to photograph by 
sunlight may be taken by flash- 
light. Magnesium " cartridges " to 
produce this light may be bought 
of dealers in photographic material. 
In using them, focus must first be 
made with the aid of lamp or gas- 
light. The lens is then capped, the 
slide drawn, all lights put out, the 
lens uncapped, and then the car- 
tridge is lighted, making a sudden, 
short, and brilliant light,which takes 
the picture. The lens is then re- 
capped and the plate removed. 

PIANO, Experiments with a. The 
Piano is described in C. C. T. The 
following experiments can be per- 
formed by any one who understands 
the elements of music. 

I. Place sheets of music on the 
wires. The notes will now have a rat- 
tling sound, and a tune on the piano | 



will sound somewhat as if played on 
the banjo. 

2. Press down very gently the 
keys belonging to any desired chord, 
so as to make little or no sound, 
and hold them down, while some 
one brushes the wires gently with 
some light object, such as a feather 
or a straw. The chord will be 
heard very softly, as if played far 
away. By changing the notes, being 
careful to press them down so gently 
as to makeno noise, while the feather 
still sweeps the wires, the player 
may modulate, or even play a very 
slow piece of music. The reason is, 
that ordinarily a damper rests 
against each wire, which is raised 
when the corresponding key is 
pressed; hence the feather causes 
only those wires to sound which are 
undampened. The wires must be 
lightly brushed, as otherwise all of 
them might sound, in spite of the 
dampers. 

3. Press down one key, gently, as 
before, and then strike the one an 
octave below it, very hard, not 
holding it down. When the sound 
has been sufficiently dampened, the 
pressed-down key will be heard 
sounding clearly. The reason is, 
that the note struck is composed of 
several notes, being in fact a chord, 
and these cause the corresponding 
wires to vibrate in sympathy. The 
other notes which will vibrate in 
like manner are the fifth above the 
octave, the second octave, and the 
third and fifth above that. These 
are called overtones. Thus, if a 
C in the lower part of the piano be 
struck, any or all of the following 
notes will sound, if their keys be 
first pressed down and held down. 



$ 



Wr 



:?s: 



:t== 



@=i 



Note struck. Keys pressed down. 

PICKADILL. See Fox and 

Geese, III. 



PIGEON FLYING 



533 



PIQUET 



PIGEON FLYING. The carrier 
pigeon is described in C. C. T. 
These birds are sometimes matched 
one against another, just like 
horses or boats, so that Pigeon 
Flying has become a sport. The 
birds are carried away long dis- 
tances from their homes in baskets, 
released at the same time and 
place, and the one that reaches its 
roost soonest wins the race. The 
quickest times and longest flights 
made by pigeons in contests of this 
kind are given in the Appendix. 

PILLOWS AND KEYS, or PILLOW 
AND KEY, a game played by any 
number of boys and girls. All sit in 
a circle, and a boy taking a cushion 
or pillow, lays it at the feet of any 
girl he chooses and kneels on it. 
The girl must kiss him, and then, 
taking the cushion, places it in like 
manner before any boy, while the 
first-named boy takes her seat. 
Sometimes a rhyme is repeated by 
the kneeling player, for instance ' 

" Had I as many eyes as stars in the skies, 

And were I as old as Adam, 
I'd fall on my isnees, and kiss whom I please, 

Your humble servant, madam." 

This game is said to be derived 




from an old dance called the " Cush- 
ion Dance." 

PIN DRAWINGS, a game played 
by any number of persons, with 
pencil and paper. Sheets of paper, 
one for each player, are laid in a 
pile, and five pins are held about 
three feet above them, between the 
thumb and forefinger of the leader, 
who drops them on the paper. At 
the spot where each of the pin- 
heads lies, another pin is then 
driven through all the thicknesses 
of paper, so that pin-holes are made 
in each, in the same positions. 
Each player must now draw on his 
paper a human figure, so that one 
pin-hole is included in the outline 
of the head, and one in that of each 
hand and foot. Animals or birds 
may be drawn instead, varying the 
number of pin-holes and the re- 
quirements of the game to suit the 
players. At the close of the draw- 
ing, each player should write under 
each picture the name of the one 
he supposes to have been the ar- 
tist. Sometimes grains of rice are 
dropped on the paper instead of 
pins, to show where the head, 
hands, and feet of the figure must 




Pin Drawings. 



be made. The illustration shows 
the spots where the pins or rice are 
supposed to have fallen, and three 
different figures drawn from these 
spots. 

PINOCLE. See Bezique. 

PIQUET, a game of cards played 
by two persons with a euchre 
pack. The players cut for deal, and 
highest deals. Ace being high in 
cutting, as in playing, and the other 
cards ranking as in Whist. The 
dealer gives twelve cards to each 



player, two at a time, and places 
the stock where both can reach it. 
If the hand of either player contains 
no face card, it is called carte 
bla7iche (white card), and he scores 
lo at once. He must deal the 
cards on the table quickly, one by 
one, and then take them up again 
that his opponent may see he has 
no face card. The non-dealer may 
now discard five cards, or less, sup- 
plying their places by an equal num- 
ber from the top of the stock. He 



PIQUET 



534 



PIQUET 



must discard at least one. If he 
discards less than five, he must tell 
how many, and may then look at 
those of the upper five cards of the 
stock that he did not take. Thus, 
if he discard two, he takes two from 
the stock, and may look at the next 
three. The dealer need not discard 
at all, unless he wishes ; but he is 
entitled to all the cards that are 
left in the stock, or as many of 
them as he wants, and discards as 
many as he takes. He must take 
his cards from the top of the stock 
as they come, even if they have al- 
ready been looked at. In every 
case the discard must be decided 
on and made before any cards in 
the stock are taken up. 

Discarding is followed by what is 
named "calling and showing," in 
which the players see which has the 
highest of certain groups of cards. 
These groups are of three kinds : 
I. Points; 2. Sequences; 3. Quat- 
orzes and Trios. 

Point is won by the player who 
has the greatest number of spots in 
any one suit, reckoning Ace as 11, 
and face cards each as 10. He who 
wins Point scores one for each card 
in the suit. 

Sequences (Latin, sequens, follow- 
ing) are three or more cards of the 
same suit in regular order. They 
rank : first, according to the number 
of cards, and second, according to 
the highest card in the sequence. 
Thus, a sequence of five cards is 
always higher than one of foiir; but 
of two sequences of four, — King, 
Queen, Knave, Ten, for instance, is 
higher than Queen, Knave, Ten, 
Nine. Sequences count one for 
each card, and 10 points more if 
there are five or more cards; thus, 
a sequence of three counts 3, but 
one of seven counts 17. The holder 
of the highest sequence scores for 
all the sequences he holds, but the 
other scores for none of his. The 
sequences are often given French 
names, being called respectively 



tierce, quart, qumt, sixieme, sep- 
tieme, and huitieme, according as 
they consist of three, four, five, six, 
seven, or eight cards. A sequence 
whose highest card is Knave or 
King, for instance, is called a "se- 
quence to a Knave" or " to a King;" 
thus, a Queen, Knave, and Ten of 
the same suit form a "tierce to a 
Queen." If Ace is the highest card, 
it is a sequence major (Latin, ma- 
jor, greater, because it is greater 
than any other sequence of the 
same number of cards). 

Quatorzes and Trios are four cards 
or three cards of a kind, higher than 
a Nine-spot, and are called simply 
four Queens, three Aces, or whatever 
they may be. The value depends 
on that of the cards that form the 
group, but any Quatorze is higher 
than any Trio. A Quatorze counts 
14, and hence its name, which is the 
French for fourteen. A Trio counts 
3. The holder of the highest Qua- 
torze (or Trio, if there be no Qua- 
torze) scores for all his Quatorzes 
and Trios, but the other player 
scores for none of his. 

The scoring of all these groups 
proceeds as follows: The non-dealer 
calls the amount of his Point (the 
sum of the spots of his highest suit, 
as explained above). If the other 
have nothing greater, he says 
" Good," and the winner shows 
all the cards of his winning suit ; 
but if the other has the same, he 
says " Equal," and neither scores; if 
he has a suit that will beat it, he 
says "Not good." If he says 
" Equal," or " Not good," he neither 
shows his own cards nor scores till 
his opponent has led the first card, 
as shown below. The sequences 
are then taken up in like manner, 
the elder hand telling what his high- 
est is, and the other replying "Good," 
" Equal," or " Not good," as before. 
Lastly the Quatorzes and Trios are 
considered together. 

Playing now begins, the eldest 
hand leading first, and the winner of 



PIQUET 



535 



PIQUET 



each trick leading for the next, as 
in most card games. Suit must be 
followed if possible, otherwise any 
card may be played. Any one that 
leads a "counting-card" (Ace, King, 
Queen, Knave, or Ten) scores one, 
whether he takes the trick or not ; 
and he who takes a trick with a 
counting-card likewise scores one. 
He who takes the last trick scores an 
additional one (thus he scores two 
if he takes it with a counting-card). 
The player that takes the majority 
of tricks scores lo for cards. If he 
take every trick (called winning a 
Capot), he scores 40. If each takes 
six tricks, neither scores for cards. 

If a player score 30 in hand 
and play before his opponent scores 
anything, he wins Pique, and scores 
an extra 30. If he score 30 in 
hand alone before his opponent 
scores, he wins Repzque, and scores 
an additional 60. Carte Blanche 
counts towai-d a Pique or Repique, 
but a Capot does not. 

The game is 100. It is customary 
not to write down the score till the 
end of the hand. Before that time, 
each player, as he wins a point, adds 
it mentally to his previous score for 
that hand only, and announces the 
total aloud. But as the whole score 
nears 100, it is necessary to remem- 
ber what it is, as the game ceases as 
soon as either player's score reaches 
that amount. 

It must be remembered that al- 
though the dealer does not show and 
score his winning groups till the 
first card is led, they are looked 
upon as if they had been recorded 
in their proper place, in counting 
for Pique and Repique. Thus, if 
the elder hand scores 30 by his 
Sequences and Quatorzes, while his 
Point is " not good," he does not 
repique the dealer, whose score is 
regarded as being made in its proper 
place, though he is not obliged to 
show his winning suit till later. 

In playing Piquet the chief things 
for the beginner to note are : 



1. That the discarded cards and 
the ones shown by his opponent, to- 
gether with those in his own hand, 
give him the means of making 
a good estimate of his enemy's 
strength. 

2. That in discarding, all of a 
long suit should usually be kept to 
make Point. 

3. That as the elder hand leads 
and there is no trump, he can play 
a bolder game than his opponent, 
and need not keep small cards to 
guard a King or Queen, as his oppo- 
nent should. An experienced play- 
er will often omit to call his best 
groups, preferring to lose, for the 
time being, rather than give his op- 
ponent valuable information. The 
learner is advised to play through 
carefully the following sample hand. 

A deals. 

B's hand is : 







1 




m 


•?-4.* 
4.^4. 

*** 




4. + 


















om^ 






0% 





A's banc 


lis: 










i:i 








4- 
















4.jy| 




4- 4- 

*** 
4. '^4. 

4- 4- 




9? 


















oWM 




0^^ 






0.0 
0^0 










PIQUET 



536 



PIQUET 



B discards 



4.*4. 




*4.* 

4. 4. 

4. 4. 




^^^ 
^ 9 

^ 
^ ^ 






0^0 



(He keeps his longest suit, Spades, 
for Point, and discards the small 
cards of the other suits, as by so 
doino^ he breaks up no sequence, 
Quatorze, or Trio. He does not 
keep the Eight of Diamonds as a 
guard to his King, since he has the 
lead.) 

B draws : 




and draws 



B (calling his Point) says "Forty- 
one." 

A (seeing he has 47 in Diamonds) 
replies " Not good." 

B says " A Tierce Major." 

A says " Good " (since he has no 
higher sequence), and B shows 



and says " 3 " (scoring). 

B says " Four Kings." 

A says " Good." 

B (who need not show them un- 
less A demands it) says " 17, and 
three Queens make 20." 



B plays 



and says "21. 



A now shows his Point : 



O O 0^0 

tot o'o 






A plays 



, saying "6." (5th 
trick). 



A (who has thus gained the lead) 
plays 



9? 



, saying " 7. 



B plays 



2 2 



. (6th trick.) 



PIQUET 



^'^1 



i^iOUET 




B plays 



saying " 26." (8th 
trick.) 



B (leading again) plays 



saying "27.' 




B plays ♦ ^ (which does not 
count, as it is not a "counting card.") 
A plays 



0^0 

O O 



and B, counting 



one for last trick, says " 30." 

B has taken the majority of tricks, 
so he has "cards," which cotin's 10, 



and his score stands 40 to A's 9 for 
the hand. 

In playing, where a person sees 
that he is sure to take tricks with 
more than one card in a suit, he 
generally lays them down all at once 
to save time. So, in the above game, 
beginning after the first trick, B 

might put down his 



and 






together saying " 24, 



for the Knave has just been played, 
and they are therefore the three 
highest cards in the suit. 

Three-handed Piquet. The dealer 
gives each player eight cards. The 
eldest hand can take four cards, the 
next player two, with any left by the 
first, and the third as many as re- 
main. Points, etc., to be "good," 
must be in excess of those held by 
each of the other players, but they 
score as in two-handed Piquet. A 
Pique usually scores 20 extra points, 
a Repique 40, and a Capot 30, but 
there are several other modes of 
scoring these chances. 

Other Kinds of Piquet. Several 
varieties of the game, differing from 
the standard Piquet in some minor 
particulars, are played in Europe. 
For instance, in Portland Club 
Piquet, introduced in 1873, the 
Point is not always estimated simply 
by counting one for every card held 
in it ; but if its pips happen to 
amount to 34, 44, 54, or 64, the 
Point counts as 3, 4, 5, or 6 points 
respectively. In these cases the 
Point scores one less than it ordi- 
narily would. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

I. If there be a misdeal, or the 
dealer expose one of his opponent's 
cards, he must deal again ; but if 
only one card be dealt wrongly (as 
when one player has thirteen and 
the other eleven, or when one has 



PIQUET 



538 



PIQUET 



thirteen and there are only seven in 
the stock) the non-dealer may let 
the deal stand, if he choose, and the 
numbers shall be corrected in dis- 
carding. 

2. If the elder hand have Cane 
Blanche, he must announce it at 
once, but need not show it till after 
the discard. If the dealer have it, 
he need neither declare nor show 
it till his opponent has discard- 
ed. 

3. After a player has touched the 
stock he cannot alter his discard 
unless there has been a misdeal, or 
the other player wrongly announces 
the number of cards he takes, or 
fails to announce it. 

4. If a player take more cards 
from the stock than he ought, he 
must play the hand through, but 
only his opponent may score. If he 
take less than his due, his opponent 
may reckon, as tricks won, all cards 
that cannot be played to. 

5. The elder hand may look at 
any cards that he declines to take 
from the stock. The dealer may 
look at what he leaves, after the 
other has led a card ; but if he does 
so, his opponent may also look. 

6. A player may examine his own 
discard at any time. 

6. If a player call a lower group 
than the highest he holds, he must 
abide by his call ; but if he call a 
group he does not hold he must 
correct his mistake. 

8. When the elder hand has led, 
or the younger played to it, neither 
can reckon anything that has been 
omitted. 

9. A player may at any time re- 
quire his opponent to show him all 
unplayed cards that have already 
been shown in reckoning, or may 
ask for any information about such 
cards. 

10. A card once played cannot be 
taken up unless it has been led out 
of turn and the adversary has not 
played to it, or unless it is a revoke. 
In the latter case all cards played 
after the revoke are taken again into 



the player's hands and played over 
again. 

11. Both players' tricks may be 
examined by either at any time. 

12. Errors in adding or marking 
the score may be made right at any 
time during the game. 

Imperial, a kind of Piquet, in which 
a trump is turned. The King is the 
highest card in the pack, and the 
Ace ranks between the Knave and 
the Ten. The face-cards, the Ace, 
and the Seven, are called Honors. 
There is no discarding. The top 
card of the stock is turned for trump, 
and this trump-card is treated as 
part of each player's hand in reck- 
oning Point and groups of cards. 
Of the Piquet groups, the only ones 
that count in Imperial are quarts- 
major and groups of four Honors, 
both of which are called Imperials. 
Each player scores for whatever 
Imperials he has, but Point is scored 
only by the holder of the highest, 
as in Piquet. The elder hand first 
shows and scores his Imperials, and 
then calls his Point. Before reply- 
ing to the call, the younger shows 
and scores his Imperials, and then 
says "Good" or "Not good" to 
the call of Point. If good, the 
elder shows and scores it ; if not, 
the younger waits till after the 
lead before doing so, as in Piquet. 
If either have Carte Blanche, only 
that and Imperials are scored; 
there is no Point, and the hand is 
not played. In playing, only 
Honors are scored for, and always 
by him who takes the trick contain- 
ing them. 

In scoring, an Honor turned up 
counts the dealer one; Carte Blanche 
scores 12; an Imperial scores 6; 
Point scores i. Each Honor 
won in play counts one. Each 
trick taken more than six counts 
one. When a player's score is six, 
no matter how gained, he is said to 
have scored an Imperial. When, in 
the course of a hand, either player's 
score amounts to that of one or 
more Imperials, his opponent's score 



PIQUET 



539 



PLANETS 



is reduced to the next lowest whole 
number of Imperials, called " taking 
down." Thus, suppose A has 4 
points and B 3 ; if B make 3 more, 
all A's are taken away, and the 
score is i Imperial to nothing in 
B's favor. Similarly, if A have 25 
points and B 4, and B gain 2, the 
score is A, 4 Imperials; B, i Imperial. 
But if each player has one or more 
Imperials in hand, neither takes 
down his score. The number of 
Imperials that shall win the game 
is decided on beforehand. It is 
usually about six (36 points). 

In playing, the most noticeable 
difference from Piquet is due to the 
trump. Trumps should be led if 
the hand is strong in them (that is, 
if there are four or more). If a 
player is forced to trump, he should 
do so with a low Honor, to score it. 
If a player think, from the score, 
that he can make an Imperial, and 
that his adversary cannot, he should 
try to force the latter to make neces- 
sary points before the Imperial is 
scored, that it may take them down. 
This is called " playing to the 
score." 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. If the dealer turn the wrong 
card, or more than one card, for 
trump, he must show his hand to 
his opponent, who, without looking 
at his own hand, may either require 
the right card to be turned, or call 
for a new deal. 

2. If a player look at any of the 
stock cards, his adversary may call 
for a fresh deal, if he have not seen 
his own cards. If he have seen 
them, he may call on the offender 
once during the hand to lead some 
particular suit. 

3. All Imperials must be shown 
before they can be scored. If a 
player do not show his Imperials at 
the proper time, as described above, 
he cannot score them. 

In other essential points, the 
laws of Imperial are the same as 
those of ordinary Piquet. 



History. Piquet is one of the 
oldest of the card games still played. 
It is generally supposed that it 
originated in France, where it was 
also called Cent (Hundred), though 
the same game under the name of 
Cientos was early known in Spain. 
It was called Sant (corrupted from 
Cent) in England till the middle of 
the seventeenth century, when the 
French name of Piquet was adopted. 
What is now called the Point in 
Piquet was known in old times in 
France as Ronfie, and some writers 
think that the game was developed 
from the old Italian Ronfa. Others 
think that it may have been derived 
from the Saxon game of Schwerter 
Karte (Sword Cards), which would 
account for the name, the French 
Pique (pike) as a suit mark being 
the same as the Spanish Espada 
(Sword). Some French writers say 
that Piquet was so named after a 
man who invented it ; others say 
that it was named from the Pique, 
one of its features, but without ex- 
plaining the latter ; while still others 
suggest that the name means " Le 
jeu piquant" (The exciting game). 
The word is also written Picquet, 
and in English Picket. 

PITCH. See All Fours. 

PITCHETTE. See Grommets. 

PLANETS. Observations on. The 
planets are described in C. C. T. in 
the article Universe. The only 
ones about which anything more 
can be seen with an opera glass than 
with the naked eye are Venus and 
Jupiter. Planets constantly change 
position in the heavens, so that no 
directions can be given for finding 
them to one who has not studied 
astronomy. The best way is to 
wait until one of them is morning 
or evening star, which can be seen 
by any almanac. 

Venus. It can be seen through an 
opera-glass that Venus has phases 
like the moon, changing from a thin 
crescent to a full disk, and then back 
again to a crescent; but instead of 
being repeated every month, as with 



PLANK 



S4<5 



POETICAL BUTTERFLY 



the moon, these changes take nearly 
nineteen months. When Venus is 
full she is nearly eight times as far 
away from the earth as when she is 
new, so her apparent changes of 
size and shape are quite apparent. 

Jupiter. This planet has four 
moons, which are invisible to the 
naked eye, but can be seen through 
an opera-glass. They always appear 
in a straight line, and change posi- 
tion very rapidly. If they are looked 
at two nights in succession, this 
change of position enables the ob- 
server to tell them from stars, which 
they resemble. 

PLANK, a game played by two to 
four persons, with 12 cards and 24 
counters. Each of the cards bears 
three squares, arranged as in the 
figure, and colored red, white, and 
blue, the order of the colors vary- 
ing on different cards. 




Plank-carcl. 

The counters are divided into 
four sets, marked respectively with 
the letters A, B, C, and D, and in 
each set there are two red, two 
blue, and two white counters. The 
cards are divided equally among 
the players, and each is given a set 
of counters. The player at the 
dealer's left lays down a card face 
upward, and places a counter on a 
square of the same color. The 
player at his left may place a 
counter on the same card, or lay 
another card close by its side, plac- 
ing a counter on the second card, 
and the other players in turn have 
the same choice. When the cards 
and counters have all been played, 
each may move one of his counters 
to a vacant space of the same color. 



He who first gets three of his count- 
ers, red, white, and blue, in a row, 
either lengthwise or across the 
cards, wins the game. No counter 
may be placed on a square of a dif- 
ferent color, 

PLANTING, a game played by 
any number of persons, in which 
each in order tells what he has 
planted and what came up. The 
articles planted may be objects or 
persons of any kind, but they must 
come up as plants or trees, having 
some punning connection with the 
thing planted. Thus, one player 
may say: " I planted Shakespeare, 
and Sweet William came up;" an- 
other, " I planted a pack of cards, 
and W(h)istaria came up." 

PLATINUM, Experiments with. i. 
Heat a bit of platinum wire red-hot 
in the flame of a Bunsen burner. 
Turn off the gas, and turn it on 
again at once. The wire will 
remain red-hot, though it does 
not light the gas again. The 
reason is, that platinum con- 
denses gases on its surface, 
and the mixed gas and air 
of the burner being thus con- 
densed, unite and give out 
enough heat to keep the wire 
red-hot, though not enough 
to light the gas again. 
2. Cut a star, or any other figure, 
from a piece of platinum, and suspend 
it by a platinum wire in a wine-glass 
by fastening the wire to a nail laid 
across the top of the glass. Put a 
little alcohol into the glass, about a 
quarter of an inch from the object, 
light it, and when the platinum is 
red-hot, smother the flame by plac- 
ing a piece of paper or card-board 
on the top of the glass. By lifting 
the cover now and then to let air 
into the glass, the platinum figure 
will remain red-hot and throw out 
a bright light, until all the alcohol 
is exhausted. The effect is very 
beautiful in a dark room. 

POETICAL BUTTERFLY, THE. A 
game played by any number of per- 
sons, one of whom, called the But- 



POETS 



541 



POLO 



terfly, names the others after trees, 
flowers, birds, or insects. The But- 
terfly pretends to fly from one to 
another, asking each for his story, 
and then commenting on it as he 
pleases. Each of the players, when 
thus addressed, must give some 
quotation, or mention some tale or 
legend, about the tree, flower, bird, 
or insect he represents. Thus, the 
Apple-tree may allude to the story 
of William Tell, and the Robin to 
that of Cock Robin, while the Black- 
bird may quote : 

" Four and twenty blackbirds 
Baked in a pie," 

POETS, a game played by any 
number of persons, with pencils 
and paper. Each writes on a slip 
of paper the name of some well- 
known author, and on another slip 
a quotation from his works. The 
names are then placed in one pile, 
and the quotations in another, and 
each player draws a slip from each 
pile. Each, in order, then reads his 
slips aloud, and declares whether 
or not the quotation drawn is from 
the writings of the author. If not, 
he is required to give a quotation 
from the writings of the author 
whose name is on his slip, and to 
name the author of the quotation 
on the other slip. If he makes any 
mistake he must pay a forfeit. An- 
other way of playing the game, 
which makes it entirely one of 
chance, is simply to exact a forfeit 
from those players who draw slips 
on which the names and quotations 
do not correspond. This game is 
called in Germany Dichter Er- 
rashen (Guessing Poets). 

POLISH CHECKERS or 
DRAUGHTS. See Checkers. 

POKER, Experiment with. Heat 
a poker red hot, and then look 
along its side at an object ten or 
twelve feet distant. If the poker is 
held correctly, three images of the 
object will be seen close to the sur- 
face, one of which is upside down. 
These images are caused by reflection 
from the heated air close to the 



poker. A similar reflection from 
the air close to the hot sand of a 
desert is called Mirage (a French 
word meaning reflection). 

POLO, the game of Hockey 
played on horseback or roller skates. 
In the horseback game, called 
Equestrian Polo, the players ride on 
ponies not more than 14 hands 
I inch in height, usually Mexican 
Mustangs. The sticks, or mallets, 
are from 49 to 52 inches long, with 
heads of willow-wood and flexible 
handles covered with buckskin. The 
balls are made of light wood. The 
grounds are about 750 yards long 
and 500 feet wide, and have at each 
end two goal-posts, 24 feet apart. 
At the beginning of the game the 
leaders toss for goals, and the play- 
ers on each side take position m 
front of their goal behind a line 
drawn about 12 yards from it. The 
ball is thrown into the centre of the 
field by the umpire, and the game 
begins. Sometimes the game is 
opened by "charging," in which 
case the players stand only a few 
feet from the ball, and rush upon it 
at the word " play ;" but as this is 
hard on the horses, it is usually 
omitted, except in the opening game 
of a match. The object of the game, 
as in similar ones, is to strike the 
ball between the opposing goal-posts, 
called winning a goal. A match 
game usually consists of three in- 
nings of twenty minutes each, with 
two minute intervals for rest, and 
the side making the most goals in 
the sixty minutes of play wins the 
game. In case of a tie, the game is 
continued till one party makes an- 
other goal. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

The following are the rules of the 
Westchester Polo Club : 

1. The grounds to be about 750 
feet long by 500 feet wide, with a 
ten-inch guard from end to end on 
the sides only. 

2. The height of the ponies must 
not exceed 14 hands i inch. 



POLO 



542 



POLO 



3. The balls to be of wood, with 
no other covering than paint, and 
about 3 inches in diameter. The 
mallets to be such as are approved 
by the Steward. 

4. The goal-posts to be 24 feet 
apart, and light enough to break if 
collided with. 

5. Match games between pairs 
shall be for periods of 30 minutes, 
time between goals included, unless 
otherwise specified. 

6. Match games between teams of 
four shall be three periods of 20 
minutes each, actual play, time be- 
tween goals and delays not counted, 
with 10 minutes between the periods 
for rest, unless otherwise specified, 

7. Each team to choose an um- 
pire, and, if necessary, the two um- 
pires to appoint a referee, whose de- 
cision shall be final. 

8. Each team shall have a substi- 
tute in readiness to play when a 
match is on. 

9. There shall be a captain for 
each team, who shall have the 
direction of positions and plays of 
his men. 

10. No captain shall allow a mem- 
ber of his team to appear in the 
game otherwise than in the Club 
uniform. 

11. No person — players, umpires, 
and referee excepted — shall, under 
any circumstances, be allowed upon 
the ground during the progress of 
the game. 

12. It is forbidden to touch an ad- 
versary, his pony, or his mallet, with 
the hand or mallet during play, or 
to strike the ball when dismounted. 

13. The game to begin with a 
charge, the contestants taking their 
positions behind the chalk-line, 
which is to be 30 feet from the goal- 
posts. When the signal to charge 
has been given by the referee, the 
first and second players must keep 
to the left of the ball until it has 
been touched. 

14. In case of an accident to a 
player or pony, or for any other 
reasonable cause, the referee may 



stop the game, and the time so lost 
shall not be counted. When the 
game is resumed, the ball shall be 
thrown between the players, who 
shall be lined up at the point at 
which the ball stopped. But if the 
game is stopped on account of a 
foul, the ball is to be thrown in at 
the place at which the foul occurred. 

15. When the limit of time has 
expired, the game must continue un- 
til the ball goes out of bounds, and 
such over-time shall not be counted. 

16. In case of an equal number of 
goals having been made at the end 
of the third period, the game to be 
continued until one side makes the 
winning goal. 

17. When the ball goes out of 
bounds at the sides, it must be 
thrown in from the place at which it 
went out, by the referee, or by an im- 
partial person, between the two sides, 
which shall be drawn up in line 
facing each other. When the ball 
goes out at the ends, the side de- 
fending that goal is entitled to a 
knock-out from the point at which 
it crossed the line. When the play- 
er having the knock-out causes un- 
necessary delay, the umpire may 
throw a ball on the field and call 
plays. No opponent shall come 
within 50 feet of a player having the 
knock-out, until the ball has been 
hit. 

18. A player requiring a mallet 
during the game, must ride to the 
end or side line. It must not be 
brought on the field to him. 

19. Foul riding is careless and 
dangerous horsemanship, and lack 
of consideration for the safety of 
others. A player in possession of 
the ball has the right of way, and 
no one shall cross him unless at 
such a distance as to avoid all possi- 
bility of a collision. 

20. The referee may suspend a 
player for the match for foul riding, 
or he may award the opposing side 
a half goal. 

Polo on Roller Skates, or Rink 
Polo, a game played by opposing' 



POLO 



543 



POLO 



teams of five players in a rink or 
other large hall. The ball is of rub- 
ber, and the sticks, which are curved 
at the end, are about five feet 
long and one inch in diameter. The 
goals, set ten feet from the ends of 
the rink, are cages six feet wide, 
three feet deep, and three feet 
high, and to count as a goal, the 
ball must be struck into the cage 
and remain there. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. To Start the game, the ball is 
placed in the middle of a straight 
line joining the centres of the goals, 
and at the whistle of the referee is 
charged upon by a player on each 
side, who shall start, without aid, 
from a point on aline with his goal 
and i8 inches to the left of it. 

2. The side scoring most goals in 
a half hour's play wins the game. 

3. To count as a goal, the ball 
must remain in the cage. It must 
not be removed thence by any per- 
son but the referee. Should any 
player touch the ball in the cage 
either with his person or stick, or 
anything else that indicates his in- 
tention to remove the ball, the ref- 
eree shall decide a goal for the 
other side. 

If a ball go out of bounds, the ref- 
eree shall blow his whistle to call 
game, and place the ball at a point 
opposite where it went out, at least 
four feet from the rail. In recom- 
mencing play, the players who do so 
must stand in position to knock 
the ball up or down, not across, the 
rink with their backs toward the 
sides, the ball to be midway between 
two players. 

5. Game shall be called by the 
referee whenever a foul occurs, or 
whenever one is claimed, unless the 
referee is satisfied that no just claim 
exists. Upon claim of foul, if game 
is to be renewed, the ball must be 
placed where the foul occurred. 

6. It shall be deemed a foul: i. 
If any player stop or strike the ball 
when any part of his person is 



touching the surface. 2. If any 
player catch or bat the ball with his 
hands or arm. 3. If any player 
(save the goal-tend, who may do so) 
kick the ball with his foot or skate, 
though he may stop the ball with 
either. 4. If any player strike down 
the stick of his opponent, or if any 
player trip or strike another inten- 
tionally with stick, hand, or skate. 

5. If any player throw his stick in 
the pathway of a player or at a ball. 

6. If a player raise his stick above 
his hip in striking a ball. But in 
case the ball is in the air, above the 
hip, he can raise his stick to stop 
it. 

7. Any act by any player that is 
manifestly intended as an interfer- 
ence with another may be declared 
a foul by the referee, upon com- 
plaint of the captain of the offended 
side. 

8. Three fouls (other than when 
the ball leaves the bounds) made by 
either side during a contest for a 
goal, shall constitute a goal for the 
opposite side. 

9. If the referee decide that a foul 
made by the goal-tend prevented a 
goal, one shall be adjudged for the 
opposite team. 

10. All games shall be played on 
rink skates with plain boxwood 
revolving rollers, without the use of 
additional appliances to hinder the 
free running of such rollers. Any 
woods, rubber, or any other material 
attached in any manner to any 
skate, shoe, or boot, is positively 
prohibited. 

11. The ball must not be struck 
hard, but may only be " nursed" or 
" coached." 

12. No person, except the players 
and referee, shall be allowed on any 
part of the surface during a game. 

13. If the rusher, whose place it 
is to charge upon the ball to start 
the game, tries to start before the 
whistle is blown, or does not start 
from the designated spot, the ref- 
eree must warn him once; and if 
he persists, the referee has the 



POLO 



544 



POLO 



authority to call for a new rusher 
to start the game. 




Parlor Polo Board. 

Parlor Polo, a game founded on 
Polo, played by two persons on a 
board like that in the illustration. 
The squares are colored alternately 
white and blue, except those occu- 
pied by men at the beginning of the 
game, which are red. Each player 
has six pieces or men, like check- 
ers, called Goal Tend, Cover Point, 
two Rushers, and two Half Backs, 
whose positions at the opening of 
the game are shown in the figure. A 
small figure of a polo player on 
horseback, called the Ball, is placed 
in the middle of the board. Each 
player sits behind his own goal, and 
each plays in turn, throwing two 
dice to determine his moves. The 
colored squares alone are used. 
Any man may be moved a number 
of colored squares equal to the sum 
of the numbers thrown, diagonally 
in any direction, either in a straight 
or zig-zag line, provided he does 
not pass over any other man in so 
doing, nor retrace his steps in the 
same move. The Rushers must 
move first, and the Goal Tend must 
not leave the goal; but aside from 
this the men are all alike. When a 
man moves exactly into the square 
occupied by the Ball, he is said to 
" have the Ball," and it is placed on 



him. He can now take the Ball 
with him in his moves (called 
"carrying" it), or he may "throw" 
it, that is, move the Ball like a 
man. The thrown Ball can pass 
over the heads of as many men as 
necessary, but it can be thrown 
only in a straight line. A player 
may take the number on one of his 
dice as a move, with or without the 
ball, and the other as a " throw," but 
he can divide them in no other way. 
Thus, if he throw six-three, he can 
move up six squares and throw the 
Ball three, ox vice versa, but he can- 
not, for instance, move seven squares 
and throw two. He wins who first 
plays the Ball, either by throwing 
or carrying it to one of the squares 
in the opposite goal. The Ball 
should usually be carried as far as 
possible, and then thrown over the 
heads of the opponent's men. 

History. Polo has been traced 
back as far as the 8th century, when 
it was played in Persia and called 
Ckugdn, the name of the long- 
handled mallet used in the game. 
There is a story that Darius sent 
Alexander a ball and Ckugdn, as an 
insulting hint that he was more fit 
to play polo than to go to war. It 
is undoubtedly the equestrian game 
called "Tennis" in the Arabian 
Nights. The Byzantine Greeks 
played it with a stick somewhat 
like a Lacrosse stick, having at the 
end a network of gut strings. The 
game was played both on foot and 
on horseback. The foot game (our 
Hockey) was carried to France 
under the name of Chicane (prob- 
ably a corruption of Ckugdn) and 
from this we get our word chicanery, 
meaning trickery, from the tricks 
employed in the game. Equestrian 
Polo was introduced into England 
by some cavalry officers about 1865, 
and the first game was played near 
Folkestone. There are now many 
Polo clubs in Great Britain and sev- 
eral in the United States. The first 
club in this country was the West- 
chester, which played on the 



POOL 



545 



PORTRAITS 



grounds at Fifth Avenue and iioth 
Street, New York City, still known 
as the Polo Grounds, though they 
are not now used for the purpose, 
the club having removed its head- 
quarters to Newport, Rhode Island, 
where frequent matches are played 
every summer. A kind of Polo has 
long been played by the Indians of 
Arizona, who use any kind of a 
stick they wish, and strike to and 
fro any object, as a stone or piece 
of wood. There are no sides, each 
player acting for himself. 
POOL. See Billiards. 
POPE JOAN. See Newmarket. 
POP-GUN, a toy gun worked by 
compressed air. The simplest kind 
is the Potato Pop-gun, which is 
made as follows : Fit loosely to a 
piece of goose-quill about three 
inches long, cut off squarely at the 
ends, a wooden piston or ramrod. 
Cut a raw potato into 
slices about as thick as 
a silver dollar, and press 
each end of the quill on a 
slice, so that both ends 
will be plugged with little 
pellets of potato (/). If one 
of these be now pushed in 
with the piston (s), the 
other will fly out with a 
popping noise. The air 
within is first compressed 
andthen, expanding, drives 
out the bit of potato before 
it. The remaining piece is 
now pushed forward to 
the end of the quill, the 
vacant end pressed again 
on a slice of potato, and 
the gun is ready to be 
fired once more. 

A larger gun can be 
made of a tube of brass or 
glass, with a piston made 
by winding twine around 
of a stick till it will ex- 
actly fit the bore. A cork is inserted 
at one end of the tube and driven 
out by suddenly pushing the piston 
in at the other. Pop-guns of all 
kinds are sold at toy shops. In one 



Pop-gun, 
the end 



kind the piston is in the middle, 
and there is a cork at each end, so 
that it can be fired either by pulling 
or by pushing the piston. In an- 
other, a piece of paper fastened 
tightly over one end is broken by 
the force of the compressed air. 

POROSITY, Experiment on. Por- 
ous substances are those which are 
filled with minute holes, or pores. 
Half fill a glass with boiling water, 
and lay over the top a piece of 
pasteboard, over which invert an 
empty dry glass. The moist vapor 
arising from the water will soon be 
seen also in the upper glass, having 
passed through the pasteboard. In 
this way many kinds of substances 
may be tried: wood, cloth. India- 
rubber, glass, etc., and it will be 
found that some of them are porous 
enough to let water vapor through 
them, while others are not. 

PORTRAITS, a game played with 
pen, ink, and paper by any number 




Autograph Portrait. 

of persons. Each writes his name 
on a slip of paper, with as many 



PORTRAITS 



546 



POTATO RACE 




flourishes, and as much ink, as pos- 
sible. Each then folds his paper 
once, the fold running lengthwise 
through the middle of the name, 
and passes it to the right. The 
person who receives it presses his 
A finger on the fold at A, 
then draws it from B to 
C, from B to E, and from 
C to D. He thus makes 
a series of blots within, 
and when the paper is 
unfolded, a rude and comical resem- 
blance to a human figure will be 
found. This is supposed to be the 
portrait of him whose name was 
written on the paper. As a general 
thing, the more ink used in writing, 
the more amusing will be the por- 
trait. 

The picture shows an " autograph 
portrait" thus taken. The game 
is sometimes called " Smudge- 
ography." 

PORTRAITS AND SENTIMENTS, 
a game played by any number of 
persons, who sit in a row. Each 
whispers to his right-hand neighbor 
the name of some person, and to his 
left-hand neighbor some sentiment, 
original or quoted, supposed to be 
written under the portrait of that 
person. Each then announces aloud 
whose portrait has been presented 
to him, and what is inscribed under 
it. For instance, a player may be 
given the portrait of Bluebeard 
with the inscription : " He was an 
indulgent husband, and an estima- 
ble gentleman." The names chosen 
may be those of the players, or 
those of famous characters, real or 
fictitious, ancient or modern. 

POTASSIUM, Experiments with. 
Potassium is described in C. C. T. 
I. Throw a piece of potassium on 
water as described in C. C. T. , 

2. Throw a piece on a large sheet 
of blotting-paper which has been 
wet with red litmus water (see Test- 
PAPERS). Tiie potassium will run 
about the paper, leaving a blue 
track caused by the formation of 
potash (see C. C. T.) 



3. In a block of ice about six 
inches square, bore a hole half an 
inch wide and two inches deep, en- 
larging the bottom of the hole to 
form a cavity. Drop into it a 
piece of potassium the size of a pea. 
It will take fire and burn beautifully. 
The experiment should be tried in 
a warm, dark room. 

4. To Fire a Cannon with an Icicle. 
Load a toy cannon, and on the gun- 
powder on the touch-hole put a 
piece of potassium as big as a pin- 
head. When this is touched with a 
piece of ice it will blaze up, setting 
fire to the powder. 

POTATO RACE, a running game 
played by any number of persons. 
A circle about forty feet in di- 
ameter is marked out as a race- 
course, and across it at any point is 
marked a straight line A B ten feet 




Course for Potato Race. 

long, half outside the ring and half 
inside. On this line spots are 
marked at intervals of six inches. 
Each contestant must take a potato 
from a basket placed near the ring 
at C, opposite the line, and running 
around the circle place it on the 
first spot on the line. As he goes 
on past the basket he takes another 
potato, which he places on the sec- 
ond spot, and so on till ten minutes 
have passed. After placing each 
potato the runner must return to 
the ring without stepping over the 
line, and each potato must be placed 
exactly on its proper spot. Three 



POUND PARTY 



547 



PREFERENCE 



judges are appointed, one of whom 
stands at the potato basket, one at 
the line, and one in the middle of the 
circle to call out the runners' names 
in order and keep the time. 

Any runner who takes more than 
one potato, or fails to take any, who 
skips a spot, or does not place his 
potato properly, is declared out of 
the race at once. Instead of pota- 
toes, apples, or any small objects 
can be used. The course and line 
may be marked with lime or flour 
on grass, and the spots for the pota- 
toes with dark earth, or by short 
cross-lines. 

POUND PARTY, an entertainment 
to which each guest is required to 
bring something weighing exactly a 
pound. These may be eatables, 
toys, useful articles, or whatever 
the giver pleases. Each package is 
numbered and laid aside as it is re- 
ceived. When the guests are ready 
for the distribution of the parcels, 
numbered cards, or slips of paper, 
are passed around and each draws 
one. Some one then takes the 
packages one by one, calling its 
number aloud; the holder of the 
corresponding number becomes its 
owner, and must open it in the pres- 
ence of the company. 

PREDICAMENTS. See Cross 
Questions. 

PREFERENCE, or SWEDISH 
WHIST, a game of cards, played 
with a full pack, generally by four 
persons, but sometimes by five or six. 
The four-handed game will be de- 
scribed first. The pack being placed 
face downward on the table, each 
player draws a card from it. The 
holders of the highest two play to- 
gether as partners, the other two 
playing against them. The one who 
draws the lowest card is allowed to 
select his place at the table, and deals 
first. Ace is considered the lowest 
card in thus drawing, but in playing 
the cards rank as in Whist. The 
game resembles ordinary Whist, but 
differs in the following points : The 
trump is determined by bidding 



thus : the eldest hand names the 
suit he prefers, and then the others, 
in order, to the left ; but each must 
name a suit higher in rank than the 
preceding player, or say " I pass." 
Hearts ranks as the highest suit, and 
after it, in order, Diamonds, Spades, 
and Clubs. The highest suit bid is 
taken for trump, unless some one 
bids " Preference," or says " I Pre- 
fer," when the game must be played 
without any trump. Preference is 
higher than any other bid, and as 
soon as it is bid, play begins at 
once. 

In practice, the bids of Clubs and 
Spades are now used as an invitation 
to the player's partner to demand 
Preference, Spades being the 
stronger invitation. If all pass, the 
party may agree to play " Millissi- 
mo," the object then being to avoid 
taking tricks. Er*)nors and tricks are 
scored as in Whist, but the score is 
multiplied by 3, if Clubs are trumps ; 
by 4, if Spades ; by 5, if Diamonds ; 
by 6, if Hearts ; and by 8, if Prefer- 
ence or Millissimo has been played. 
In the case of Millissimo, not those 
who take the tricks, but their oppo- 
nents, score. In addition, a Little 
Slam (12 tricks) counts 10 points, a 
Grand Slam (13 tricks) counts 20; 
the first game in a rubber counts 10, 
and the second (if won immediately 
after the first), 20. All these points 
remain the same, no matter what 
the trump is. 

A game ends when one party has 
made 20 points in tricks alone. A 
rubber ends when two consecutive 
games have been won by the same 
side. After the first rubber, the 
dealer and the player at his left 
keep their seats, and the others 
change. After the second, the 
player opposite the dealer changes 
with the one who has not played 
with the dealer. This series of 
three rubbers constitutes what is 
called a "complete game." Each 
player keeps his own score, credit- 
ing himself with all points made by 
himself and each of his partners. 



PRISM 



548 



PRISM 



and after the third rubber, he who 
has most points is declared winner. 
As the end of the " small game " is 
determined by the points made by- 
tricks alone, it is convenient to 
score rhem by themselves. 

When five play, one always stays 
out of the game, he who drew the 
highest card staying out of the first 
rubber, the next to the highest out 
of the second, and so on. Each, on 
entering the game, sits opposite the 
player who drew the lowest card. 
When six play, two stay out in like 
manner. 

PRISM, Experiments with a. The 
prisms used to separated white light 
into its different colors (see Light 
in C. C. T.) are three-sided. Such 
prisms are sometimes used also for 
ornaments on chandeliers or lamps. 
Larger ones are somewhat expen- 
sive, but a good prism can be made 
by fastening three squares of glass 
on a glass bottom, and filling with 
water the three -sided vessel so 
formed. The joints are made water- 
tight with putty. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

I. Look through a prism at the 
edge of any bright object, or at a 
sheet of white paper pasted on black 




Experiment 2. 

paper. It will appear colored, in 
narrow stripes of red, yellow, and 
blue. 



2. Hold a prism P (see illustra- 
tion), in a beam of sunlight admitted 
through a hole S, into the room. 
If possible, shut out all light from 
the room except the one beam. This 
may be done by closing the shutters 
at all windows but one, and covering 
that with sheets of thick wrapping- 
paper, in one of which is cut a 
small hole to admit the beam. The 
spot of light made by the beam 
on the wall or floor will show seven 
colors, which will be farther apart 
the larger the prism. The colors 
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, 
orange, and red are denoted in the 
picture at I H by their initial letters. 

3. Take a bit of red sewing-silk, 
and hold it in each one of the colors. 
If the room is perfectly dark, the 
silk will appear black, or almost so, 
in each of them except the red. In 
like manner, yellow silk will appear 
black in each color except the yel- 
low. This is because each piece of 
silk is able to reflect only its own 
color. 

4. Look through a prism at the 
flame of an alcohol lamp in which 
salt has been dissolved. It will not 
appear colored at all, because such 
a flame is pure yellow and cannot 
be separated into other colors. 

This is the only pure 
color easy to obtain. 

5. Receive the colored 
spot on a hand-mirror, 
so as to reflect it to the 
ceiling, and tip the 
mirror rapidly, so as to 
make the spot move 
backward and forward. 
It will appear white, be- 
cause the effect is the 
same as if the colors 
were mixed together 
again. 

With the aid of a 

HELIOSTAT the colors 

can be separated muc*i 

farther, into a ban^l 

called the spectrum. The beam 

of light from the heliostat shoulri 

be admitted to the room througli 



PRISM 



549 



PRISONER'S BASE 



a narrow slit from one-eighth 
to one-quarter of an inch wide. 
This slit may be cut in a sheet 
of paper which is pinned over 
the hole through which the light 
passes. In front of the slit is placed 
a lens at such a distance as to throw 
a clear image of the slit on the op- 
posite wall, or on a handkerchief 
held up before it. The prism is 
then placed in front of the lens. 
The spectrum will be thrown to one 
side, where it must be received on a 
white wall or screen. This must be 
exactly as far from the prism as the 
wall or place where the clear image 
of the slit was formed, otherwise 
the spectrum will not be clear. If 
the wall is just at the right distance, 
and the slit is narrow enough, verti- 
cal black lines are seen across the 
spectrum. These black lines are 
caused by the sun's atmosphere, 
which stops some colors of light 
and lets others through. Colored 
liquids also let through part of the 
light and stop other parts, as may 
be seen by placing various liquids 
in the path of the ray. For this 
purpose a thin transparent vessel is 
needed. One may be made by 
fastening together with shellac var- 
nish two pieces of window glass, 
about four inches square, an inch 
apart, by means of wood strips on 
three sides. Carmine dissolved in 
weak ammonia water, placed in this 
vessel and held in front of the 
light, either between the slit and 
lens, or between lens and prism, 
only lets through a little of the red 
light, if the solution is strong. 
When it is weakened, two upright 
black bands will be seen across the 
spectrum in the greenish -yellow 
part of it. A little blood, mixed 
with water, also gives two bands, 
but they are in a slightly different 
place from the carmine bands. This 
is an easy way of telHng carmme 
from blood, though their colors are 
almost exactly alike. By trying all 
sorts of colored substances, dis- 
solved in water, it will be found that 



each cuts off the light in a different 
way. 

PRISONER'S BASE, an out-door 
game played by any number of per- 
sons, though the best number is 
from 12 to i6. Two "Bases," or 
enclosures, are marked off, each 
large enough to hold half the 
players, and two " Prisons " a little 
smaller, from one to two hundred 
feet from the Bases, according to 
convenience. Two methods of lay- 
ing out the ground are shown in the 
diagrams. The players are divided 

















n 




B's 




A's 






Pcison 








Prison 




A's 
Base 




B's 

Base 













Fig. 



B's 
Priscm/ 


/ 


\ 


A's 
Sftison 


A's 
Base 


B's 
Base 



Fig. 2. 
Prisoners' Base Grounds. 

into two opposing sides, each of 
which occupies one of the Bases. 
A player from one side begins the 
game by running beyond the bounds 
of his Base, and one on the opposite 
side pursues him. A second man 
from the first party chases the pur- 



PRISONER'S BASE 



550 



PRIVATE THEATRICALS 



suer, and so on, each party sending 
out as many men as they choose. 
If any one is touched, while out of 
bounds, by a player on the opposite 
side, who left bounds after him, he 
must go to the Prison belonging to 
the enemy, and stay there till he is 
released by one of his own side. 
The Prison of each side is opposite 
the Base of the other side, as shown 
in the diagrams. No one is allowed 
to touch the catcher as he returns 
to his Base, which he must do at 
once. A prisoner can be released 
by any one of his friends who can 
run from his Base to the Prison 
without being caught. 

The prisoner and his friend are 
then allowed to return to their Base 
in safety. But if a player is caught 
while attempting a release, he must 
himself go to Prison. The game is 
won by the party that succeeds in 
getting all its enemies into Prison 
at the same time. It is necessary 
for a player to remember who of his 
opponents left their Base before him 
and who after him, so that he may 
know whom to chase and whom to 
avoid. When a large number of 
players are out of bounds, this 
makes the game quite complicated. 

The game of Prisoner's Base was 
played in England as early as the 
fourteenth century, for a proclama- 
tion in the reign of Edward III. 
forbids children to play it in the 
avenues of the Palace of Westmin- 
ster during the sessions of Parlia- 
ment, as it annoyed the members. 
Shakespeare also probably alludes 
to it in the play of Cymbeline, where 
he speaks of 

"... Two stripling^s, lads more like to run 
The country base than to commit such 
slaughter." 

It was a favorite in the county of 
Cheshire, and was played by men as 
well as by boys. As played there, 
no Prisons were used ; these were 
added in the county of Essex. 
About 1770 a match game of Pris- 
oner's Base was played in London 



between tw^elve gentlemen of Chesh- 
ire and twelve of Derbyshire. 

PRIVATE THEATRICALS. If the 

theatricals are held in a hall, the 
stage and its accessories will usually 
be found ready ; if in a private 
house, a stage must be arranged 
specially for the occasion. 

Stage. The only things absolute- 
ly necessary are that the stage shall 
be separated from the audience 
by a curtain, or sliding doors, and 
that it shall have at least one 
door in the side. In a house where 
there are double parlors, separated 
by sliding doors, one room may be 
used as the stage and the other for 
the audience. If there is only one 
long parlor, a curtain may be hung 
across one end. It is better that the 
floor of the stage be raised, but in a 
private house this is generally too 
much trouble. It may be arranged, 
however, by laying boards on sup- 
ports called " horses," all of which 
may be hired at a carpenter's shop. 

Scenery. The scenery on a small 
stage is usually of three kinds : (i) 
" the drop," or curtain at the back 
of the stage, (C D in the plan), on 
which is painted a landscape, a 
street, or a representation of the 
interior of a building ; (2) " flies," or 
"borders," strips of painted canvas 
hung across the top of the stage at 
intervals, to represent sky or ceil- 
ing: and (3) "wings," or framework 
covered with painted canvas (W in 
the plan), which slide in grooves, or 
are otherwise fastened at the sides 
of the stage, inclined a little away 
from the audience. When an interior 
is represented these are often re- 
placed by one large piece of canvas, 
called a " flat." In large theatres 
elaborate scenes are often "built 
up " to look as much as possible 
like reality. In a private house 
plays are usually chosen that require 
but one scene, generally the interior 
of a room, which is easily represent- 
ed ; but any one with a talent for 
painting, and the necessary time, 
may paint drops, flies, and wings. 



I 



PRIVATE THEATRICALS 55^ PRIVATE THEATRICALS 




FF, foot-lights ; AB, curtain 
LUE, left upper entrance ; 
YY, exits. 

Models of these may be bought of 
dealers in theatrical material. For 
a hall unprovided with scenery, an 
interior scene can easily be arranged 
by getting three frames made at a 
carpenter's, the size of the required 
walls. There should be a real door 
in each, and at least one " practi- 
cable " window ; that is, a window 
that will actually open. The frames 
must be covered with wall-paper 
and held in place by braces. If pos- 
sible, a space should always be left 
behind the rear scene, so as to 
secure a passage from one side of 
the stage to the other. This is gen- 
erally impossible in a private house. 
Very good garden scenes can be 
made with potted plants. The dif- 
ferent parts of the stage, and its 
Entrances, are given special names, 
which are abbreviated into letters. 
If a person stand in the middle of 
the stage, facing the audience, he 
is said to be in Centre. The part of 
the stage on his right hand is Right, 



Plan of Stage. 
CD, drop ; C, centre ; LC, left centre ; RC, right centre ; 
RUE, right upper entrance ; WW, wings ; P, prompter ; 



that on his left hand, Left. The 
direction toward the audience is 
"down," and toward the back of 
the stage "up." When there are 
wings, the spaces between them are 
"entrances." When there are two 
on each side of the stage, they are 
the Right Upper, the Right Lower, 
the Left Upper, and the Left Lower 
entrances. When there are more, 
they are often numbered. In a flat, 
there are real doors. In a private 
liouse one door usually has to do 
duty for two, or more entrances. 
The abbreviations used for these 
various terms are as follows 

C. Centre. 
R. Right. 

L. Left, or Lower. 
R.H. Right Hand. 
L.H. Left Hand. 

E. Entrance. 
U. Upper. 

F. Flat. 

D. Door. 

For instance, L.C. means Left of the 



PRIVATE THEATRICALS 



5^2 



PRIVATE THEATRICALS 



Centre, L.H.F., CD., Left-Hand 
Flat, Centre Door, and R.L.E. 
Right Lower Entrance. 




Fig. I. — Foot-light. 



Lightning. The stage is lighted by 
a row of lamps or gas-jets along the 




fTTTTTM 



Fig. 2. — Foot-light Screens. 

front, called foot-lights (FFF in the 
plan), by one or more rows above, 




Fig. 3. — Tin Foot-light Screen. 

between the flies, and by lights be- 
tween the wings. The foot-lights 
are placed in a sort of trough, so 
that they are invisible to the audi- 
ence, as in fig. I ; or they are screened 
by pieces of wood or tin, as in figs. 2 
and 3. These screens may be cut 
from tin, as in fig. 3, so that they 
will stand alone. 

Where gas is used, it should be 
so arranged that any or all the jets 
can be regulated by one man, who 
'may thus darken the stage at pleas- 



ure. If lamps are used, a narrow 
strip of cloth should be hung close 
inside the foot-lights. It lies on the 
stage unobserved till the string on ■ 
which it hangs is stretched tight, I 
when it rises and darkens the stage. 




Fig. 4. — Portifere Curtain. 

In a private house where the stage 
is not raised, there are no foot-lights, 
and lamps should be placed on the 
floor, and on tables or boxes at each 
side of the stage close to the cur- 
tain, where they will not be seen by 
the audience, as in fig. 5. 

Curtain. The position of the fold- 
ing or sliding curtain on the stage is 
shown at AB in the plan of the stage. 
In a private house, doors may be 
used instead of a curtain, or an 
ordinary portiere may be hung by 
rings on a cord stretched across the 
room as shown in fig. 4. It may be 
drawn aside by a cord, tied to the 
last ring. A, on one side, and run- 
ing thence, through the screw-eye 
B in the wall, and then to the hand 
of the curtain-puller. It can be 
closed by another string fastened to 
the same ring, but running through 
the screw-eyes C and D. Two cur- 
tains may be tacked to a pole or 
strip of wood at the top, and drawn 
aside, as in fig. 6, by strings passing 
from the inner lower corners to 
screw-eyes on either side, through 
two or more rings sewed on the in- 
side of the curtains, in a diagonal 
line from corner to corner, as shown 
in the figure, where one curtain is 
down, and the other partly raised. 



PRIVATE THEATRICALS 



553 



PRIVATE THEATRICALS 




Arrangement of Lamps in House. 



when the strings are let go, the cur- 
tains will fall by their own weight. 
A curtain can be drawn directly up 




Fig. 6. — bide Curtains. 

(as in fig. 7) by tacking a strip of 
wood to it at the bottom, and then 
sewing to it vertical lines of rings 
two or three feet apart, the rings in 
each line being one or two feet 
apart. A cord must be tacked to 
the bottom strip below each line of 



rings, brought up through all the 
rings above it ; then through a 
screw-eye on the strip of wood at 




Fig-. 7. — Curtain with Rings. 

the top of the curtain, or on the 
ceiling; and then across to a screw- 
eye above the curtain-puller. By 
pulling all these cords at once, the 
curtain is gathered up into folds. 



PRIVATE THEATRICALS 



554 



PRIVATE THEATRICALS 



Curtains that roll up (fig. 8) are 
fastened firmly at the top and 
tacked at the bottom to a wooden 
roller, three or four inches in diam- 
eter. A stout cord is tacked to 
the roller at one end, beyond the 
curtain, and then wound around it 
a number of turns equal to the 
length of the curtain. The cord is 
then passed over a pulley in the 
ceiling. When the cord is pulled. 




Fig. 8.— Curtain with Roller. 

it will, by unwinding, turn the roller, 
and thus roll up the curtain. The 
roller should be on the inside of 
the curtain, and therefore the cord 
should be so wound that the end 
leaves the roller on the inside. If 
the curtain is wide, there must be on 
the other end a similar cord passed 
over a pulley, across the stage at 
the top, and then down to the cur- 
tain-puller. (In the illustration the 
pulley is made much lower than it 



should be, so as to appear in the 
picture.) A very small curtain may 
be put up with ordinary window- 
shade fixtures. 

After a play has been selected, a 
stage-manager, a property-man, and 
a prompter must be selected. The 
duties of any two of these, or of all 
three, may be undertaken by the 
same person. In any case, none of 
them must be a performer. The 
stage-manager should be a person 
of experience, and should have full 
authority in all matters pertaining 
to the arrangement of the stage, the 
conduct of rehearsals, and the per- 
formance of the play. If no such 
person is available, it is better to 
have an inexperienced chief than 
none at all. It may be agreed that 
such a manager is merely to decide 
in disputed questions. 

The prompter must sit at one side 
of the stage, close to the curtain, (P. 
in the plan), and "prompt" those who 
forget their parts ; that is, tell them 
the next three or four words. He 
should be present at every rehearsal, 
and not only know the play thor- 
oughly, but the manner of each actor, 
so that he may know an intentional 
pause from one caused by forgetting 
a speech. There should be no oc- 
casion for prompting at all ; but if 
there is, it should be done quickly 
and plainly, yet in such a tone that 
the audience cannot hear. Usually 
the prompter should also act as cur- 
tain-puller, and see that all noises, 
calls, etc., are made that are re- 
quired off the stage, unless such are 
to be made by some particular one 
of the characters. Thus, a knock, 
a footstep, a cough, the noise caused 
by the breaking of a piece of glass, 
should usually be made . by the 
prompter ; and that he may not for- 
get what he has to do, he should go 
over the play beforehand and mark 
on the margin all places where such 
noises are to come in. 

The property-man takes charge 
of all properties, that is articles of 
any kind used in the course of the 



PRIVATE THEATRICALS 



555 



PRIVATE THEATRICALS 



play, such as letters to be read, 
meals to be served, or flowers to be 
carried. He must go over the play 
carefully beforehand, make a list of 
the properties, and see that they are 
all prepared. He must make notes 
on the margin of his copy of the 
play at the places where the various 
properties are needed, and see that 
they are ready at the right time. 
Thus, if one of the characters is to 
walk in smoking a cigar, the prop- 
erty-man must see that he has the 
cigar before going in ; and if a waiter 
is to bring in water on a tray, it is 
the property-man's duty to have 
ready the tray and glasses. These 
things are often left to the actors 
themselves, but it is better to entrust 
them to one man who has memo- 
randa of them all, and knows exactly 
where each is needed. 

Rehearsals. The stage-manager 
requires each performer to know his 
part thoroughly before the first re- 
hearsals. Before beginning to study, 
each one should read the whole play 
carefully several times. Long solilo- 
quies and speeches may be learned 
separately, but conversation must be 
studied in connection with the other 
parts. One who can commit to 
memory easily may learn all of those 
portions of the play where he ap- 
pears, including not only his own 
part, but those of the other actors. 
Otherwise, he should learn the last 
few words of each speech just pre- 
ceding one of his. These words, 
which are called his " cue," enables 
him to know where the other actor 
has finished speaking. It is an aid 
to the learner for some friend to 
hear him recite his part, reading the 
speeches of the other actors as they 
come in ; or the learner may hold 
the book before him and read the 
play, reciting his own speeches as 
they occur. If possible, each actor 
should have a complete copy of the 
play. If this cannot be arranged, 
each part should be copied legibly, 
with all its cues, and, that all may 
study intelligently, the play should 



first be read aloud to the performers. 
At the first rehearsal, the various en- 
trances, positions, and attitudes of 
the play must be decided on. Many 
of these are given, in printed plays, 
but the minor ones can be varied. 
Those that are finally adopted must 
not be changed, for then each per- 
former will associate each speech 
with some definite part of the stage, 
or some particular action, and he 
will thus remember better both the 
words and actions. After the first 
two or three, the rehearsals should 
be as much like actual perform- 
ances as possible, and there should 
be at least one "dress rehearsal," 
where every detail of costume and 
every property is exactly as it is 
to be when the play is given. During 
the first rehearsals, if the stage-man- 
ager sees a fault, or anything that 
might be improved, he stops the 
players at once, explains the point 
to them, and then requires them to 
repeat the passage according to his 
views. But all such corrections 
should be made in the early re- 
hearsals. During the last ones it is 
of the first importance that the play 
should go smoothly and without 
interruption. The number of re- 
hearsals required will depend on the 
skill of the actors. In ordinary 
cases, several rehearsals are usually 
occupied in learning the parts, it 
being very difl5cult to make the 
performers study them properly at 
home. The best plan is for the stage- 
manager not to appoint the first 
rehearsal till each actor, separately, 
gives notice that he has memorized 
his part and is ready to begin. 

Two faults common to most be- 
ginners are that they do not speak 
loud enough, and that they speak too 
fast. Every word, even those parts 
of the dialogue supposed to be in 
low tones, should bespoken as if to 
the person that sits farthest from 
the stage. The actor is apt to think 
that he is really speaking for his 
fellow-actor to hear instead of for 
the audience. 



PRIVATE THEATRICALS 



556 



PROGRESSIVE GAMES 



Costumes. The proper costumes 
are usually indicated at the begin- 
ning of a printed play, but these may 
often be varied by the actors accor- 
ing to circumstances. Sometimes 
the action of a play is supposed by 
the author to take place in some past 
age simply for the sake of the pic- 
turesque costumes, and when these 
cannot be obtained, the performers 
may wear modern dress without 
making other than trivial changes 
in the text. In dressing for the 
stage, the actors should remember 
that delicate effects, such as would 
be seen in a drawing-room, are lost 
to the spectators. 

Making up. Painting the face so 
as to change the expression, putting 
on false wigs, whiskers, etc., is 
called " making-up." False hair is 
best hired at a costumer's, but when 
none is accessible, very good wigs 
can be made by sewing hair on 
skull-caps of cloth. A negro's wig 
can be made of the curled hair used 
to stuff furniture, and light-colored 
hair can be imitated by using flax, 
tow, or jute. Beards, side-whiskers, 
and moustaches can be made in like 
manner on cloth, and fastened to 
the face either with fine sewing silk, 
adhesive plaster, spirit gum, or flour 
paste. 

For blackening the face, or mak- 
ing dark lines, an ordinary bot- 
tle cork burned in the flame of a 
candle or lamp answers very well. 
Burned cork is hard to wash ofT. 
To remedy this, sweet oil or vaseline 
may be rubbed over the face before 
the cork is applied. For reddening 
the face, carmine is generally used, 
and for whitening, lily-white, both of 
which may be bought at any drug- 
gist's. Paints specially prepared for 
"making up" can be bought at a cos- 
tumer's. For giving to the face any 
desired expression, the best way is 
to assume that expression, as nearly 
as possible, before a mirror, and then 
trace the wrinkles of the face with 
black lines. In general, parts of the 
face intended to look hollow should 



be blackened, as they will then ap- 
pear in shadow. Where there are 
foot-lights, it should be remembered 
that they cast the shadows of the 
chin and nose strongly upward over 
the face, and to counteract this 
efTect lily-white should be freely 
used. But the amount of " making 
up " must depend largely on the dis- 
tance of the audience. In a private 
house it should be very slight. 

PROGRESSIVE GAMES, games 
played by any number of sets of 
people at once, where the winners 
of each game move to a different 
table. The games commonly played 
are Euchre, Whist, Hearts, and 
Angling, but others may be substi- 
tuted. The tables are numbered, 
and it is decided who shall sit at 
each of them usually by passing 
around numbered cards, which also 
serve as score-cards. Partners 
can be decided on at each table 
by cutting the cards, but it is 
usual to have the score-cards 
decorated in pairs, and those players 
having the same device on their 
cards play together. All begin to 
play on the stroke of a bell on table 
No. I. When the players at that 
table have finished one game, the 
bell is struck again, and all playing 
ceases. Those players who are 
ahead at each table when the bell 
sounds, have their score-cards 
marked usually by sticking on them 
a small gilt paper star or by punch- 
ing a hole in them ; the losers' cards 
are marked by a star or figure of 
some other shape or color, or left 
unmarked. The winners now move 
to the next table, those at table 4, 
for instance, going to table 3, and 
these at table 3 to table 2; while 
those at the head table go down to 
the last. Playing then begins again, 
and so the game proceeds till some 
hour agreed upon beforehand. A 
prize is usually given by the lady of 
the house to the player who has the 
largest number of winner's stars. 
Sometimes there are several prizes, 
and often a " booby prize " is given 



PROHIBITED WORDS 



557 



PROVERBS 



to the one getting most of the loser's 
stars or marks. There may be one 
or more tables called "booby 
tables," the losers at which receive 
a special mark, and he who has most 
of them is given the booby prize. 
Just after the winners change tables, 
they may also change partners with 
those whom they find at the new 
table, or the same partners may be 
kept ; but whichever is done, all 
should follow the same rule through- 
out the evening. Sometimes, in- 
stead of the winners moving up, 
the losers move down, in which case 
the game is called " Drive." Some- 
times the winners move up till the 
head, or " King " table is reached, 
and at this table the losers move 
down to the lowest or " Booby" 
table. The only games suited to 




toci^ESSIVE EUCHBE. 
^ Jan. 1615,1889. 


Won. 


Lost. 


^^ 


ft 


t^i^ 


f 


^ 
i^ 


f 



Score Card. 

progressive playing are those that 
are short, so that a great number of 
changes can be made in an evening. 
They must also be such that it is 
easy to tell which side is ahead at 
any time, for when the players at the 
first table finish and strike the bell, 
those at the other tables are usually 
in the midst of a game. For these 
reasons, Euchre is one of the best 
games to play in this way, the form 
called Railroad Euchre being gener- 
ally preferred. 

PROHIBITED WORDS, a game in 
which the use of certain words is 
not allowed in answering questions. 



The words are those often used in 
conversation, such as Yes, No, Why, 
But, or any others like them, and are 
agreed upon by the company before 
the game. One of the players is 
chosen to ask the questions, which 
may be on any subject. He asks 
one of each player, in order, pur- 
posely framing them so that it will 
be difficult to answer without using 
a prohibited word. When any one 
does so, the offender pays a forfeit 
and takes the questioner's place. 

This game is said to be of Italian 
origin. 

PROTEAN CARDS, a pack of 104 
cards, 52 printed in black and 52 in 
red. Each card bears a letter of the 
alphabet on its upper half, and a 
numeral on its lower. A great 
number of games 
can be played 
with these cards, 
many of which 
are nearly the 
same as the prin- 
cipal games of 
Cards and Dom- 
inoes. They can 
be used also for 
Logomachy and 
other letter 
games. The cards are sold at toy- 
stores,with a little book describing 50 
games that can be played with them. 
Protean cards were invented by Mrs. 
Mary Mapes Dodge (C. P. P.), 
the editor of " St. Nicholas." Pro- 
tean means easily changing its 
shape, from Proteus, the name of a 
fabulous divinity who could take 
different forms at will. 

The cards are called Protean be- 
cause so many different games can 
be played with them. 

PROVERBS, a game in which one 
of the players tries to guess a prov- 
erb chosen by the rest of the com- 
pany. The guesser goes out of the 
room, and when the proverb has 
been chosen, each player in order is 
given one of the words that com- 
pose it. The guesser is then called 




Protean Card. 



I 



PROVERBS 



558 



PROVERBS 



in, and asks a question of each 
player, who must introduce his word 
into the answer. Thus, suppose the 
proverb chosen to be " Make hay 
while the sun shines." The first 
player may be asked " How do you 
do this evening.?" and may answer 
" Very well, but your questions 
make my head ache." The second 
question may be, " What have you 
been doing this afternoon ?" and the 
answer, " Playing in the barn, on 
the hay," and so on. If the proverb 
is guessed, the one whose answer 
gave the clue must take the guesser's 
place. If it is not, the guesser must 
pay a forfeit and go out again. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. If there are more players than 
words in the proverb, the words 
may be given out twice or more; 
and if there are fewer, some of the 
players may take two words. In 
either case, the guesser must be 
told, when he begins, where the 
proverb ends, which players have 
two words, and whether they intend 
to put those words in the same 
answer or different answers. 

2. The word must be given exact- 
ly as it appears in the proverb ; not 
in another tense, mood, or number. 

3". If the guesser fails, he may try 
the same proverb again, after paying 
his forfeit, or call for a new one. 

Shouting Proverbs, a kind of 
Proverbs in which, at a signal 
from the guesser, all the players 
shout their words at once. This 
may be repeated a number of times 
agreed on beforehand. If the guesser 
tries to listen to all the words at 
once, he will find it very hard to 
understand any of them ; but if he 
stands near one player at a time and 
listens only to him, the proverb is 
easy to guess. For this reason the 
guesser may be required to stand at 
an equal distance from all the play- 
ers. They may sit in a circle, while 
he stands in the middle. 



Acting Proverbs, a kind of Prov- 
erbs in which the players choose 
sides, and one acts an impromptu 
play, illustrating a proverb, while 
the other side tries to guess what 
proverb is meant. 

Parallels, a game in which one of 
the players tells a story to illustrate 
some familiar proverb, while the 
others guess what it is. The story 
continues till the proverb is guessed 
correctly, when the successful guess- 
er becomes story-teller in his turn. 

One way of playing is to choose 
sides. The sides stand in opposite 
lines, and a story told by a player on 
one side must be guessed by some 
player on the other side. At the 
expiration of some fixed time, gen- 
erally from half an hour to an hour, 
the side one of whose members is 
telling a story is declared the win- 
ner. 

Split Proverbs. The company sits 
in a circle, and one, beginning the 
game, throws a handkerchief at an- 
other of the players, saying, as he 
does so, the first part of a proverb, 
which the other must immediately 
finish by adding the last half of a 
different proverb. The two must 
make a complete sentence, but it 
may be nonsensical or ridiculous. 
The one who throws the handker- 
chief counts ten distinctly as he 
does so, and if the other does not 
begin to finish the sentence by the 
time the first has ended his counting, 
he must pay a forfeit. The one at 
whom the handkerchief was thrown 
then continues the game by throw- 
ing it at another player and begin- 
ning another proverb. For the sake 
of illustration some examples of 
split proverbs are given below : 

A rolling stone — knows his own 
father. 

A wise son — gathers no moss. 

Make hay while the sun — sweeps 
clean. 

In Germany this game is called 
Verkehrte Sprichworter (Perverted 
Proverbs). 



PUMPS 



559 



PUMPS 




Home-made 
Suction-pump. 



PUMPS. Pumps are described in 
C. C. T. To make a suction-pump, 
take an ordinary ar- 
gand lamp chimney, 
flj ^^1 and if the long part is 
not of the same size 
throughout, cut about 
an inch and a half from 
the top (see directions 
for glass-working in 

CHEMICAL EXPERI- 
MENTS). Fit a rubber 
stopper with one hole 
into the bottom of the 
chimney, put a short 
piece of glass tubing 
in the hole (not allow- 
ing it to project above 
the stopper), and to 
this fit a rubber tube, a 
(see Fig. i), as long as 
may be desired, to 
reach to the water, c, to be pumped. 
To make the piston, take a rubber 
stopper, d, a little smaller than the 
upper part of the chimney, and make 
it fit tightly by winding it with twine, 
if necessary. This stopper must have 
two holes. Through one fit the 
end of a glass rod, <?, for a piston- 
rod, letting the lower end project a 
little, and winding it with twine 
just above and just below the stop- 
per, so that it can 
pull through neither 
way. Over the hole 
in the lower stopper, 
and over the second 
hole in the stopper 
that serves as piston - 
head, fasten valves 
made of bits of rub- 
ber cloth or leather, 
Figf. 2. Valve, secured at one edge 
with one or two tacks, so that they 
will flap up and down. The valve is 
shown more plainly in Fig. 2. At 
the top of the chimney fit another 
stopper with two holes, through one 
of which the glass piston-rod slides, 
while in the other is fitted a glass 
tube,/, to deliver the water. 

To make a force-pump (Fig. 3), 
the lowest stopper must have two 




holes, and the valve-hole in the 
piston-head must be plugged. With 
the other hole is 
connected an air- 
chamber d, made of 
a vaseline bottle, 
as shown in the 
figure. The stop- 
per of this air- 
chamber has two 
holes. Over the 
one that connects 
with the pump is a 
valve. The other 
l\ ipM is fitted with a jet. 
iLiUf Steam -Pump. 
Fig. 3, Force-pump. Fill a flask (see 
CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS) half full 

of water, and close it with a tight 
cork or rubber stopper, through 
which passes a glass tube reaching 
nearly to the bottom. To the tube 
fasten three or four feet of rubber 
tubing. Place the flask over an al- 





Fig. 4. 
cohol lamp or Bunsen burner, and 
the water will presently rise in the 
tube and flow out of the end. The 
reason is, that it is forced out by the 
pressure of the heated water vapor 
in the upper part of the flask. 

Pumps without a Piston, i. Take 
a glass tube several feet long, and 



PUMPS 



560 



PUNCH AND JUDY 



large enough to be stopped conven- 
iently with the finger or thumb. 
Plunge the end in the water, and 
then stopping the open end, draw it 
quickly up, but not far enough to 
pull the lower end out of water. 
Continue this up-and-down motion 
rapidly, always opening the tube 
while pushing down and stopping it 
while pulling up. The water will 
rise, and finally flow out at the top 
of the tube at each downward push. 
2. Hold a common glass funnel, 



large end downward, in a pail of 
water (see Fig. 4.), and rapidly move 
it up and down. The water will 
rise into the small end, and with 
practice may be made to spout out 
of it for some distance. 

PUNCH AND JUDY, a theatrical 
entertainment, in which the per- 
formers are puppets, operated by an 
unseen person. The puppets are 
made that the exhibitor can slip hi 
hand and wrist into their bodies, in 
serting his forefinger into the hea< 




Punch and Judy Show. 



and his thumb and second finger 
into the arms. The exhibitor shows 
the puppets to the audience through 
an opening about two or three feet 
square, just above his head ; only 
two appear at a time, one being 
operated by each hand. The open- 



ing may be made by hanging a cur 
tain in an ordinary doorway be* 
tween two rooms, so that it just 
hides the exhibitor when he stands 
upright. Another arrangement is 
made by taking a dry-goods box two 
or three feet square and hanging or 



PUNCH AND JUDY 



561 



PUNCH AND JUDY 



supporting it against the wall. The 
front and bottom of the box must 
be open, and from the front and 
sides curtains hang to the floor, con- 
cealing the exhibitor. In either 
case an ornamental wooden or 
pasteboard frame may be placed 
around the opening on the side 



toward the audience, and it is con- 
venient to have a shelf at the bottom 
of the opening, projecting outward 
to form a sort of stage. 

The chief characters are always 
Punch and his wife Judy, but many 
others are usually introduced, gen- 
erally including a doctor, a police- 




Fig:. I. 

man or constable, and a hangman. 
Punch has a hooked nose and chin, 
pointing toward each other, and is 
the only one of the puppets whose 



Fig. 2. 

legs are seen by the audience- 
They are made to hang loosely, so 
that he can dance on the stage. He 
holds a stick about a foot long, by 






-Punch (i), Judy (2), and Hangman (3). 



pressing it with his arm against his 
side. When he strikes anyone with 
it, his whole body bobs forward. 
The heads of the puppets are paint- 
ed on rolls of cardboard, as in Fig. 
I, or cut out of hollow pieces of 
wood like Fig. 2, when they look 
like Fig. 3. The projecting ridge 
on one side of the cylinder is shaped 



with the knife into the nose and 
chin. In any case the figures have 
a hole at the bottom for the exhibi- 
tor's forefinger; the bodies are fas- 
tened to them with glue or tacks. 
The exhibitor speaks for each of 
the performers, and carries on a 
sort of drama, generally opening 
with a scene between Punch and his 



PUNCH AND JUDY 



562 



PUSS IN THE CORNER 




Fig. 4.— The Baby. 



wife Judy. Punch disposes of the 
other characters 
one by one, by 
killing them 
with his stick, 
and throwing 
their bodies on 
the stage. At 
the close, the 
hangman comes 
to execute him, 
but Punch pre- 
tends he does 
not know how 
to put his head into the noose, and 
when the hangman undertakes to 
show him, Punch pulls the rope 
and hangs the executioner himself. 
The gallows is one 
upright stick with 
I I a cross-beam, and 

I ff fits into a hole in 

I I the shelf. At the 
1 J end of the beam 
\s^ are two holes, 
through which 
passes a string, se- 
cured at one hole 
by a knot, and 
forming a sort of 
noose between the 
two. The action 
of the rest of the 
drama depends on 
the ingenuity of 



Fig-. 5.— Gallows. 




the exhibitor. Punch speaks in a 
peculiar squeaking voice, and gives 
a sort of squeal of joy at the dis- 
comfiture of his enemies. The 
squeak may be produced by an in- 
strument called a Punch and Judy 
Trumpet (see Fig. 7), made of two 
half rings of wood and a bit of rib- 
bon. The manner of speaking must 
be learned from some one who 
knows it. Those performers who 
have not yet made their appear- 




Fig. 6— Punch and Judy dressed for the Play. 



Fig. 7. — Punch and Judy Trumpet. 

ance must be laid on a chair or 
hung on hooks, within easy reach 
of the exhibitor. 

PUSH PIN, a SOLITAIRE game 
of CARDS, played with two packs. 
The cards are laid out in a straight 
line, face upward, as they come 
from the pack. Any card that lies 
between two of the same suit, or 
two of the same value, as any two 
Hearts, or any two Queens, is 
pushed out of place, and two or 
more of the same suit between two 
of the same value may also be 
pushed out. The card at one end 
of the row maybe removed to the 
other, or, what is the same thing, 
the cards may be placed in a circle. 
The player wins if he can push out 
all cards but two. 

PUSS IN THE CORNER, a game 
played by several persons, each of 
whom stands in the corner of a 
room. One player, chosen as Puss, 
stands in the middle. As the others 
change corners, two by two, which 
they try to do when the Puss is not 
looking, he attempts to slip into one 



PUZZLE DRAWINGS 



;63 



QUAKER MEETING 



of the corners, and if he succeed, 
the player thus left out must be 
Puss in his turn. The game may 
be played out of doors, when trees, 
posts, or stones may be used as cor- 
ners. In such a case. Puss has only 
to touch the tree or stone after one 
player has left it, and before the 
player with whom he is changing 
places touches it. 

PUZZLE DRAWINGS, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
each with pencil and paper. Each 



player draws on his paper some 
kind of a line, straight, curved, 
angular, or all three, and the papers 
are folded and mixed. Each then 
selects one, and must draw a figure 
that is partly formed by the line on 
the paper. Those who do not suc- 
ceed must pay forfeits. One who is 
used to the game can often make a 
creditable picture with a line so 
jagged and irregular that the task 
seems impossible. 
PYRAMID. See Checkers. 



QUADRALET, a game played 
by any number of persons with 49 
square pieces, completely filling a 
shallow square box. One of the 
pieces is marked with a black dot, 
and of the others half are white and 




Quadralet 



half brown. The pieces are ar- 
ranged in a pattern, and the dotted 
one removed. If the game is 
played as a solitaire game, the 
player's object is to make the white 
and brown pieces change places 
completely, by moving them one by 
one into an adjacent empty space. 
When more than one play, he wins 
who can do this in the least number 
of moves. For instance, if the 
pieces are arranged at first as in 
Fig. I, they will look as in Fig. 2 



when the game has been won. If 
the player finds it necessary to 




Quadralet. — Fig. 2. 

move a piece back, that counts as 
a move. The word Quadralet is 
from the Latin Quadratum, a 
square. 

QUAKER MEETING, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
who have handkerchiefs tied around 
their heads, and are supposed to 
represent Quakers. A leader is 
chosen, who takes the other play- 
ers, one by one, into another room, 
and tells each some ridiculous thing 
to do, such as to walk across the 
room on all fours grunting like a 
pig, or to go around kissing the 
furniture (see Forfeits). When 
all have been thus instructed, the 



QUEEN DIDO IS DEAD 



564 



QUERIES 



players sit around the sides of the 
room, and the leader points to 
them, one by one. Each, as he is 
pointed out, must do the task as- 
signed him. 

During the game none of the 
players must speak, laugh aloud, or 
make any other noise with the 
mouth or lips, under penalty of a 
forfeit. 

This game is called Quaker Meet- 
ing, because at the religious ser- 
vices of the Society of Friends 
(called Quakers) all present often 
sit for a long time without speak- 
ing a word or making a sound. 

QUEEN DIDO IS DEAD, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
who stand in a circle, or in a row. 
The player who begins the game 
says to his neighbor, " Queen Dido 
is dead!" The neighbor inquires 
of the speaker, " How did she die ?" 
and the answer is, " She died doing 
so." As the last word is spoken, 
the speaker begins to shake' his 
right hand up and down, and he 
continues the motion through the 
game. The second player now re- 
peats this conversation with the one 
next him, and when it has gone 
the round of the company all are 
shaking their right hands. During 
the second round the speaker, at 
the word "so," begins also to shake 
his left hand ; on the third round, 
to stamp his right foot; on the 
fourth, his left; and on the fifth to 
nod his head. By this time the 
appearance of the company is very 
laughable, and all are generally 
tired ; but if it is desired to con- 
tinue the game, each player, as he 
says " She died doing so," may be- 
gin to run around in a small cir- 
cle. 

There are many variations of this 
game. In one of them, called " My 
Aunt Ion," the conversation is, "Do 
you know my Aunt Ion?" "No." 
"My Aunt Ion does so." In an- 
other, called " Neighbor, neigh- 
bor," it is, "Neighbor, neighbor, 
how art thou?" "Pretty well, I 



thank thee. How's the neighbor 
next to thee ?" " I don't know, but 
I'll go see." Here each player be- 
gins to make the new motion as he 
asks the first question. 

QUEEN'S PARTY, THE, a soli- 
taire game of cards, played with 
one pack. The first sixteen cards, 
in the pack are laid, as they appear, 
in four rows of four each, forming 
a hollow square. These cards are 
called the Ante-chamber, and the 
space within them is named the 
Audience Hall. The cards, repre- 
senting guests, are taken from the 
Ante-chamber, or directly from the 
pack, and placed in the Audience 
Hall in their proper positions, which 
are as follows: The King and Queen 
of Hearts at the top, of Diamonds 
at the bottom, of Clubs at the 
right, and of Spades at the left. 
The Queens are placed on the 
Kings, and each pair must enter the 
Audience Hall together. 

The Aces (called Emperors) are 
in like manner accompanied by the 
Knaves, which are placed on them, 
and are laid in the corners of the 
Audience Hall. On the Knaves are 
placed in order the other cards 
(called common people) following 
suit. Spaces left by guests, in pass- 
ing from the Ante-chamber, are 
filled from the pack, and those 
cards that can be placed neither in 
the Ante-chamber nor at once in 
the Audience Hall, are laid aside to 
form stock, the top card of which 
can also be used at any time. If 
the whole pack can be brought thuj 
into the Audience Hall, the playei 
wins. 

QUERIES, a writing game playe( 
by any number of persons. Eacl 
writes at the top of a piece of papei 
a question on some historical o' 
other subject, and then puts th( 
answer at the bottom, folding u| 
part of the paper so as to hide it 
The papers are now passed aroun ~ 
in regular order. Each one an 
swers the queries to the best of hi 
ability, folding the paper to hide hi 



QUICK MOTION 



565 



QUININE 



answer. Finally, the papers are un- 
folded and read. 

QUICK MOTION, Experiments on. 

The following experiments are all 
explained by the lact that motion 
can be imparted to objects but grad- 
ually, and that when it is done sud- 
denly the objects often prefer to 
break or give way, rather than pass 
the motion along, though it seems 
easier to do the latter. 

I. Place a silver dollar on a visit- 
ing card, the edge of the card pro- 
jecting half an inch beyond the edge 
of the table. If the card is moved 
gradually, it will carry the coin with 
it ; but if it be snapped suddenly it 
will slide under the coin, which will 
not move. If the coin and card be 
placed on a wine-glass when the ex- 
periment is tried, the coin will fall 




Experiment 2. 

2. Pile about ten checkers one on 
another. If one in the middle of 
the pile be pushed slowly with the 
edge of a ruler, the pile will be over- 
turned ; but if it be struck sharply 
with the ruler, taking care to give a 
perfectly horizontal blow, it may be 
knocked from the pile, leaving the 
remainder upright. 

3. Suspend a small stick by one 
end from a string several feet long. 
If the stick be pushed slowly by 
a heavier stick, it will simply 
swing; but if struck sharply, it may 
be broken, the string moving very 
little. 



4. Fix two screw-eyes on opposite 
sides of a croquet ball, and to each 
tie thread just strong enough to sus- 
tain the ball. Hang the ball up by 




Experiment 4. 

oneof these threads. If the other be 
pulled slowly, straight downward, 
the upper string will break ; but if it 
be jerked suddenly, the lower one 
will break. 

5. Fix a needle at each end of a 
broomstick, and support it by rest- 
ing the needles on the edges of two 
wine-glasses, which stand on chairs. 
By striking the broomstick violently 
in the middle with a stout stick, it 
may be broken without injuring the 
glasses. 

QUININE, Experiments with. i. 
Dissolve some quinine by putting a 
few grains into a bottle of water and 
leaving it two or three days, shak- 
ing it occasionally. It will dissolve 
quicker if a little tartaric acid, or a 
drop of sulphuric acid be added. 
Admit a sunbeam from a heliostat 
into a darkened room, and place 
a piece of dark blue glass over the 
aperture. Hold the bottle of quin- 
ine solution in the beam of light 
and it will glow with a curious blue 



QUOITS 



566 



QUOITS 



color which seems to come from 
within the fluid. By holding a 
bottle of pure water beside it, the 
difference between them will be per- 
ceived at once. 

2. Into a glass of clear water held 
in the beam of blue light pour a 
little of the quinine solution. It 
will appear like a slowly descending 
blue cloud. 

This property of quinine is called 
fluorescence. Another fluorescent 
substance is chlorophyl, the green 
coloring matter of leaves. It can 
be obtained by boiling tea leaves, 
pouring off the water and adding 
more from time to time, till it ceases 
to taste of tea. Then soak the 
leaves in hot alcohol, which will dis- 
solve the chlorophyl. This solution 
treated like the quinine above gives 
a red light. A solution of madder 
mixed with alum produces a yellow 
fluorescence, soot dissolved In alco- 
hol, a greenish blue, and petroleum 
a green. 




Holding the Quoit. 

QUOITS, a game generally played 
on level sward, by two or more 
persons, with flat iron rings or disks, 
which are pitched at a goal or hub. 
The hubs, sometimes called motts, 



are usually two pins driven into the 
ground, about eighteen yards apart. 
The players, who may be either two 
or three playing singly against each 
other, or four or six divided into 
equal sides, are each provided with 
an equal number of quoits, gen- 
erally two. Each player, in turn, 
stands beside one hub and pitches 
his quoits so that they will fall and 
be as near as possible to the other 
hub. The first figure shows the 
manner of holding the quoit. Some- 
times an expert player succeeds in 
encircling the hub with one of his 
quoits (called making a " ringer"), 
but this is very difficult. 

This and other positions of the 
quoit at the hub are shown in the 
last figure. A is a ringer, B is called a 
" cutter," and C is said to be "pitched 
true." 




Position of Quoits at the Hub, 

After the first player has pitched 
all his quoits, the second player 
takes his turn, and then the others, 
if there are more than two. When 
all have played, all go to the other 
hub and reckon up the points, he 
whose quoits lie nearest to the hub 
counting one point for each quoit ; 
but each quoit entitled to count must 
be nearer the hub than any of the op- 
ponent's quoits. The quoits are gen- 
erally numbered or otherwise mark- 
ed so that those belonging to each 
player can be easily known. When 
the points have been reckoned, the 
players then pitch their quoits at the 
other hub, and so on alternately 
until the game is won by one of 
the players or sides getting the re- 
quisite number of points. The 
number of points in the game is 
agreed on by the players beforehand, 
but it is usually eleven or twenty- 
one. He who rings the hub counts 
ten points towards the game. Boys 



QUOITS 



567 



QUOTATIONS 



often play quoits with flat stones, 
which may easily be rounded so as 
to make them almost as good as 
iron ones. They use also a small 
stone instead of an iron pin for a 
hub. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. The hub-pin must be driven in 
so as to project not more than half 
an inch above the surface. 

2. Each player may select quoits 
of any size he chooses. 

3. In pitching, each player must 
stand within three feet of the hub. 

4. The distance of a quoit from 
the hub must be measured from the 
middle of the hub to the nearest 
visible point of the quoit. Thus, 
if the quoit is stuck into the ground, 
the part beneath the surface does 
not count. 

Parlor Quoits. Quoits for use in 
the parlor are sold at toy stores. 
They are usually made of rubber, 




Discobolus. 

and the hub, or short stake, at 
which they are pitched, is fixed in 



a board which is placed on the 
floor. 

A game called " faba baga," which 
is also sometimes called "parlor 
quoits," is played by tossing bean- 
bags at a hole in a board. 

History. Pitching quoits was a 
favorite amusement among the an- 
cients. The Greeks and Romans 
played with a kind of quoit called a 
discus, which had no hole in it, but 
was solid, like a plate. The illustra- 
tion shows the celebrated Greek 
statue called the discobolus (dis- 
cus-thrower), the work of the sculp- 
tor Myron, of which there are copies 
in the Vatican and elsewhere. 

In England the hub or pin was 
formerly called the " hob." Country- 
men, who could not get quoits of 
the proper form, played with horse- 
shoes, and in some parts of England 
a quoit is still called a " shoe." The 
word quoit is from the provincial 
English coit, to throw. 

QUOTATIONS. A game played by 
any number of persons, who sit in a 
row or circle. One begins by re- 
peating a quotation, either prose 
or poetry, and the next must then 
give one, the first word of which 
begins with the same letter as the 
last word of the quotation just given. 
The game goes on thus as long as 
the players choose. Any one who 
does not give his quotation in one 
minute (or any other time agreed on 
before the game) pays a forfeit. In- 
stead of paying a forfeit, he may be 
required to leave the game, and it 
may thus be continued till only one 
is left, who is declared the winner. 
Any player may be required to tell 
the author of his quotation, or even 
the book, poem, or play where it is 
to be found, if it is so agreed. The 
following example shows how the 
quotations may follow each other : 

" Know ye the land where the Cypress and 
Myrtle."— ^jf/rtjw. 
" Man never is, but always tobe, blest."— /\?/>^. 
" Belgium's capital had gathered there, 

Her beauty and her chivalry.'" — Byron. 
"Come and walk with us, the Walrus did be- 
seech." — Carroll. 

etc., etc. 



RACKETS 



56S 



kACiCETS 



B 



RACKETS, or RACKET (some- 
times spelled Racquet), a game 
played by two or four persons with 
rackets and a ball, in a court sur- 
rounded by four walls. The floor is 
evenly paved, and marked as in 
the diagram : 

E 



H 





A 


c 






D 


B 


] 

Racl 


^et C 


ourt. 



For double matches, with two 
persons on a side, the court was 
formerly 80 by 40 feet, but for single 
matches it was smaller. Of late 
years the standard court for both 
kinds of matches has been 63 by 
31^ feet. The walls E, F, G, H are 
black on the inside, and the balls 
used are sometimes whitened by 
shaking them in a bag with some 
white powder, so that they will leave 
marks on the black wall where they 
strike. The front wall, H, should 
be 30 feet high, and is faced with 
planks to the height of 20 inches 
from the floor. The part so faced is 
called the " Telltale." About 10 
feet from the floor is a horizontal 
white line called the " Service-line," 
or " Cut-line." A and B are called 
" Service-spaces," or sometimes 
"Rings;" C and D the Right and 
Left Courts ; and E F the " Short- 
line." In the rear of the court is 
often a gallery for spectators, which 
is protected by netting. In the 
court there is usually an attendant 
called the Marker, who scores for 
the players and acts as umpire. The 
rackets used are similar to tennis 



rackets, but longer and smaller in 
the face, and the balls are hard, 
about an inch in diameter, weighing 
an ounce. 

The players decide by lot, or in 
any other way they choose, on the 
one to begin the game, who is called 
the " In-player" or " Man in.'' He 
stands in one of the service-spaces, 
and with his racket strikes or 
" serves" the ball so that it bounds 
from the front wall above the cut- 
line into one of the courts : C, if he 
served from B ; and D, if from A. 
One of the players on the other side, 
called the Out-player, stands in 
readiness to " take the service," that 
is, to strike the ball either on the 
bound or before it has reached the 
ground. The Out-player may stand 
wherever he wishes, but in case of a 
double match, the two other players 
must stand behind the In-player till 
the ball is served. 

If the ball is served wrongly, it is 
a fault, and when the server makes 
two consecutive faults his " hand is 
out," that is, he becomes the Out- 
player, and his adversary serves. 
After a good service the ball is 
struck by the players alternately 
against the front wall above the 
Telltale, and may fall in any part of 
the court. It may be hit on the 
" fly," or on the bound, but if any one 
fails to hit it, or hit it out of the 
court, it counts against him, putting 
his hand out, if he be the In-player, 
and scoring a point, or "Ace," for 
his opponent, if he be the Out- 
player. The game continues till 
one side, by making 15 aces, wins 
the game. 

After the service, the ball may 
strike one or more of the other walls 
of the court after it has bounded 
from the front wall, and a skilful 
player often makes very puzzling 
I strokes by driving the ball into a 



RACKETS 



569 



RAIN STORM 



corner, where it bounds about from 
one wall to another. This is the 
principal difference between Rack- 
ets and Lawn Tennis. In Rackets, 
as in the latter game, the player can 
make the ball bound in different di- 
rections by " cutting" it, and as the 
ball has four walls to bound from, 
as well as the floor, a "cut" often 
causes it to take a very unexpected 
course. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

The following rules are those of 
the New York Racquet Court Club, 
and have been adopted by the Na- 
tional Amateur Athletic Union : 

1. The game to be 15 up. At 13 
all, the out-players may set to 5 ; 
and at 14 all, to 3 ; provided this be 
done before another ball is served. 

[" Set to 5 " means that instead of 
playing the remaining 2 Aces of the 
fifteen, 5 Aces are played. " Set to 
3," that instead of the remaining 
one Ace 3 are played.] 

2. On commencing the game, in 
a double match, whether odds be 
given or not, the side going in first 
to serve shall have but one hand ; 
but in a single match the party re- 
ceiving odds shall be entitled to 
them from the beginning. 

3. The ball shall be served alter- 
nately right and left, beginning on 
whichever side the server chooses. 

4. The server must stand with at 
least one foot in the " service box," 
and serve the ball over the line on 
the front wall and within the proper 
service-court; otherwise it is a 
" fault." Serving two faults, missing 
the ball, or the ball served striking 
anywhere before it reaches the front 
wall, is a hand-out. 

5. All balls served or played into 
the galleries, hitting a beam, iron 
rod, the telltale, or any wood or net- 
ting, or above the cemented lines of 
the courts, although they may re- 
turn to the floor, count against the 
Striker. 

6. A ball, to be fair, must be 
truck before or on the first bound, 



and must not touch the floor, the 
galleries, the telltale, or any wood or 
netting, or above the cemented lines 
of the courts, before or after reach- 
ing the front wall. 

7. Until a ball has been touched 
or bounded twice it may be struck 
at any number of times. 

8. Only the player to whom a ball 
is served may return it. 

9. A ball touching the striker or 
his partner before the second bound 
loses a hand or an ace. 

10. If a fair ball hit the striker's 
adversary above or on the knee, it 
is a " let," and shall be played over ; 
if below the knee, it counts against 
the striker. 

11. The out-players may once only 
in each game exchange courts to re- 
turn service. 

12. Every player should try to 
keep out of his adversary's way. 
When a " hinder " is claimed it shall 
be decided by the marker, 

13. The marker's decision, on all 
questions referred to him, shall be 
final. If he is in doubt he should 
ask advice ; and if he cannot decide 
positively, the ace is to be played 
over. 

History. Rackets is a modifica- 
tion of Court Tennis. It has long 
been popular in England and Ire- 
land, and has been recently intro- 
duced into this country, where sev- 
eral clubs have been formed to play 
it. The New York club has a fine 
court on 26th Street, near the corner 
of Sixth Avenue. 

Fives, a kind of Rackets in which 
the palm of the hand is used instead 
of the racket. There is only a front 
wall in the court, the others being 
replaced by lines drawn on the 
ground. In Italy is played a kind of 
Fives called Pallotie, in which the 
ball is struck with the arm, protected 
from wrist to elbow with a guard of 
heavy leather. 

RAILROAD BAGATELLE. See 
Bagatelle. 

RAIN STORM, Imitation of. Boil 
Canada balsam in a flask, over an 



RANK AND FILE 



51^ 



REFLECTION OF SOUND 



alcohol lamp. Clouds of turpen- 
tine drops will form in the upper 
part of the flask, and if a cold glass 
rod be inserted, these will condense 
and fall like rain. 

RANK AND FILE, a solitaire 
game of cards, played with two 
packs. The first eleven cards are laid, 
as they appear, in a row on the table, 
face upward, and the rest of the 
cards in similar rows below as long 
as the pack lasts. The object is to 
pile the cards in families ; down- 
ward from four Kings, following 
suit, and upward from four Aces. 
For this purpose such cards as are 
wanted are used as they appear 
from the pack, instead of putting 
them in rows. Any card in the 
first row can also be used, and the 
two right-hand cards of each of the 
other rows. When there is a va- 
cancy in the first row, it is filled 
from the pack, but other vacancies 
are not filled. When the pack is 
exhausted, any card can be used 
that has no card directly below it. 
When a line is clear from top to 
bottom, any King that can be played 
may be placed in it. If the families 
cannot be completed thus, the 
player, beginning at the lower left- 
hand corner, takes up the cards in 
the opposite order from that in 
which he laid them down, and re- 
lays them, without shuffling, as at 
first. The cards can thus be re-laid 
twice; and if the families can be 
completed thus, the player wins. 

READER, a game played by any 
number of persons, each of whom 
assumes a trade or profession, ex- 
cept one, who is chosen to act as 
Reader. The Reader selects a 
passage from any book, either prose 
or poetry, and reads it aloud, stop- 
ping at intervals to point at one of 
the other players. The one at 
whom he points must at once sub- 
stitute for the next word, which 
must be a noun, some one connect- 
ed with his assumed trade, and then 
the Reader goes on. Any one who 
does not at once respond, or puts 



in a word not connected with his 
trade, must pay a forfeit. Some- 
times the reader copies the passage 
on paper, calling for the words, as 
before, and then reading the whole 
aloud. 

For instance, suppose the players 
assume respectively the occupations 
of carpenter, grocer, plumber, hack- 
man, physician, and painter, and 
give in order, as they are required, 
the words italicized in the following 
verse, which the reader selects from 
Horatius at the Bridge, with this 
result : 

" Then out spake brave Jack-plane^ 
The^Jlour barrel of the furnace. 
To every horse upon this ipecac 
Putty Cometh soon or late." 

REFLECTION OF SOUND, Ex- 
periments on the. Experiments on 
the reflection of sound at a dis- 
tance are described under Echoes. 

1. It may be observed in a room 
by cutting two large holes in a card 
board disk about a foot in diameter. 
The disk is placed on a twirler, 
and the experimenter, standing close 
to it on one side, blows a toy 
trumpet so that the sound will be 
reflected from the disk, near the 
top, to a person on the other side 
of the room. When the trumpet is 
blown and the disk rotated at the 
same time, the listener will hear a 
successive strengthening and weak- 
ening of the sound, resembling beats 
(see Violin, Experiment 5). This 
is caused by the passage of the holes 
before the trumpet, letting the 
sound through instead of reflecting 
it to the listener. 

2. Let one person sound the 
trumpet at one end of the room, 
while another, standing at the op- 
posite end, holds a common palm- 
leaf fan before his ear. When thej 
fan is slowly twirled by the handle, 
a change in the sound is heard, be- 
cause it is reflected better m some] 
positions than in others. 

3. In front of a concave mirror, r, 
at w (see illustration) hang a watch, 
or support it on a block of wood. 



REPEATING GAMES 



571 



REPEATING GAMES 




Sound Mirrors. 



Place the ear at e, in front of 
another concave mirror, r^ placed 
at some distance. It will be found 
that the ticking is heard more dis- 
tinctly there than elsewhere. The 
sound is reflected in the direction 
shown by the dotted lines and ar- 
rows. The point c is the centre of 
the sphere of which the mirror r 
forms a part. Ordinary chopping- 
bowls will do very well for mirrors, 
as they will reflect sound, though 
they do not reflect light. 

REPEATING GAMES, games in 
which the players in turn repeat a 
sentence after one who is chosen 
leader. At each round the leader 
adds something, and the whole, in- 
cluding additions, must be repeated 
by all in turn, as in the child's story, 
"The House that Jack Built." 
Those who fail, either drop out of 
the game or pay a forfeit. Anyone 
may invent sentences for such a 
game. They should be as ridiculous 
as possible and contain many long 
words. A few collections of sen- 
tences commonly used for such 
games is given below. 

I. The following nonsense story, 
composed by the English actor, 
Foote, is very well known : " She 
went into the garden to cut a cab- 
bage-leaf to make an apple-pie, 
when a great she-bear, coming up the 
street, poked his head into the shop. 
What! No soap ! So he died, and 
she very imprudently married the 
barber, and there were present the 
Pickaninnies, and the Gobillilies, 



and Garulies, and the Grand Pan- 
jandrum, with the little round but- 
ton at the top ; and they all fell to 
playing Catch as Catch Can, till the 
gunpowder ran out at the heels of 
their boots." This can be divided 
into such parts as the leader chooses, 
for use in the game. In the remain- 
ing games the original sentence and 
additions are numbered. 

II. My Aunt's Garden. i. "I 

come from my Aunt's Garden, — oh 
such a pretty garden ! In my Aunt's 
Garden are four corners." 

2. " In the first corner grows an 
elegantine — 

Give me your heart, and I 
will give you mine." 

3. " In the second corner grows a 
rose so fair — 

I would embrace you, but I 
I do not dare !" 

4. " In the third corner grows a 
crimson pink — 

Tell me of whom you most 
frequently think." 

5. (Each player, after repeating 
the sentences, whispers a name to 
his left-hand neighbor.) 

6. " In the fourth corner grows a 
poppy red — 

Repeat to us all what just 
now you said." 

7. (Each repeats aloud what he 
whispered.) 

Another form of " My Auuv, s 
Garden." 

1. See my Aunt's Garden ! Oh 
what a pretty Garden ! 

2. In my Aunt's Garden there is 



REPEATING GAMES 



572 



RIBBONS 



a tree. Oh how pretty is the tree in 
my Aunt's Garden ! 

3. On the tree in my Aunt's 
Garden there is a branch. Oh how 
pretty is the branch on the tree in 
my Aunt's Garden ! 

4. On the branch on the tree in 
my Aunt's Garden there is a nest. 
Oh how pretty is the nest on the 
branch on the tree in my Aunt's 
Garden ! 

5. In the nest on the branch on 
the tree in my Aunt's Garden there 
is a bird. Oh how pretty is the 
bird in the nest, etc. 

6. The bird in the nest on the 
branch on the tree in my Aunt's 
Garden bears in his beak a billet 
with the words, " I love you." Oh 
how pretty are the words " I love 
you" on the billet in the beak of 
the bird, etc. 

III. The Key of the King's Garden. 

1. I sell you the key of the King's 
Garden. 

2. I sell you the string that holds 
the key of the King's Garden. 

3. I sell you the nail where hangs 
the string, etc. 

4. I sell you the beam, in which 
is the nail, etc. 

5. I sell you the rat that gnawed 
the beam, etc. 

6. I sell you the cat that killed 
the rat, etc. 

This can be continued at the 
pleasure of the Leader. 

IV. The Good Little Man. 

1. I sell you my good little man. 

2. I sell you the house of my good 
little man. 

3. I sell you the door of the house, 
etc. 

4. I sell you the lock of the door, 
etc. 

And so on at pleasure. 

V. One Old Ox. 

1. One old ox, opening oysters. 

2. Two toads, totally tired, trying 
to trot to Tewksbiiry. 

3. Three tame tigers taking tea, 

4. Four fat friars fanning the 
fainting fair. 

5. Five fairies fending fireflies. 



6. Six soldiers shooting snipes. 

7. Seven salmon sailing in Sol- 
way. 

8. Eight elegant engineers eating 
excellent eggs. 

9. Nine nimble noblemen nibbling 
nonpareils. 

10. Ten till-tinkers taking two- 
pence. 

11. Eleven electors eating early 
endive. 

12. Twelve twittering titmice tee- 
tering on the tip-top of a tall tree. 

VI. The Good Fat Hen. 

1. A good fat hen. 

2. Two ducks and one good fat 
hen. 

3. Three squalling wild geese, two 
ducks, and one good fat hen. 

4. Four plump partridges, three 
squalling wild geese, etc. 

5. Five hundred Limerick oysters, 
four plump partridges, etc. 

6. Six pairs of Don Alphonso's 
tweezers, five hundred Limerick 
oysters, etc. 

7. Seven hundred Macedonian 
horsemen drawn up in line of bat- 
tle, etc. 

8. Eight cages of Heliogabalus 
sparrowkites, etc. 

9. Nine sympathetic, epithetic, 
didactic propositions, etc. 

10. Ten helioscopic, periscopic, 
pharmaceutical tubes, etc. 

1 1 . Eleven flat-bottomed fly-boats 
floating from Madagascar to Mount 
Prunello, etc. 

12. Twelve European dancing 
masters sent to Egypt to teach the 
Egyptian mummies to dance and 
sing, etc. 

A kind of repeating game called 
Genteel Lady is told about in an 
article by itself. Queen Dido, and 
the games like it, are also repeating 
games, but the things repeated are 
motions of the head and limbs, in 
stead of words. 

RESEMBLANCES. See What is 
MY Thought Like. 

REVIEWERS, THE. See BOOK 
Notices, 

RIBBONS, a game played by any 



RICH MAN 



573 



RIDING 



number of persons in a circle, each 
one of whom holds one end of a 
ribbon, all the other ends being 
united in the hand of the leader 
of the game, who stands in the cen- 
tre of the circle. when he says 
" Pull," they must let go, and when 
he says " Let go," they must pull 
the ribbons. Any one obeying the 
leader's order is obliged to pay a 
forfeit. 

RICH MAN, a game of CARDS played 
by three persons with a EUCHRE 
pack. The player who cuts the 
lowest card deals, and is called Rich 
Man. He gives himself II cards and 
each of the others lo, turning up 
the remaining card as trump. Each 
of the other players in order, begin- 
ing at his left, may then demand of 
him a card with one more pip than 
some one card in the asker's hand, 
and if the dealer have it, he must 
exchange with the asker. For in- 
stance, if a player have a Nine, he 
may ask the dealer to exchange a 
Ten for it. Suits are not mentioned. 
If the dealer have two or more Tens, 
he would be allowed to give which- 
ever he chose. If he have not the 
card asked for, he says so, and the 
nextplayerasks, no onebeingallowed 
a second chance. In case the cards 
are exchanged, the third player must 
not see of what suits they are. 
Play then begins, the eldest hand 
leading. Suit need not be followed, 
but the trick must be taken if pos- 
sible. Court-cards have no rank 
and cannot win, and a trick com- 
posed entirely of them is always 
taken by the leader. The highest 
plain card of the suit led takes the 
trick, unless an equal one of the 
same color has been played, when 
Diamonds always take Hearts, and 
Clubs take Spades. If Hearts or 
Spades are trumps, the trump suit 
is highest in its own color; but a 
trump has no power to take unless 
led or played to a trump lead. There 
is therefore no *' trumping in." Af- 
ter the fifth trick is taken, the dealer 
is allowed to play the trump card, 



but he cannot take it in hand. The 
winner of each trick scores one, 
and the dealer scores two additional 
points, but 3 points are forfeited 
for each failure to take a trick when 
possible, and 3 points by the dealer 
for withholding a card in the begin- 
ning of the game, if he has it. 

RIDING. The art of riding can 
be acquired by practice only, but 
instruction from a good master is 
worth its cost. In this country the 
American, English, and German 
styles are all practised. 

The German style is rapidly pass- 
ing out. The American style is 
generally practised in the Western 
and Southern States, while in the 
Middle States the English style has 
become the fashion. The Germans 
teach to sit with a straight, stiff 
body, shoulders well thrown back, 
toes up and turned partly out, and 
heels well down, the back of the 
calf of the leg gripping the horse 
tightly. The American style is to 
ride with the body in an easy posi- 
tion, the toes lower than the heels, 
the knees grasping the saddle firm- 
ly, and the toes, only, in the stirrup. 
The English style is a natural posi- 
tion of the body, the foot thrust 
all the way into the stirrup, the toes 
slightly lower than or on a level 
with the heel. The American style 
is suited to riding easy-gaited horses 
only, or on military saddles, while 
the English style is suited to park 
riding as well as to rough riding and 
hunting. 

The saddle and bridle should 
always be examined before mount- 
ing. See that the throat-latch (the 
strap under the throat) is loose 
enough to easily pass your four 
fingers between it and the throat ; 
that the curb-chain hangs in the 
chin groove and is loose enough to 
pass a finger between it and the jaw, 
whilst the bit hangs naturally ; that 
the saddle rests where it would lie 
easiest before fastening the girths: 
neither high up on the shoulder nor 
so far back that it will work forward; 



RIDING 



574 



RIDING 




Double Bridle. — A, Cheek; B, Cheek of snaffle head-piece ; C, Throat-latch ; D, Nose- 
band ; E, Front ; F, Snaffle, or Bridoon-bit ; GG, Curb-bit ; H, Curb-chain ; I, Lip-strap ; 
KK, Snaffle-reins ; LL, Curb-reins ; M, Head -piece. 



that the girths are not crossed or 
wide apart, and that they are tight, 
but not so tight as to give the horse 
pain. 

The snaffle-bit, used alone or 
with the curb, should be high 
enough in the mouth to touch its 
corners, but not wrinkle the skin ; 
the curb an inch and a half below 
the corner of the mouth. 

To Mount. I. Stand on the left 
side of the horse near his shoulder, 
the body three quarters facing him, 
the right shoulder farthest from 
him ; take the reins up in the right 
hand and place them in the left. 
Grasp a lock of the mane with the 
left hand a little forward of the 
shoulder in such a manner as may 
be most convenient, meanwhile 
holding the reins firmly but not 
pulling upon the horse's mouth. 



2. Now take the stirrup in the 
right hand, putting the left foot into 
it. If you can take it without the 
use of the hand, so much the bet- 
ter. 

3. Put the right hand well over 
on the right side of the cantle of the 
saddle (pressing downward to help 
prevent the saddle turning). 

4. Rise with a good spring from 
the right foot. 

5. Throw the right leg overJ 
clearing the horse's back, withdraw-J 
ing the right hand at the sam( 
time, and sink gently into the sad- 
dle; release the mane; turn th( 
right foot inward and you will easil) 
find the stirrup, i^h^ forward en( 
of stirrup as it hangs, should be 
turned away from the horse in put-J 
ting the foot in.) Lengthen the reins 
in the left hand by letting thei 



RIDING 



575 



RIDING 



slide through the fingers or by pull- 
ing them through with the right. 
If a whip is carried, grasp it in the 
palm of the right hand, butt up, 

Another method of mounting is i, 
to stand opposite the saddle-girths ; 




Engflish Saddle.— A, Pommel ; B, Cantle ; 
C. Skirt ; D, Flap ; E, Panel ; F, Stirrup ; G, 
Stirrup-leather ; H, Roll ; I, Dee, for fasten- 
ing hunting-flask ; K, Staple, for fastening 
breast-plate ; LL, Girths ; M, Tread of stir- 
rup. 

2, grasp the pommel of the saddle 
vvrith the right hand, which also 
holds the reins; 3, take the stirrup 
in the left hand and insert the 
foot; 4, take a lock of the mane, 
half-way up the neck, in the left 
hand, thumb uppermost; 5, then 
proceed to get on as described 



above. This method does away with 
removing the support of the right 
hand as the leg is thrown over the 
horse's back. After one has learned 
to ride it is well to practise mount- 
ing from the right side, reversing 
p the methods given 
~ above. 

To Dismount. 

Grasp the mane near 

the shoulder with the 

left hand, which also 

holds the reins ; 

place the right hand 

on the right skirt ; to 

steady the body withdraw the right 

foot from the stirrup, and whilst 

throwing it over the saddle slide the 

right hand back to and grasp the 

cantle, to ease the descent. 

Restlessness in being mounted is 
often caused by the rider's foot 
tickling the horse's side, but oftener 
from rough treatment, or allowing 
the horse to rush oR the moment 
the rider is seated : he should always 
be made to stand a few seconds. 
If he starts before you are ready to 
rise from the ground, say " whoa " 
and shorten the reins with the right 
hand to check him, then let them 
slide through the fingers to posi- 
tion. It is better to mount only half- 
way, not throwing the leg over, and 
come back to the ground to quiet 
him than to get on whilst he is mov- 
ing. He may often be made to 
stand by shortening the right rein 
or reins, thus pulling his head to 
the right and holding it there until 
mounted. A simple way to make 
him stand, if very restive, is to let 
the groom pick up his off fore-leg 
and hold it close to the horse's 
elbow. Some horses do not like to 
have their heads held by a groom 
while being mounted and will be 
quiet so soon as released. 

The Seat. Sit without putting 
the feet into the stirrups, the weight 
of the body resting on the buttocks ; 
shoulders back ; elbows close, 
though not pressed to the body ; 
the thighs grasping the saddle ; the 



RIDING 



57<5 



RIDIN( 




The Seat. 



legs, beiow the knees, hanging per- 
pendicularly, and back far enough 
to cover the girths ; toes slightly 
in ; the side of the calf of the leg 
and the inside of the knee will then 
be found to grasp the saddle ; the 
whole body at ease. A strong grip 
at the knee and with the inside of 
the calf is as important as the thigh 
grip and is easily secured by turn- 
ing the toes well in. The foot 
should be nearly parallel with the 
horse's body. The shapes of differ- 
ent men require modifications in 
the seat, but a good rule to bear in 
mind is " toes in and heels down." 
The length of the stirrup-leathers 
should now be regulated so as to 
make the bottom of the iron hang 
about an inch higher than the hol- 
low of the foot just in front of the 
heel of the boot, when " the seat" 
will remain as above described, ex- 
cepting a slight throwing forward 
and raising of the knees. The 



length of stirrup, however, must bi 

regulated, somewhat, by the feelin 
of comfort after trial. Having ono 
ascertained this length it will b 
found convenient to note it b) 
measuring from the finger-tips, rest 
ingon the buckle of the stirrup (th 
latter, of course, being against th 
stirrup-bar of the saddle) toward th 
arm-pit, with the stirrup and leathe 
under the arm. See how near th 
arm-pit the bottom of the stirru 
comes, and thereafter, keeping thi 
point in mind, the rider may knov 
whether his stirrups are about th 
right length before mounting o 
any saddle. 

One of the quickest ways to lean 
" balance " and to get " shake 
down " into the saddle is to rid 
on a pad a few times, or in the sad' 
die without the stirrups, upon 
gentle horse in a riding-school, i 
possible ; or, if no riding-schoo 
be available, have the halter left o 



RIDING 



577 



RIDING 



with the bridle and fasten to it a 
rope twenty or twenty-five feet long ; 
let an attendant hold this and cause 
the horse to trot in a circle and at 
the same time retain control of 
him. 

It is a good plan to practice rid- 
ing without stirrups (crossing them 
over the front of the saddle). In 
road or park riding the stirrups may 
be under the ball of the foot. In 
hunting or rough riding the foot 
should be pushed "home," that is, 
as far into the stirrup as it will go. 
Never use too small stirrups ; there 
is danger of the foot catching in 
case of a fall. Stirrups with broad 
" treads " (the bottom where the 
foot rests) are the most comfortable. 
Do not ride the same horse upon 
all occasions ; frequent changes 
give ease and security to one's seat 
and teach general management. 

In first rides, only a snaffle-bit 




Snaffle-bit. 

and a single pair of reins should be 
used, one rein being held in each 
hand. Any horse fit for a beginner 
will start upon the rider moving 
and loosening the reins and press- 
ing the heels slightly. To turn, 
pull the rein on the side in the 
direction toward which you wish 
to go. If intending to turn, do 
not commence pulling until quite 
ready to change direction. Do not 
raise the elbows or hands in turn- 
ing. To stop, slightly raise and 
draw in the reins, ceasing the pull 



as soon as the horse stops. Most 
Southern and Western horses are 
trained to guide by simple pres- 
sure of the reins on the side of the 
neck opposite to which it is de- 
sired to turn, and all well-trained 
saddle-horses should be so trained. 

Having become accustomed to the 
motion of the horse at a walk, he may 
be made to trot by steadying the 
reins, leaning slightly forward and 
pressing the legs against his side, 
clucking to him, or touching him 
lightly with the whip if necessary. 
There are two methods of riding at 
the trot : the close-sitting, and rising 
in the stirrups. In the former, the 
rider gives himself up to the mo- 
tions of the horse, holding the body 
and legs without stiffness. It is 
possible for the rider who has at- 
tained good " balance" to sit upon 
most trotting-horses without being 
thrown noticeably from the saddle, 
though on a rough-gaited horse it is 
very fatiguing. 

In " rising to the trot," the rider 
partly raises himself and is partly 
thrown up from the saddle at every 
other step of the horse, using the 
knee as a pivot, aided by a slight 
pressure upon the stirrups. This 
rising is easily acquired, but must 
only be attempted when the rider 
feels the rise to be in accord with 
the step of the horse. Do not allow 
the legs from the knees down to 
swing backward and forward ; noth- 
ing is more awkward. Keep the 
head and shoulders well back. Be 
careful not to throw the waist for- 
ward at each rise : it is better even 
to throw the head and shoulders 
forward to overcome this most 
awkward fault. 

The Canter is an acquired form of 
slow galloping. When a horse be- 
gins to canter, he turns himself a lit- 
tle to one side, that he may advance 
the fore-leg he is going to " lead" 
with, and he may be made to take 
this gait from a walk or slow trot, 
by lightly pulling and raising the 
rein, at the same time touching him 



RIDING 



578 



RIDING 



with the heel, pressing with the leg 
behind the girths and throwing the 
greater part of the weight of the 
body on the side opposite the one it 
is intended to have him " lead," 
and causing him to increase his 
speed, at the same time curbing 
him. If the rider wishes him to 
start off with the right leg, the left 
rein must be slightly tightened and 
the left flank touched, and vice- 
versa. In cantering in a circle or 
on a short curve, the horse should 
always lead with the inside leg, that 
is, the leg toward the centre of the 
curve. The reins should be held 
firmly but gently. 

Mr. E. L. Anderson, a modern 
authority, holds that " if the horse 
is lightened in front (that is, made 
to raise his legs by a ' play ' of the 
bit) he maybe lightened more upon 
one side than upon the other by in- 
creased action of the bit upon that 
side." He therefore advocates that 
if we wish " to make the horse 
gallop by leading with the right 
side, we shall lighten that side by a 
' play' oi the right rein, and bend 
the croup by an application of the 
left spur." 

In the canter and gallop the body 
should not be held stiffly from the 
waist upward, but move with the 
horse. 

The Gallop is a natural pace, and 
consists of a succession of leaps, 
in which the legs of one side leave 
the ground after, but pass beyond, 
the legs of the other side. The 
horse " leads" or starts to gallop as 
in the canter, and may be made to 
" lead " as described above. 

In riding the gallop, the rider's 
body is thrown slightly back, 
the knees hold the horse's sides 
firmly, but not too tightly, and the 
hands are held low. In fast gal- 
loping the rider sometimes stands 
in the stirrups, holding by the knees 
to the saddle-flaps, and bending for- 
ward from the waist. The canter 
and gallop are easier for women, if 
the horse lead off with his right 



foot ; but he should be made to 
lead off sometimes with the right, 
and sometimes with the left. 




Holding the reins, Fig. i. 

Holding the Reins. If only one 
pair of reins is used, they should be 
held in the left hand, by placing all 
the fingers between them but the 
forefinger, and then turning the 
ends under that finger and grasping 
them between it and the thumb. 
If it is desired to shorten the hold, 
the grasp can be loosened, the end 
taken in the right hand, and the 
left hand pushed up. In holding 
the reins thus, the thumb should 
be pointed forward, the little finger 
near the pommel, and the elbow 
close at the side. The right rein is 
now the upper one, and either it or 
the left can be pulled at pleasure by 
simply turning the wrist, without 
lifting the hand. 

When the rider has gained ex- 
perience, and rides with two pairs 
of reins, different styles of holding 
them are adopted. The follow 
ing is one of the most common: 




c s' 
Holding the reins, Fig. 2. 



RIDING 



579 



RIDING 



The snaffle reins are held in the left 
hand, separated by the last three 
fingers and coming out between the 
forefinger and thumb, the curb reins 
being held in the same hand, the 
near rein between the third and 
fourth finger and the off between 
the second and third, the ends com- 
ing out between the ends of the 
snaffle reins. Some riders place the 
curb reins on the outside and the 
'snaffle reins inside, arranging the 
fingers as above. AH the reins may- 




Holding the Reins, Fig. 3, 
SS, Snaffle-reins ; CC, Curb-reins. 

be carried in the right hand in the 
same manner if desired. Some 
riders hold the reins as in figure 3. 
If it is desired to ride with both 
hands, the reins being in the left, 
the right hand (which holds the 
whip, butt uppermost) may be placed 
in front of the left hand and take 
the right snaffle rein between the 
first and second fingers, the thumb 
under it, not removing it from the 
left hand. Or both the right curb 
and right snaffle may be taken in 
the right hand as in Fig. i, remov- 
ing them from the left hand or not, 
as desired. These methods may 
be practised with reins or pieces of 
tape before taking a riding lesson.! 
After a little practice, the rider can \ 
pull on which ever rein he wishes. ' 
Either the curb or snaffle may be 
the tight, or riding, rein at will, 
but it is not well to ride with both 
tight at the same time. The reins 
between the fingers should be held] 



well up toward the knuckles and 
the hands firmly closed. As a rule, 
the hands should be held low and 
not far forward : about over the 
pommel of the saddle will give pull 
enough to control the average horse 
and yet not look awkward. The 
learner should avoid depending on 
his reins to hold himself on his 
horse, and should be able to keep 
his seat without their aid. 

Leaping. A horse can be taught 
to leap by leading him over a bar, 
say, sixteen feet long, supported in 
any convenient manner. At first 
the bar should be held so low that 
he can step over it, and gradually 
raised until it will be necessary for 
him to jump. Care should be taken 
not to force or frighten him. Four 
or five leaps in a day are enough. 
When a horse is well trained he will 
jump moderate obstacles either from 
a stand still or a walk. After he has 
learned to jump with the leading 
rein, he may be mounted and put 
through the same course. He should 
not be punished for refusing unless 
he be a rogue. A nervous horse 
should l)e handled gently, and ca- 
ressed and rewarded after his lesson, 
which should be ended after a jump, 
never after a refusal. In jumping 
from a standstill or walk, the rider 
first pulls lightly upward on the reins, 
speaking, and pressing his legs to the 
horse's sides to force him forward. 
As he rises, the rider bends slightly 
forward; but when the horse is in 
the air, he leans back, both to keep 
his balance and to receive the shock 
of landing without being pitched 
forward, resuming the erect position 
as the horse's hind legs reach 
the ground. This leaning back may 
be learned upon a gentle horse by 
raising the right hand and throwing 
it back as if to slap him on the hind 
quarter as he rises. The reins are 
held not too tightly till the horse's 
fore-feet strike the ground when 
they are tightened to give him sup- 
port. In the leap from the trot 
or canter the rider takes nearly 



RIDING 



580 



RIDING 



the same position as in the gallop, 
but not leaning forward as in the 
standing leap. The bit is used only 
to direct the horse to the object 
over which he is to jump, the ten- 
sion being eased just before he rises, 
that he may extend his neck, and 
resumed, as he lands, to steady him. 
If sluggish, the horse may be 
touched with the whip or spur, be- 
hind the girths, before he comes to 
the jump, but not at the instant he 
takes it, nor should he be encouraged 
by a cry, or by doing anything that 
might cause him to swerve. Ahorse 
can make a flying high leap best 
when he approaches it in a slow gal- 
lop, and the rider should never at- 
tempt to make him jump at so great 
a speed that he cannot collect him- 
self for the leap. A high speed also 
prevents the horse from deciding 
where he should begin the leap, and 
confuses him. Only very expert ri- 
ders are warranted in interfering 
with a horse in taking his jumps ; 
most horses jump best if allowed to 
" take off," or leave the ground, as 
they please, the rider only steadying 
them a little if they rush at the ob- 
stacle. There is a great deal of non- 
sense in the idea that a horse can 
be '* lifted " and " helped " over his 
jumps ; and it is usually novices, or 
very young persons, who attempt 
these feats : one might as well try 
to " lift himself by his boot-straps," 
as to " lift " ahorse over a jump. If 
the horse is sluggish, he must be 
enlivened with whip or spur, or by 
moving the bit in his mouth ; but 
not the instant he is to " take off " 
the ground. The rider must not 
pull his horse as he rises, nor whilst 
he is in the air — to do so shortens 
the jump: if the rider cannot sit 
the jump, after a few trials, without 
the support of the reins, he had 
better improve his seat before con- 
tinuing the sport. 

In training a horse to jump, he 
should be made to leap only a few 
times at first, as he uses muscles 
not usually put to a strain, and, 



moreover, will learn to dislike it if 
made tired. Horses seem to like 
jumping in the field with the excite- 
ment attending the hunt, but some 
of the best judges say they never 
like it : they certainly dislike being 
" schooled," and jumping in cold 
blood. Always save your horse 
in hunting : take the fewest jumps 
necessary, and go through a break 
in the fence, or through a gate, 
when you can. Ease your horse in 
going over plowed ground, or up 
hill. If waiting at a " check," dis- 
mount and loosen your girths, and 
shift your saddle an inch either 
way. 

Balking. If a horse refuses to 
move, or balks, wait quietly for 
a minute and he will often go on. 
Sometimes he can be made to go by 
moving the reins gently, and urging 
him with voice or whip ; sometimes 
by pulling him around in the di- 
rection which he least resists; or, 
often by turning him around, sharply 
and quickly, a number of times (thus 
confusing him), and then starting in 
the desired direction. A little dirt 
from the road put into his mouth 
often so distracts a balky horse's 
attention from his obstinacy that he 
will move on. 

Rearing. The young horse is 
apt to rear if pulled and excited. 
When he rises, loosen the reins, even 
if you must hold on by the mane or 
neck ; press the legs closely to him, 
well back: this has a tendency to 
bring his hind legs forward, and ex- 
perts often use spurs, applied well 
back, to bring him down. Try to 
keep him moving either forward or 
in a circle, and pull his head toward 
either side if he is about to rise. If 
he is about to fall backward, try to 
throw yourself off to one side. A 
confirmed rearer is too dangerous 
to ride. 

Shying. Shying is sometimes 
caused by near-sightedness, or other 
defect in the eyes, but it is generally 
the result of habit arising from bad 
breaking. If from the latter cause 



RIDING 



581 



RIDING 



it can usually be overcome ; if from 
bad eyesight, never. In riding a shy- 
ing horse, the first requisite is that 
" the rider shall not shy himself." 
He should not let the horse know 
that he is expecting him to shy, as 
he communicates his timidity to the 
animal, who loses confidence in both 
himself and his rider. Whilst the 
rider should be on his guard, he 
should not, by change of seat or 
reins, lead the animal to think some- 
thing is about to happen as he ap- 
proaches an object : he should ride 
straight ahead, apparently paying no 
attention to the object or the horse. 
If he shys or sheers from freshness, 
keep him in a straight line by pull- 
ing his head toward the object and 
giving him pressure with the leg on 
the opposite side. If he stops or 
turns around, make him go, even if 
you must whip him {behind the 
girths), especially if his shying be a 
mere pretence. If the object be 
really frightful much kindness 
should be used, with firmness. A 
steady rein and plenty of "nerve" 
in the rider will usually overcome 
shying, as the horse gains confi- 
dence in himself through his confi- 
dence in his rider. He should not 
be forced to face an object which 
really frightens him. He may be 
gotten to pass it by turning his head 
from it, and pressing him on the 
side to'ward'^\{\Q\\ his head is turned. 
If the object is moving toward the 
horse it is best to turn his head from 
it and his side toward it, stopping 
him, or moving gradually, until the 
object has passed. 

Horses will often pass an object 
and not shy at a similar one again, 
if given a chance to examine it and 
touch it with the nose after being 
gently gotten up to it. Never 
whip a horse for shying after he has 
passed the object, as he will soon 
acquire the habit of running after 
each shy, as he expects the whip. 

A horse may often be made to 
pass an object without shying by 
quietly pulling his head away from 



it as he begins to notice it, and 
thus attracting his attention to 
something else : he cannot think of 
two things at the same time. 

If a horse is evidently confirmed 
in the habit, he is not fit to ride, and 
should be disposed of and put to 
work where he can do no harm. 

Bolting. If a horse bolts, or 
rushes from control of the bit, 
loosen the reins a moment and 
give them a sudden jerk, or sharply 
'* saw " him : that is, pull the reins 
alternately on either side quickly 
and sharply, keeping his head up. 

Some authorities say that by 
gathering the reins so short in the 
left hand that it presses against the 
mane, and then passing the right 
hand down (on either side as close 
as possible to the bit and pulling 
the horse's head quite around to 
one side, any bolter may be stopped. 
It is best to stop the horse, if possi- 
ble, so soon as he starts faster than 
the riderwishes him to go, before he 
has gotten into the running stride. 
But if he does run, try to keep your 
seat ; and if there is a clear road, let 
him go until he begins to tire, and 
then give him the whip until he is 
run out and glad to stop. 

In most cases horses acquire vices 
through being maltreated, though 
some animals are vicious by nature. 

The rider should seldom use his 
whip to punish his horse, and the 
spur should never be so used. But 
when the whip is used for pun- 
ishment, it should be sharply ap- 
plied two or three times. If used to 
make the horse go forward when 
backing, it should be taken in the 
right hand, and a sharp cut be <;iven 
over to the left side, behind the sad- 
dle girths, and brought back very 
quickly on its rebound, and struck 
on the right side, behind the girths. 
To do this expertly requires some 
practice off the horse, but it is 
worth the time, as it does not 
give the pain on one side only, 
and cause the animal to swerve. 
Skilled riders advise that a contest 



RIDING 



582 



RIDING 



between the horse and his rider al- 
ways be avoided, if possible, by 
turning the horse's attention to 
something else. Never strike on 
the shoulder, as the horse naturally 
draws bacii, or swerves, from the 
blow. 

A bad rider sometimes punishes 
his horse for not understanding what 
he is wanted to do, when the fault is 
with the rider himself, who either 
does not know how to make his 
desire known, or does not do so 
clearly. A well-trained horse is 
always willing to obey, and does so 
the moment he understands. To 
punish him for not understanding 
is usually one step toward making 
him vicious. Authorities differ 
much on the subject of training 
horses, but it- is safest to err on the 
side of kindness. A rider who does 
not lose his temper has a great ad- 
vantage. A nervous horse with high 
courage may be a perfect saddle- 
horse in the hands of a self-con- 
trolled rider, and useless in those of 
a cruel, loud-voiced one. 

In country-road riding, always 
pick the softest paths ; and if the 
road be macadamized, ride on the 
edges. Ride slowly on descents, 
with shoulders back, and walk your 
horse down hills. 

Pulling. Many horses pull, when 
first leaving the stable, from lack of 
work, and soon calm down. Some 
horses of a nervous disposition pull 
through anxiety to go ahead : such 
animals can be ridden with com- 
fort only through gentle treatment 
and light hands. Often they will 
not pull unless pulled by the rider. 
Easy bits, such as a snaffle, bar, 
either rubber covered, should be 
used alternately, every few days. 
Horses with low, heavy shoulders, 
carrying low heads, are apt to pull, 
and are not fit for saddle use. If a 
horse with a good mouth begins to 
pull and bear down upon the bit, it 
will often be found that his feet are 
becoming contracted or "sore,'' or 
that he is stiff in his front legs. This 



bearing upon the bit is an effort to 
transfer a part of his weight. 

A good veterinary should be con- 
sulted in such a case. 

Hands. A rider is said to have 
" bad hands " when he continually 
pulls at his horse's mouth. " Good 
hands," or " light hands," seem to 
be natural with some riders, and al- 
most impossible to cultivate in 
others. Women oftener have good 
hands than men, perhaps because 
they are not as strong and are 
more sensitive. Often a woman 
can ride with ease a high-strung 
nervous horse, which may be a 
puller, or even a run-away, under 
a rough-riding man. The rider 
must learn to "give and take" 
with the reins. If the horse pulls, 
use force enough to bring him to 
the pace required, aided by a kindly 
and quietly spoken word, like 
" there," or "walk" (but not "whoa," 
which should always mean stop), and 
then gradually loosen the reins. 
Always hold the reins tightly in the 
hands, whether pulling or not. 

Unless great force is required, 
hold the fore-arms at right angles 
to the body, with the hands down- 
ward at the wrist, as in playing a 
piano. It will be found that there 
is strength enough at the wrists for 
the control of most horses, — cer- 
tainly for well broken ones, — and 
that the hands will grow "light" 
as they "give and take" from the 
wrist with the motion of the horse's 
head whilst in action. If a horse 
bears down upon the bit, his head 
may be brought up by raising the 
hands and moving the snaffle reins 
sharply and quickly from side to 
side ; or, if he is persistent, by rais- 
ing either hand with a sharp pull 
upwards, ten or twelve inches. 

If the tendency of the horse is to 
carry his head too low, carry the 
hands somewhat high. If he has 
the opposite tendency, carry the 
hands low. 

Spurs. No beginner should wear 
spurs : they are a source of danger 



RIDING 



583 



RIDING 



except when worn by experienced 
horsemen, and no rider who turns 
his toes outward should put them 
on. 

Stumbling. A stumbling horse 
should never be ridden. The fault 
may arise from some curable disease 
of the feet, but usually from weak 
knees or legs. If mounted on a 
stumbler, keep his head up and 
make him move at a lively pace by 
aid of whip or spur. 

Bits. Most horses go well with 
the double bit; that is, the curb 
and snaffle or bridoon, as shown in 
the picture of the bridle. But some 
horses with very tender mouths 
or nervous dispositions go better 
with the snaffle alone : it may be 
used with two reins, but without 
the extra head-piece (B) in picture. 
A few horses go well with the curb, 
but dislike the additional mouth- 
piece of the snaffle. For these the 
Pelham bit may be used. 




Pelham Bit. 
Riding Hints to Girls. A girl 
should not ride every day, and long, 
until she is sixteen, unless she 
have a second saddle, with the pom- 
mels on the right side, to enable her 
to sit on different sides of the horse 
on alternate days. In very young 
girls the muscles are weak, and the 
spine and shoulders may grow 
crooked. No girl ought to ride un- 
less she likes to and is fearless. A 
horse quickly knows if his rider is 
afraid and soon becomes master. A 



woman's saddle should have a fiat 
seat (Martin & Martin, of 5th Ave- 
nue, New York, who have their 
workshop in London, or Peat & Co., 
Piccadilly, London, make them). 
The stirrup should be plain, or of 
the kind shown on the saddle illus- 
tration, not the old-fashioned slip- 
per. Riding should be practised 
without using the stirrup: it gives 
great confidence, balance, and free- 
dom. Of course it is not intended 
to recommend long rides without a 
stirrup ; but only practise during 
exercise in the school or at some 
safe spot. The rise to the trot can be 
done without it, and should not de- 
pend too much upon it: by grasping 
the upright-head firmly with the 
right leg and pressing the left knee 
against the leaping-head, or lower 
pommel, the rise can be accom- 
plished with the slightest aid from 
the stirrup, and in fact should be 
so ridden. 

To make the horse canter, leading 
with his right leg, pull his head 
slightly to the left with the left 
rein and press him quickly with the 
left heel. To make him lead with 
the left foot pull the right rein and 
tap him with the whip, behind the 
girths, on the right side, where the 
heel would touch him if on that 
side. 

A woman or girl, in mounting, 
should place her right hand on the 
upright-head, and her left foot in the 
left hand of an assistant, held about 
16 inches from the ground. She 
places her left hand on his right 
shoulder, and his right hand is under 
her left arm-pit. The assistant 
counts one, two, three. At three, she 
springs upwards, the assistant aid- 
ing her by rising. Being on the 
saddle, she places her right knee 
over the upright-head. The assistant 
sees that her left foot is placed in 
the stirrup and fastens the elastic 
straps for holding the skirt in place. 
In dismounting, after first releasing 
the right leg and the dress from the 
pommel and turning from the for- 



RIDING 



584 



RING BALL 



ward position, she holds her arms 
at her sides and simply slips off the 
horse, her assistant placing a hand 
under each elbow, thus bringing her 
down lightly. Women should keep 

A 




A, Upright-head ; B, Leaping-head ; C, 
Seat ; D, Safe (corresponding part on right 
of Saddle is the Flap) ; E, Stirrup-leather ; 
F, Stirrup ; G, Secondary Stirrup (which 
turns down and releases foot in case of a 
fall) ; H, K, Girths ; I, Balance Girth. 

shoulders and hips squarely to 
the front, looking straight between 
the horse's ears. The right leg 
above the knee lies flat on the sad- 
dle, while the right knee grasps 
the upright-head firmly. Below the 
knee the leg is drawn back, and the 
toes are bent downward. The left 
knee is close to the saddle, and the 
leg below the knee hangs easily 
down. The foot in the stirrup is 
held parallel to the horse's side. 

The rules of the road in riding 
are the same as for driving, and 
should be followed very carefully, 
both in the park and on the road. 
See under article on Driving. 

RING BALL, a game played by 
any number or persons with a soft 



ball of rubber or stuffed cloth. The 
players form a circle, each standing 
near a base, which is usually a stone. 
The bases are at equal distances; 
the size of the circle may be large 
or small, provided one stand- 
ing inside it can easily throw 
to all the bases. At the 
beginning of the game any 
player takes the ball and 
throws it into the air. The 
one nearest whom it stops 
must stand within the cir- 
cle. The one at his right 
now takes the ball and throws 
it at the player in the circle. If he 
misses, he also must go into the 
circle; if he hits, all leave their 
bases and run where they please, 
till the one hit gets the ball, when 
he shouts " Halt !" and all must stop. 
In either case, the one thrown at 
throws the ball in turn at some one 
of those on the circumference of the 
circle, but if he has been obliged to 
go out of the circle to get the ball, 
he must return inside before he can 
throw. The one he hits must join 
those inside the circle. If he hits 
nobody, all return to their bases. 
The one hit, or the one nearest the 
ball, takes the next turn at throw- 
ing it. So the game goes on, till 
all but one are inside the circle. 
This one now takes the ball, and 
running around the circle, outside, 
where he pleases, tries to hit those 
within, while they strive to get the 
ball and hit him. The player out- 
side has the advantage, for he can 
run back as far as he wishes, while 
they cannot leave the ring. Those 
whom he bits are "dead," and must 
retire outside the ring. If he 
" kills " all without being hit him- 
self, he is victor. But if he be hit, 
he and all he has " killed " must go 
within the circle, while the others 
take their stand at whatever bases 
they choose, and the game proceeds 
as before. 

This ball game is played in Ger- 
many, where it is called Kreisball 
(Ring Ball). In Switzerland it is 



RING TOSS 



58s 



ROLY-POLY 



named Eck und Krippe (Corner and 
Fence), the point inside the circle 
where the players stand being the 
''Eck" and the circle itself the 
'' Krippe y 

RING TOSS. See Grommets. 

RING TRICK. The following trick 
requires the use of a second ring, 
similar to the one borrowed ; hence 
it is best to borrow only a plain gold 
ring. 

To pass a ring through a table, 
sew a ring to the middle of a hand- 
kerchief by a piece of silk about 
four inches long. Borrow a similar 
ring, and pretend to wrap it in the 
handkerchief without really doing 
so. Then give the handkerchief to 
one of the company to hold. He 
will feel the sewed ring and think 
it to be the borrowed one. If there 
is no light from behind the per- 
former, he may first hold up the 
handkerchief with the suspended 
ring on the side away from the 
company to show them that it is 
empty. Ask the company to choose 
at what point the ring is to pass 
through the table, and, placing a 
tumbler on the spot ask the hand- 
kerchief holder, keeping his hand 
on the ring within it, to hold it di- 
rectly over the tumbler. Then 
drop the handkerchief over the 
tumbler, and ask him to let the ring 
go, when it will be heard to fall into 
the glass. Borrow a high hat, and 
take it in the hand holding the bor- 
rowed ring in such manner that 
the fingers, covering the ring are 
just inside the crown. The inside 
of the hat may then be shown to 
the company. Placing the hat on 
the floor just beneath the tumbler, 
the performer gently drops the ring 
into it and then, pulling the hand- 
kerchief with its attached ring away 
from the tumbler, invites one of the 
company to examine the hat, where 
he will, of course, find the borrowed 
ring. 

ROBIN'S ALIVE, a game played 
by any number of persons, who sit 
in a circle. The one who begins 



the game lights a piece of twisted 
paper or bit of wood and repeats 
the verse : 

" Robin's alive, and alive he shall be ; 
If he dies in my hand 

My mouth shall be bridled, my back shall 
be saddled, 
I'll be sent as a slave to Barbary." 

As soon as the verse is recited the 
paper is handed to the next player, 
who also repeats the lines, and so it 
goes around the ring. The one in 
whose hand it goes out must pay a 
forfeit. This game is called also 
Jack's Alive, and each player repeats 
those two words only as he holds 
the lighted paper. 

Sometimes the last line is sung, 

" If it dies in my hand you may back-saddle 
me." 

" Back-saddling " consists in plac- 
ing the one in whose hand the light 
went out on his back on the floor, 
and piling chairs on him. 

ROLY-POLY, or NINE HOLES, a 
game of ball played by any number 
of persons, generally nine. As 
many holes as there are players, 
each large enough to receive the 
ball, are dug about a foot apart, the 
whole forming a square. Around 
them a line is drawn, about four or 
five feet from the outside holes, and 
ten or fifteen feet from this line, in 
any direction, is marked the position 
of the Roller. Each player now 
chooses a hole, and one, selected by 
lot as Roller, takes his post, ball in 
hand. Each of the others must have 
one foot on the boundary line 
around the holes. The Roller tries 
to roll the ball into one of the holes. 
If he make three consecutive misses, 
a pebble is placed in his hole. If he 
succeeds, the player in whose hole 
the ball stops seizes it and throws it 
at any of the others, except the Rol- 
ler. If he hit the one at whom he 
throws, the latterhashishole marked 
with a pebble and becomes Roller; 
if he miss, his own hole is so 
marked, and he becomes Roller in 
turn. He who throws the ball must 
stand on the boundary line as he 



ROLY-POLY 



586 



ROPE-WAVES 



does so, unless he chooses to hold 
the ball and wait his chance, instead 
of throwing it at once, in which case 
he may stand three feet from the line. 
The other players must run for 
safety; but if the thrower hold the 
ball, they may save themselves from 
being hit by running back within 
the boundary line before he can 
strike them with the ball. If the 
Roller send the ball into his own 
hole, he must run forward and throw 
the ball like any one else; but as he 
is so far from his hole, he is at a dis- 
advantage, and he always tries, if 
possible, to send the ball into some 
other one's hole. The first player 
who gets three pebbles in his hole 
must stand with his back to the 
others, usually with his face to a 
wall, and throw the ball as far as he 
can over his shoulder. The others 
in turn, each standing where the ball 
stops, may throw it at him as hard 
as they choose ; but whoever hits 
him in any other part of the body 
than the back must change places 
with him. Sometimes he who has 
three pebbles is considered out of 
the game, and his hole is stopped 
up. This goes on until only one is 
left. He is the winner, and is 
allowed to throw the ball at each of 
the others, as described above, in the 
order in which they went out. Each 
throws the ball over his shoulder to 
determine the spot from which it 
may be thrown at him. 

History. Roly Poly is a very old 
English game. It is sometimes 
played in England with hats instead 
of holes, and is then often called 
Egg Hat. In this case the ball is 
pitched instead of rolled. The 
French call it Balle aiix Pots (Pot 
Ball) and it is called also Roll Ball. 
The Germans have a game called 
Neunloch (Nine Holes), but the ob- 
ject of the player is simply to throw 
his ball into the holes in a certain 
order. At Yale College, where the 
game is much played by the Senior 
class, it is called Nigger Baby, or 



African Infant, or sometimes Niger 
Infa7is, which is the same name in 
Latin. ' 

The scoring stones placed in the 
holes are often named " Babies." 
In Austria they are similarly called 
Kinder (children). 

In a variety called Scheiben 
schiessen (Target Shooting), the 
nine holes are of different sizes and 
arranged in the form of a cross, the 
smallest in the centre. He who 
hits the centre hole first is called 
the King, and he who does so next 
is called the Marshal. 

ROPE-WAVES, Experiments with. 
Procure a piece of rope from 20 to 
50 feet long, the longer the better; 
but, if the experiments are to be 
tried indoor, the rope cannot be 
longer than the room used. The 
rope must not be at all stiff; the 
best kind is cotton window-cord. 

I. Tie the rope to some object, 
such as a door-knob, if indoor, or 
a tree or a fence outdoors, so that 
it will be pretty tight. Hold the 
other end of the rope in the hand. 
By jerking it quickly downward, a 
downward curve or depression may 
be made to run along the rope to 
the other end, where it will be re- 
flected and return as an upward 
curve. Or tie the other end of the 
rope to a chair, stretch it as tight as 
desired, and then sit on the chair 
to hold it. When the rope is struck 
with a stick, a similar wave will run 
along it, more swiftly the tighter the 
rope is ; so it can be seen better in 
a long rope than in a short one. 

2. Send a downward curve, as 
before, and just as it is reflected 
send an upward curve. The two 
upward curves meeting in the mid- 
dle of the rope will be added, and 
make it swing violently. 

3. Send a downward curve, and 
just as it starts to come back as an 
upward curve, send another down- I 
ward curve. The opposite curves 
meeting in the middle of the rope 
will destroy each other there, so the 



A 



ROUNCE 



587 



ROWING 



middle of the rope will remain 
nearly still, while the parts on either 
side swing up and down. The still 
point is called a "node." (See 
Violin, Experiments on.) 

4. Try these experiments with 
the cord stretched tight and then 
loose. It will be found that the 
tighter the cord the faster the waves 
travel. 

5. Send an upward or downward 
curve, as before, and as it is reflected 
send a curve to meet it by striking 
the rope sidewise. The result will 
be to make the rope move in a cir- 
cle when they meet. 

ROUNCE, a game of cards 
played by not more than nine per- 
sons, with a full pack. The cards 
rank as in Whist. Each player is 
dealt five cards, two and three at a 
time, as in Euchre, and an extra 
hand of six cards, called " Dummy," 
is dealt in the middle of the table. 
If the eldest hand is satisfied, he 
says " I play :" otherwise, he says " I 
pass," and, throwing down his cards, 
may either retire from the game 
during that hand, or take up Dum- 
my. If he retire, the next player 
to the left has the same choice, and 
so with the others in order. After 
Dummy has been taken up, the 
others must either play their hands 
or retire. He who takes up Dum- 
my discards one of its cards. If the 
dealer choose to play without Dum- 
my, he may take the trump card 
into his hand and discard one of his 
own cards. Play then begins, the 
eldest hand leading. Suit must be 
followed, if possible, otherwise any 
card may be played. The winner 
of a trick must lead trumps, if he 
can. At the beginning of the game, 
each player is credited with 15 
points, one of which is subtracted 
for every trick that he makes. If 
he fail to make a trick, he is said to 
be "rounced," and five points are 
added to his score. He wins whose 
score is first reduced to nothing. 
The points are often marked by 
crosses, as in Auction Pitch. 



RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. In cutting for deal, low deals, 
and Ace is low. 

2. The Dummy must be dealt 
three cards at a time, each three 
being given before the dealer gives 
any to himself. 

3. If there be a misdeal, the 
dealer is rounced, and the deal 
passes to the next player. 

4. Whoever takes Dummy must 
play it. 

5. If all the players up to the one 
on the dealer's right have refused 
to play, that one must play his 
hand, take Dummy, or allow the 
dealer to score 5. 

6. If a player revoke, expose a 
card, or fail to lead a trump, when 
possible, after taking a trick, he is 
rounced. 

In Germany this game is called 
Rams, and is played with a Euchre 
pack. If a player hold no trump, he 
is allowed to play his poorest card 
face down, which calls for a trump 
from every other player. 

ROUND TAG. See Fox and 
Geese, 1 1. 

ROWING, the art of propelling a 
boat by means of oars. The differ- 
ent kinds of row-boats and oars are 
described in C. C. T., under Row- 
boat. The oarsman sits upright 
on the thwart, or stationary seat, 
with his feet against the stretcher, 
which should be at such a distance 
that the knees will be bent, but so 
that the hands will easily clear 
them. The knees are held about a 
foot apart, the heels close together, 
and the toes turned out. The 
handle of the oar is grasped natural- 
ly with both hands, one, called the 
inside hand, at the extreme end, the 
other, or outside hand, from one- 
and-a-half to two inches from it. 
The thumbs are usually underneath 
though some rowers hold the thumb 
of either the inside or outside hand 
above the oar. The rower begins 
by inclining the body forward, keep- 
ing the back straight and the head 
erect, and stretching out his arms 



ROWING 



5^^ 



ROWING 




^^^^^ -r^^- ■^'=-''^^^' --^>^<i:^* 





The Catch. 



as far as possible. The oar is now 
dropped into the water (called the 
" catch ") and the rower begins to 
pull at the same time. He should 
avoid both pulling before the oar 
strikes the water and waiting for an 
instant afterward. Some oarsmen 
hold the blade of the oar at right 



angles to the water as they dip it 
and others incline the front of the 
blade a little forward. The blade of 
the oar should be dipped just 
enough to cover it, and it should 
be kept at the same depth during 
the stroke. 

The learner should avoid pulling 




Middle of Stroke. 

the blade of the oar through the I stroke short. The power should 
air before it strikes the water, as is applied the moment the oar touche 
the usual way with beginners. The i the water. The blade should bl 
result of this fault is called " clip- dipped sufficiently deep to avoii 
ping,"or in other words it makes the ' its slipping through the water as il 



ROWING 



589 



ROWING 



the case with what is known as "sur- 
face dipping." In stretching out the 
arms they precede the movement of 
the body, both going forward to- 
gether, but the hands moving faster 
than the body. 



After pulling steadily, using the 
back and legs as well as the arms, 
the stroke is finished when the body 
is slightly inclined backward and the 
knees nearly straight. The oar is 
then lifted from the water, and the 




Finish of Stroke. 



body brought back to the first posi- 
tion ready to begin another stroke. 
This is called the " recover," and 
was formerly often executed with a 
sudden movement so as to waste as 
little time as possible. But oarsmen 
now favor a slower recover, to avoid 
straining the muscles of the abdo- 
men, which are used in the move- 
ment. It has been said that the 
recover is really the most fatiguing 
part of the stroke. The hands 
should move forward a little faster 
than the body. But others make 
the movement with the arms first, 
lest they should cramp the body. 
At the instant the body has reached 
the proper position, the oar is 
dropped into the water and the 
second stroke begun. If an oarsman 
wait an instant before "catching," 
he is said to "hang," and he should 
equally avoid catching before he has 
finished going forward, thus splash- 
ing water. The oar should be carried 
as low as possible during the re- 
cover, the height depending on 



whether the water is rough or 
smooth. When the beginner has 
learned these movements so that he 
can execute them without looking 
at his oar, which should never be 
done by the finished oarsman, he 
should " feather" on the recover. 
Feathering is turning the blade of 
the oar parallel with the surface of 
the water during the recover, so that 
the resistance of the air will be as 
little as possible. To feather prop- 




Feathering. 



erly the wrist of the inside hand 
should be curved a little upward 
during the stroke (Fig. i) and at its 



ROWING 



590 



ROWING 



close ; just as the oar is lifted out of 
the water, the wrist is lowered and 
the back of the hand thrown a 
little upwards (Fig. 2) so as to turn 
the oar blade through a right angle. 
Just before the catch, the movement 
is reversed, so that the oar is ready 
to take the water again. As to the 
rapidity of the stroke, opinions dif- 
fer, but most oarsmen prefer a long 
and steady stroke, though some of 
the . most successful racing crews 
have pulled very rapidly. The rate 
of stroke is determined to a great 
extent by the length of the race, 
being faster for short races. A rapid 
stroke is exhausting and cannot be 
kept up long, and it is also difficult 
to execute the stroke properly if it is 
very swift. The oarsman should 
keep exact time with the others in 
the boat. To " back water," or cause 
the boat to move in the opposite 
direction, the oarsman reverses his 
oar and pushes instead of pulling. 
The movement is made principally 
by the arms, the body resting in a 
natural position. If he is pulling a 
pair of sculls, the same rules apply, 
except that each oar is pulled by 
one hand. By holding the oars 
firmly and in exactly the same 
manner, the oarsman may be sure 
that the catch and feather are made 
at the proper angles without look- 
ing to see. The oarsman should be 
careful to pull both sculls with the 
same force, otherwise the boat will 
turn toward the weaker side. If he 
has no one to steer he should bring 
some point in the stern of the boat 
into line with a tree or other object 
on shore and then keep them in line. 
If the stern swerves toward the left, 
for instance, he must pull a little 
harder on his right scull to bring it 
back again. If he wishes to turn 
quickly he must back water with 
the oar on the side toward which 
he wishes to turn, and row with 
the other. Where several row in 
one boat, the steering is often done 
by the bow oar. Where the boat is 
steered with a rudder, the rudder 



is managed either by the bow oar, 
who operates it with his feet, by an 
arrangement of cords and levers, or 
by a coxswain, who sits in the stern, 
and who also gives the necessary 
orders to the oarsmen, telling them 
when to begin to row and when to 
stop rowing. He does this because 
he is the only one in the boat who 
faces in the direction of motion. 
The rules to be observed by the 
steersman, whether he be coxswain 
or one of the oarsmen, are generally 
as follows : " Inside " means to- 
ward the shore, " outside " toward 
the middle of the stream. 

1. Boats going with the stream or 
tide take the outside, and those 
against stream or tide the inside. 

2. Boats meeting keep to the 
right. 

3. A boat overtaking another 
must keep clear of it. 

4. A boat with a coxswain must 
yield as far as possible to one with- 
out a coxswain. 

5. A row-boat must give way to 
a sail-boat. 

6. A boat with a less number of 
oars must give way to one with a 
greater number. 

Sliding Seats. Almost all racing 
boats now use sliding seats, which 
add greatly to the power of the 
oarsman, enabling him to use the 
muscles of his legs in pulling. 
Other advantages are the fact that 
the body does not need to be bent 
forward or backward, to a position 
where the muscles of the back can- 
not be used to advantage, as in 
ordinary rowing ; the prevention of 
cramp by the alternate bending and 
stretching of the leg. and the ability 
to maintain a better pace for a 
longer time. In a quick "spurt' 
the sliding seat is thought by 
some oarsmen to be a disadvan- 
tage, as it gains power at the ex- 
pense of velocity ; but some of the 
best authorities do not agree with 
this conclusion. The seats either 
slide on a sort of brass rails or roll 
on little steel balls, the object being 



ROWING 



591 



ROWING 



to make the friction as small as 
possible. 

When the oarsman uses a sliding 
seat, the body begins to swing first, 
and then he pushes the seat back, 
both movements blending together, 
until the legs are almost straight. 
The swing of the body and the slide 
together determine the length of 
the stroke. The slide should not 
be made too soon, and for a begin- 
ner should be only a few inches, 
being increased as the oarsman be- 
comes more expert. 

The oar, in rowing, acts as a lever. 
The principle is the same as when 
a weight is lifted by the middle of a 
stick, the end resting on the ground. 
In the case of the oar the end rests 
in the water instead of on the 
ground, and the boat is "prized" 
along, so to speak, by tbj oarsman. 
The blade of the oar does not remain 
perfectly still, like the end of the 
stick on the ground, but moves 
through the water a little, so that 
some power is lost. It is evident 
that the oar should be held so that 
the water will resist its motion as 
much as possible. 

The action of the rudder is as 
follows : If the boat is moving 
straight ahead, and the rudder is in 
line with it, there will be no press- 
ure from the water on either side ; 
but as soon as the rudder is turned, 
for instance, to the right, the water 
will press on its right side and push 
the stern of the boat over toward 
the left, which will alter the boat's 
direction toward the right. In the 
same way, turning the rudder toward 
the left causes the boat to turn to 
the left. Hence the rudder must 
always be turned in the direction the 
boat is to go. In a row-boat the 
rudder is usually managed by means 
of cords, one of which is attached to 
each end of a cross-piece at its top. 
The power should be applied to the 
rudder lines steadily, so as not to 
throw the boat to one side or the 
other, as is the case if the line is 
pulled quickly and then relaxed. 



Ordinary boats are kept in the 
water, but the finer kinds are usually 
kept in a boat-house. The large 
boat-houses owned by college row- 
ing associations, or city boat-clubs, 
usually contain, besides space for 
stowing away many boats, dressing- 
rooms for oarsmen, with a special 
closet or locker for each one's 
clothes, bath-rooms, a lounging or 
reception room, and often a work- 
shop for building or repairing 
boats. The house is of course on 
the edge of the water, and in front 
of it is usually what is called a 
" float," being a floating floor, or 
raft, moored loosely to piles or 
posts, but unconnected with the 
house, so that it will rise and fall 
with the v/ater. Such a float is in- 
dispensable where there is a tide. 
From the boat-house to the float 
lead one or more gangways, fastened 
to the former, but merely resting 
on the latter. To launch a barge or 
shell, the oarsmen, each on his own 
side and in his own position, carry 
it on their shoulders to the edge of 
the float. At the word of command 
from the captain, those on the side 
next the water slip underneath, and 
then all on one side, holding by the 
edge, let the boat gently into the 
water. The head of the boat usual- 
ly points up stream or against the 
tide, though no attention is paid to 
this point by many crews. The out- 
side oarsmen get in first at the com- 
mand (for instance), " Hold Star- 
board, in Port !" The starboard oars- 
men hold the edge of the boat while 
the port oarsmen get in, take their 
seats, and ship (or put in place) their 
oars, which are given them by an as- 
sistant. At the order ' Hold Port, 
in Starboard !" the port oarsmen, 
sitting in the boat, hold the edge of 
the float while the others get in and 
ship their oars. All the oars being 
held in position, those on one side 
projecting over the water, and those 
on the other over the float, one or 
more assistants take the latter and 
push the boat steadily, sidewise, 



ROWING 



592 



ROWING 



away from the float. When the 
oars are all clear, the coxswain be- 
gins to give his orders, his first care 
being to turn the boat's head in the 
right direction. To this end he com- 
mands " Pull Number 2 ! " " Back 
water number 3 !" or any similar 
order he pleases. When the boat 
is in the right position, he commands 
" Ready !" and an instant afterward 
" Give Way ! " 

Boat Racing, Boat races are 
usually held on lakes or large rivers 
where the water is smooth. The 
course is either straight away, that 
is, in a straight line, or with a turn, 
the boats going and returning over 
the same course. The place where 
the race begins is called the Start, 
and that where it ends the Finish. 
In a course with a turn, the Start and 
Finish are at the same point. The 
course is sometimes marked by 
buoys bearing colored flags, and 
each boat is assigned a definite 
path, in which it is obliged to keep, 
so that there is no danger of one's 
interfering with the other (called 
" fouling "). Eight-oared races are 
rowed, if possible, over a straight- 
away course. If a turn is necessary, 
each boat should have its own stake 
to turn, to avoid fouling. One of the 
best straight-away courses in the 
country — that at New London, Con- 
necticut, where the annual race be- 
tween Yale and Harvard is rowed — 
is four miles long, but the usual 
length is one and a half miles. The 
New London course is on the 
Thames River, which is very broad 
at this point, so that there is plenty 
of room for yachts to anchor near 
the Finish, The city authorities 
keep all boats off the river during 
the race, so that there is no inter- 
ference with the crews. The only 
craft allowed behind the racing 
boats are the tugs bearing the re- 
feree and newspaper reporters, and 
the college launches, and these are 
all required to keep so far in the 

ar that they cannot interfere with 
the race. If such boats come too 



near racing shells, the latter are 
held back by the suction. A rail- 
road runs along the riverside, and 
a train of platform cars fitted with 
seats, called an " Observation train," 
or " Moving Grand Stand," keeps 
abreast of the boats, so that specta- 
tors can see the whole of the race. 

The following are the rowing 
rules of the National Association of 
Amateur Oarsmen, adopted also 
by the National Amaf^^ur Athletic 
Union : 

RULES, 

Starting, i. All boat races shall 
be started in the following manner : 
The starter, on being satisfied that 
the competitors are ready, shall 
give the signal to start. 

2. If the starter considers the 
start false, he shall at once recall the 
boats to their stations ; and any 
boat refusing to start again shall be 
disqualified. 

3. Any boat not at its post at 
the time specified shall be liable to 
be disqualified by the umpire. 

4. The umpire may act as starter 
if he thinks fit ; where he does not 
so act, the starter shall be subject to 
the control of the umpire. 

5. Boats shall be started by their 
sterns, and shall have completed 
their course when the bows reach 
the finish. 

Water. 6. A boat's own water is 
its straight course, parallel with 
those of the other competing boats, 
from the station assigned to it at the 
start to the finish. 

7. Each boat shall keep its own 
water through the race, and any 
boat departing from its own water 
will do so at its peril. 

8. The umpire shall be sole judge 
of a boat's own water and proper 
course during the race. 

Fouls. 9. It shall be considered a 
foul when, after the race has com- 
menced, any competitor, by his oar 
boat, or person comes in contact 
with the oar, boat, or person of an- 
other competitor ; unless, in the 



ROWING 



593 



ROWING 



opinion of the umpire, such contact 
is so slight as not to influence the 
race. 

10. No fouling whatever shall be 
allowed ; the boat committing a 
foul shall be disqualified. 

11. The umpire may, during a 
race, caution any competitor when 
in danger of committing a foul. 

12. The umpire shall decide all 
questions as to a foul. 

13. A claim of foul must be made 
to the umpire by the competitor 
himself, and, if possible, before get- 
ting out of his boat. 

14. In case of a foul, the umpire 
shall have the power — {a) To place 
the boats (except the boat commit- 
ting the foul, which is disqualified) 
in the order in which they come in ; 
{b) to order the boats engaged in 
the race, other than the boat commit- 
ting the foul, to row over again on 
the same or another day; {c) to 
re-start the qualified boats from the 
place where the foul was committed. 

Accidents. 15. Every boat shall 
abide by its accidents, except when, 
during a race, a boat while in its 
own water shall be interfered with 
by any outside boat, the umpire 
may order the race to be rowed over, 
if, in his opinion, such interference 
materially affected its chances of 
winning the race. 

Assistance. 16. No boat shall be 
allowed to accompany a competitor 
for the purpose of directing his 
course or affording him other assist- 
ance. The boat receiving such di- 
rection or assistance shall be dis- 
qualified at the discretion of the 
umpire. 

Umpire. ly. The jurisdiction of 
the umpire extends over the race 
and all matters connected with it, 
from the time the race is specified 
to start until its final termination, 
and his decision in all cases shall be 
final and without appeal. 

18. The judge at the finish shall 
report to the umpire the order in 
which the competing boats cross the 
line, but the decision of the race 



shall rest with, and be declared by, 
the umpire. 

19. Any competitor refusing to 
abide by the decision, or to follow 
the directions of the umpire, shall 
be disqualified. 

20. The umpire, if he thinks 
proper, may reserve his decision, 
provided that in every case such de- 
cision be given on the day of the 
race. 

21. Contestants rowing a dead 
heat shall compete again after such 
interval as may be appointed, and 
the contestant refusing to so row 
shall be adjudged to have lost the 
race. 

Turning Races. 22. In turning 
races, each competitor shall have a 
separate turning stake, and shall 
turn from port to starboard. Any 
competitor may turn any stake other 
than his own, but does so at his 
peril. 

Juniors. An oarsman who has 
never won a race, nor pulled in one 
with those who have done so, is 
called a junior, and special races are 
sometimes held in which only 
juniors are allowed to row. Com- 
petitions with members of his own 
club, however, are not considered 
to affect an oarsman's standing as 
a junior. 

Rowing Machines. Many ma- 
chines have been devised to give to 
an oarsman, indoors, the same prac- 
tice that he would get in a boat. 
In the simplest of these he sits on 
a sliding seat and pulls on a handle 
about 18 inches long, to which is 
attached a cord running over a pul- 
ley and fastened to a weight beneath 
the floor. This does not exactly 
represent rowing, however, for the 
weight exerts a constant pull, 
whereas the resistance of the water 
to the oar is not the same at all 
points. The weight, too, assists in 
the recover, while the oar does not. 
In the best rowing machines real 
oar handles are so arranged that 
pulling on them operates a piston 
in a cylinder filled with water, or 



ROWING 



594 



ROWING 




Rowing Machine. 



winds up a spring as in the one 
shown in the illustration. The Yale 
and Harvard crews now practice 
rowing during the winter in real 
boats in large tanks of water in 
their gymnasiums. 

History. In ancient times the larg- 
est vessels were propelled with oars 
arranged in rows called banks, one 
above another. Boat-racing was not 
uncommon among the Greeks and 
Romans, and Virgil describes a race 
in the fifth book of the yEneid. The 
illustration opposite shows a Greek 
rowing vessel, or galley, as it is 
pictured on an ancient monument. 
In the middle ages large galleys 
in use on the Mediterranean sea, 
were manned by slaves and crimi- 
nals who had been condemned to 
row in them as a punishment. The 
ancient Britons used boats of wicker- 
work covered with skins, called 
coracles, which they propelled with 
paddles, and similar craft are still 
to be seen in Wales. Alfred the 
Great introduced long galleys from 
the Mediterranean into England for 
use in war. In early times, before the 
introduction of carriages, rowing 



was a very common means of tran- 
sit for kings and nobles in England, 
and by the 12th century large num- 
bers of men were employed on and 
about the rivers as watermen. In 
1 5 14 they had become so numerous 
that laws were passed for their reg- 
ulation. At the present time the 
watermen are employed chiefly on 
lighters and steam-boats. The earli- 
est record of boat-racing in England 
is of the establishment of a prize by 
Thomas Doggett, an actor, in 171 5, 
to celebrate the anniversary of the 
accession of George I, to the throne. 
It was to be rowed for annually on 
the Thames by six young water- 
man's apprentices, and consisted of 
a red coat with a large silver badge 
on the arm. This prize, called 
" Doggett 's coat and badge " is still 
competed for by the Thames water- 
men. In 1775 a rowing-race, called 
a regatta (Italian regatd) was held 
on the Thames, in imitation of simi- 
lar contests or festivals held in 
Venice, and since that time rowing 
or sailing contests have been com- 
monly called by this name. Early 
in the present century clubs began 



ROWING MACHINES 



595 



ROWING MACHINES 




Greek Galley. 



to be formed for pleasure rowing, 
and about the same time it was 
taken up as a sport by the English 
public schools and universities. 
Eton had a crew in 1811, and in 
1 81 7 beat the watermen in a four- 
oared race. In 1829 the first race 
was rowed between Oxford and 
Cambridge, on the Thames, and 
since 1856 these two universities 
have rowed every year. Since 1839 
there has been also a great regatta 
annually at Henley-on-Thames. In 
this country amateur rowing began 
at about the same time as in Eng- 
land, but It did not become popular 
so soon. The first recorded race 
was between crews from New York 
City and Long Island, in 181 1, and 
took place with four-oared barges 
with coxswains on the North River. 
The New York boat, the " Knicker- 
bocker," won. The first regular 
amateur boat club in America — the 
Castle Garden Amateur Boat Club 
Association, was organized in 1834. 
At the present time there are hun- 



dreds of such clubs, most of which 
are banded together in rowing asso- 
ciations for the purpose of giving 
yearly regattas. The largest of 
these, the National Association of 
Amateur Oarsmen, was formed in 

1873- 

The first American College boat 
club was formed at Yale in 1843, 
and the next at Harvard in 1844, 
and the two colleges rowed their 
first race in 1852. Since that time 
they have met almost every year, 
sometimes alone, and sometimes in 
connection with other colleges. A 
list of all the intercollegiate races 
held up to the present time, with 
the times of the contending crews, 
is given in the Appendix. 

Since the introduction of boat- 
racing, the racing-boat has been 
greatly changed. At first it was 35 
feet long and 6 feet beam, and 
weighed 700 pounds. The oars 
were clumsy, of great size, and load- 
ed with lead at the handle, while the 
blades were wide and fiat. As early 



ROWING MACHINES 



596 



ROYAL STAR 



as 1828 rude wooden outriggers were 
attached to boats, but the outrigger 
as it is now used was invented by 
Henry Clasper, of Newcastle, Eng- 
land, who built his first boat with 
thein in 1844. The sliding seat and 
the swivel rowlock were both in- 
vented by Americans. The former 
was devised by J. C. Babcock, who 
put one, in a sculling-boat in 1857, 
but the device was not perfected 
till 1870, nor generally adopted till 
several years later. 

At Oxford and Cambridge there 
are a large number of boat clubs, 
which compete every year for the 
honor of being what is called " the 
head of the river." As the rivers 
on which they row are too narrow 
to allow boats to pass easily, the 
shells are arranged in a line at equal 
distances apart. The object of each 
is to strike against, or " bump " the 



This is repeated 

the boat that 

place at the 

This arrange- 



boat in front of it, and when this is 
done, the bumped boat yields its 
place to the other, 
several times, and 
wins or keeps a 
head is the victor, 
ment is not necessary in any of the 
American colleges where boating is 
practised, for all of them row on 
wide bodies of water. At Yale and 
Harvard each class has its boat club, 
and there is a class regatta twice a 
year. These regattas, like the 
" bumping races" at the English 
universities, serve to train oarsmen 
for the University crews. For an 
eight-oared University crew 15 or 20 
men are usually selected several 
months before the race, and the 
necessary eight are picked out from 
among these afterward, when it has 
been seen who are the best. 

Many substitutes for oars, in pro- 



^^^^ 


^ ^ 


^^ 


"^^^^^^^^^^^fc 




^^^M 



French Velocipede Boat. 



palling a boat, have been proposed, 
and some of them actually used. 
Most are on the principle of the pad- 
dle-wheel, and are worked like a 
tricycle. The illustration shows one 
invented by a Frenchman. The 
swan-boats in Central Park, New 
York, are propelled in this way, and 
the Prince of Wales has one of a 
similar kind at his estate of Sand- 
ringham. 

ROYAL STAR, a game played by 
any number of persons, with an 



eight-pointed wooden star, and eight 
wooden balls. The rays of the star 
are arranged so as to fall out if 
struck by the balls, and each ray is 
of a different color, the balls being 
painted to correspond. The players 
take turns in throwing the balls at 
the star. Each scores one point 
every time he hits a ray with a ball 
of a different color, two points when 
he hits one with a ball of the same 
color, and has three points deducted 
from his score when he misses the 



RUSHING BASES 



S97 



SAILING 



star altogether. Each player throws 
all the balls before the next takes 
his turn, and the game ends after a 
number of rounds previously agreed 
on. The game may be played with 
counters, when, instead of having 
points taken from his score, one 
who misses is required to place three 
counters in the middle of the table. 



These, with others paid in like 
manner, form the pool, which is 
taken at the end of the game by 
the player having the highest 
score. 

RUSHING BASES. See Peela- 

WAY. 

RUSSIAN BACKGAMMON. See 

Backgammon. 



8 



SADDLE MY NAG, a game played 
by any number of persons. Sides 
are chosen, and the leaders decide 
by lot who shall have first innings. 
The losers arrange themselves as 
follows : One stands almost upright, 
but bending slightly forward, his 
hand resting against a wall or tree ; 
a second puts his head on the back 
of the first ; a third in like man- 
ner on the back of the second, and 
so on, till all on that side are in 
line. Each player may hold to the 
clothes of the one in front of him, 
cross his arms on his breast, or rest 
his hands on his knees. One of 
the other players now runs, places 
his hands on the back of the one 
at the rear of the line, and leaps 
as far forward as he can. The rest 
of those on his side follow in order, 
until all are on the backs of the 
other side. If all can remain on 
without touching the ground with 
any part of the body while the 
leader counts twenty ; or if any of 
the other party sink down under 
their weight, or touch the ground 
to support themselves, the riders 
keep their innings and the game 
is repeated. Otherwise the sides 
change places. 

SAILING. The hulls of boats are 
of various sizes and shapes, but all 
have the forward end (called the 
bow) sharp, that it may cut through 
the water. The after end, called 
the stern, is fitted with a rudder, 
with which the boat is steered. 
This rudder, which is the same in 
principle as that of a row-boat (see 



Rowing), is managed in small boats 
by means of a handle or lever, called 
atiller ; when the tiller is pushed to 
one side, the rudder turns to the 
opposite side ; and (as explained 
under Rowing) as the boat turns to 
the same side as the rudder, the 
tiller must be moved to the side 
opposite to that in which the steers- 
man wishes the boat to go. The 
right-hand side of the boat, as 
one faces the bow, is called the 
starboard side, and the left-hand 
the port side (formerly called lar- 
board). To " port the helm," or 
" put the helm to port," means to 
push the tiller toward the port or left 
side, thus turning the boat to the 
starboard or right. Large boats are 
generally steered with an upright 
wheel connected with the rudder 
by ropes, cogs, or otherwise. Small 
boats are sometimes entirely open, 
but generally half-decked, and larger 
ones usually have a covered cabin. 
The bottom of a boat's hull, called 
the floor, may be almost flat, or it 
may be more or less curved. The 
depth of a boat below the water's 
surface is called her "draught." If 
this distance is two feet, for example, 
she is said to " draw two feet of 
water." Of course the draught is 
greater if the boat be loaded. The 
difference of draught between the 
bow and stern of a boat is sometimes 
called the drag. It is the best plan 
to ballast or " trim" small boats so 
that the stern sinks a little deeper 
than the bow. 

The boats called cutters draw a 



SAILING 



598 



SAILING 



great deal of water, and are narrow 
and sharp at the bottom. This 
kind of boat is much hked in Eng- 
land. Most American yachts are 
broader and draw less water, and 



one kind of boat, the sharpy, is al- 
most flat-bottomed. Some sail- 
boats have a keel, or ridge of wood 
running from bow to stern on the 
outside of the hull at its bottom. 







^ ^ '° ■. 'V'. .-^. . 


VllS^ 


1 


i 








— 


— 


=^^^^ 


VJ |^J\ 








— ■ 


■^;^^^^^^^^^ 




Section of Hull of an English Cutter. 



and others have a centreboard, a 
flat board which is let down at one 
end through a slit in the middle of 
the boat. Still others, generally 
small boats, have a leeboard, which 
is let down at one side. All these 
devices are meant to prevent the 
boat from drifting sidewise, so that 
she will move most easily forward. 
Sail-boats usually have rowlocks at 
the side so that they can be rowed 
when there is no wind. 

The arrangement of masts and 
sails constitutes the " rig" of a boat. 
The area of the sail in an ordinary 
boat should not much exceed the 
length of the boat multiplied by its 
extreme breadth. In most boats the 
sails are hung to spars or poles, 
which are raised and lowered on the 
mast by ropes called halliards. If 
the spar hangs across the mast, it is 
called a yard, and the vessel is said 
to be square-rigged ; but only large 



craft, like ships and brigs, are rigged 
in this way. Pleasure boats are 
generally fore-and-aft rigged, that is, 
the spars are fastened to the mast 
by one end, and the sail is therefore 
all on one side of the mast. The 
bottom of the sail is fastened to a 
longer pole, called a boom. In all 
boats the rope by which the sail is 
controlled is called the sheet. The 
tackle by which it is managed by 
the sailor is 
shown in the 
illustration. 

One of the 
simplest rigs is 
the spritsail, 
which is nearly 
square. There 

--::tv^ -===rv ^s "^ boom, and 

/f' ^:^^^V, in place of the 

TacU,e o. Main-Sheet. g«^"f ^pdt 
fastened at the lower end, or " foot," 




SAILING 



599 



SAILING 



to the middle of the mast, and at 
the other end to the upper corner 
of the sail. The side of the sail 
toward the mast (called the luff of 
the sail) is laced to it with cords, 
and the foot of the sprit rests in a 
loop of rope. When the foot is 
taken from the loop, the sail can be 
folded up against the mast and tied 
to it. The mast is usually made, in 
this case, so that it can be taken 
down or " unstepped" and laid in 
the bottom of the boat. The sheet 
is fastened to the lower outer corner 
of the sail. Such a sail may be used 
on an ordinary row-boat or on a 
Canoe. 

Another simple rig is the "leg- 
of-mutton," a triangular spritsail, 
having its sprit nearly at right 




Device for Unstepping Mast. 

angles with the mast, and therefore 
taking the place of a boom rather 
than of a gaff, as seen in the picture. 
The mast used with a sprit- or leg- 
of-mutton sail is sometimes made 
so that it can be unstepped by the 
boatman without his leaving his 
seat. The device used is plainly 
shown in the illustration. Another 
simple rig, called the balance-lug, is 
shown in the next illustration. 



The most common rig for ordi- 
nary sail-boats is the cat-rig, and 




Balance-lug. 

boats thus rigged are called cat- 
boats (in England Una boats). The 




"^K^^ 



Cat-boat. 

sail, which is like an ordinary main- 
sail with gaff and boom, is hoisted 
to its place by halliards, of which 
there are usually two, one to raise 
the outer end of the sail (called the 
peak), and one the inner corner 
(called the throat). The sheet is 
fastened to the boom. The sail, 
which slides up and down the mast 



SAILING 



6oO 



SAILING 



by means of hoops or rings, is gen- 
erally fitted with two or three rows 
of short ropes called reefing-points, 




Sloop-rig. Sail, Plans, and Lines. 

by which its size may be lessened 
in case the wind blows strong. 



This is done by letting down the 
sail and tying one or more of these 
rows of ropes on one side of the 
sail to corresponding ropes on the 
other side. When the lower row is 
thus tied, the sail is said to be single- 
-reefed ; and when the second row, 
is used double-reefed. Cat-boats 
are usually broad, draw but little 
water, and have centre-boards. As 
they have but one sail, they are 
more easily managed and safer than 
other boats, and are therefore the 
best kind for boys. 

The sloop-rig differs from the 
cat-rig in having a jib in addition 
to a mainsail. The mast is set a 
little farther aft, to make room for 
a bowsprit, a spar projecting from 
the bow, with a rope called a stay 
extending from its end to the top of 
the mast. On this stay the jib, which 
is fitted with rings on one edge, is 
pulled up and down by means of the 
jib halliards. Sometimes more than 
one jib is used, in which case the 
others are called the jib-topsail 
and flying-jib. Sometimes in a 
light breeze a large jib, called a bal- 




Yawl. 

loon-jib, is used. The jibs are also | end of the bowsprit and projects 
called headsails. Sometimes a spar , beyond it, when many headsails are 
called a jibboom is fastened to the | carried. In addition to the main- 



SAILING 



6oi 



Sailing 



sail, sloops often carry above it a 
topsail, called, from its position 
above the gaff, a gaff-topsail, and 
in light winds another triangular 
one called a spinnaker, fastened to 
the mast and spread at the foot by 
a boom. All these are shown in the 
illustration. 

The yawl, in addition to the sloop- 
rig, has a " jigger," or small mast, at 




Sharpy. 

the stern. The boom of the main- 
sail is short, to make room for this 
new mast. As has been said, the 
English sloops called cutters are 
narrow and draw a great deal of 
water. To keep them upright in 
the water they are loaded with lead 
at the keel, sometimes with many 
tons' weight. This is called out- 
side ballast. Nearly all boats are 
obliged to carry ballast of some 
sort, but it is generally inside bal- 
last, that is, it is placed mi the bot- 



tom of the boat. It usually con- 
sists of pieces of iron or lead, or bags 
of gravel or sand. Ballast helps to 
prevent capsizing, and permits the 
boat to carry more sail. In small 
boats it is often shifted from one 
side to the other in tacking, which 
will be explained below. All cut- 
ters have keels, but the ordinary 
American sloop may have either a 
keel or a centre-board. 
Cutters may have a deep 
cabin entirely below the 
deck, but in the centre- 
board sloop part of the 
deck must be raised to 
give the necessary depth 
beneath it, and in cat- 
boats, except large ones, 
there is no room for any 
cabin at all. The cat-boat 
is decked at the bow and 
stern and around the 
sides, having an open 
space in the middle called 
the cock-pit. 

A narrow, flat-bottomed 
boat, called a sharpy, is 
much used on Long 
Island Sound and about 
New York, and a similar 
craft, called a pound boat, 
is popular on the great 
lakes. There are one or 
two masts, usually with a 
leg-of-mutton sail, though 
the pound boat has two 
sails, like a small sloop's 
mainsail, Large sharpies 
with jibs and a small mast 
in the stern are called Ros- 
lyn yawls, after the home of the de- 
signer, Thomas Clapham, of Roslyn, 
Long Island. The lateen rig, which 
is shown in the next illustration, is 
mainsail and jib in one. It is not 
much used except on small boats 
like canoes. The kind of sail-boat 
used, and its rig, depend much on the 
water in which it is to sail. A boat 
for use on smooth sheltered water 
would not be appropriate for the 
open sea, and vice versa. For rivers 
and small lakes, a boat of wide beam 



SAILING 



602 



SAILING 



and light draught is needed, with a 
small sail, on account of the sudden 
flaws of wind common on such 
waters. The sail may be a leg-of- 




Lateen. 
mutton, a balance-lug, or something 
similar. For bays and arms of the 
sea a larger boat of greater draught 
is proper, with a mainsail, or jib and 
mainsail. 

A vessel like a raft, which can 
move in any direction on the water, 
will always drift before the wind, 
but if the vessel have a keel, or a 
centreboard, so that it moves most 
easily in one line, it will move chief- 
ly in that line, no matter in what 
direction the wind is blowing. If 




the boat could not drift at all side- 
wise, it would not move at all if 
the wind were at right angles to 
it. All boats drift more or less, but 
the object of the keel and centre- 
board in sailing-boats is to reduce 
the drifting as much as possible. 
At first we shall suppose that the 
boat cannot drift at all sidewise. 
In Fig. I. supposing a sail, S, to be 
set up directly across the boat ; if 



F 



\ / 




/ \ 



Fig. I. 

the wind were blowing in the direc- 
tion A, B, or C, the boat would 
move forward ; if as at D, E, or F, 
backward, since it cannot move side- 
wise. Now the force of the wind 
always presses squarely against the 
sail, no matter if it is .blowing 
at an angle. Thus, in Fig. 2, 




Fig. 2. 



if the wind is blowing with the 
large arrow, and the sail is turned 
as at A, the wind will act just as 
if it were blowing with the dotted 
arrow, only with less force. As 
the boat can move only forward 
or backward, it will go forward, 
since the force is in the rear of the 
sail. Now, if the boat and sail be 
turned as at B, the effect of the 
same wind will be as if it blew 
with the second dotted arrow; 



the boat will move forward at 
another angle, and by turning 
to and fro, following the dotted 
path, it will make progress, on 
the whole, in the direction from 
which the wind is blowing. This 
turning from one side to another, 
in a zig-zag path, is called tack- 
ing, or beating to windward. When 
a boat is headed nearly against the 
wind, it is said to be sailing "close 
to the wind." If a boat did not 



SAILING 



603 



SAILING 



drift at all sidewise, it could thus 
sail almost directly against the wind ; 
but drifting prevents this. The 
closer the course is to the wind, the 
more force there is to make the 
boat drift, and the less to move 
it forward. To be able to sail close 



to the wind is a great advantage 
in a boat, as will be seen from 
Fig. 3. The boat A, which can sail 
closer to the wind than B, has to 
tack less and can follow a shorter 
path in going from X to Y. 

When the boat tacks, the wind 




Fig. 3. 



strikes on the opposite side of the 
sail, and swings the boom to the 
other side of the boat. The more 
closely to the wind the boat is sail- 
ing, the more nearly in a line with 
the boat the sail must be. This 
is arranged by hauling aft the sheet. 
When the boat is running before 
the wind, the sheet is so fastened 
that the sail is nearly at right angles 
with the boat. When the boat is 
headed directly toward the quarter 
ftom which the wind blows, the 
sail will swing directly to the rear 
of the mast, and the boat is said to 
"come to," or " heave to." In this 
position the only effect of the wind 
will be to drift the boat slowly back- 
ward. The art of managing a sail- 
boat is best learned from one who is 
skilled in it. The sailor sits on 
the windward side of the tiller, so 
as to manage it better. (Wind- 
ward means the direction from 
which the wind comes, and leeward 
that toward which it blows.) If he 
is sailing to windward he must 
watch the edge of the sail next 
the mast. If it shivers, or flaps, 
that is a sign that the boat is too 
close to the wind, and the tiller 
must be pulled a little to windward 
(called putting the helm up). This 
will turn the head of the boat a 
little farther from the wind so that 
the air will fill it smoothly again. 
When ready to tack, or " go about," 
he should push the helm to leeward 



(called putting the helm down or 
"a-lee"). This will turn the boat's 
head so that she first comes into the 
wind and then as she continues to 
turn, the wind will presently strike 
the opposite side of the sail, and 
it swings across the boat, which 
then starts away on the other 
tack. The helm must be pushed 
down gently that the boat's head- 
way may not be stopped, and the 
sail will swing over easily. The 
learner should not try to sail too 
close to the wind, nor have his 
sail "trimmed too flat," that is, too 
much in line with the boat. In 
sailing to leeward the helmsman 
watches the outer edge of the sail 
(called the leech). If it begins to 
flap he should either let the sail out 
farther by " paying out" the sheet, 
or put up the helm. In sailing to 
leeward, if the course requires the 
sail to be swung over from one side 
to the other, it is most safely done 
by turning the boat quite around, so 
that the boat is close to the wind 
as the sail swings, just as in tacking. 
Another way is by '-jibing," which 
is done by hauling in the sail slowly, 
and at the same time putting the 
helm up till the sail is perfectly flat, 
then letting out the sheet and al- 
lowing the sail to swing out on 
the other side. The object is to 
prevent the wind's catching the for- 
ward side of the sail suddenly and 
blowing it over quickly, which might 



SAILING 



604 



SAILING 



capsize the boat. Jibing is danger- 
ous because the sail swings over 
so violently that it is apt to carry 
away the rigging or capsize the 
boat. It should be avoided if the 
wind is blowing hard, and it is more 
safe to loosen or " ease off " the 
peak halliards a little first. Care 
must be taken that the boat does 
not jibe by accident, when sailing 
before the wind. A change in the 
course without letting out the sail 
so as to keep the wind at its rear; 
or the dipping of the boom into the 
water so as to swing it back, may 
have this result. When the wind 
is blowing fresh, the sail is often 
reefed, as explained above. When 
a sail is to be reefed it has to 
be lowered before tying the reefing 
points. If the wind blows very 
hard, the boat should be brought 
into the wind, and sometimes it 
may be necessary to lower the sail. 
In reefing, the points of a second or 
third reef should never be tied till 
those of the preceding ones are 
secured. This is to enable the 
sailor to let out the reefs one by 
one, as soon as the boat is able 
to carry more sail. 

Landing. In making a landing, 
the boat's head is always brought 
into the wind, and the boatman 
must therefore land on one side 
or another of the dock, according 
to the direction of the wind. 

RULES. 

When sailing among other craft 
the following rules, which are uni- 
versally observed, must be borne in 
mind : 

1. Boats on the port tack must 
keep clear of those sailing on the 
starboard tack. In all cases of doubt 
the boat on the port tack must give 
way. 

2. Boats sailing before the wind 
must give way to those going on 
either tack. 

3. In case two boats are sailing 
before the wind, the one having the 
wind on the port side must keep out 



of the other's way. (The side on 
which the boom is settles the ques- 
tion as to direction of wind.) 

4. If both have the wind on the 
port side, the windwardmost must 
give way. But in any event the 
overtaking boat must keep clear of 
the one it is overtaking. 

5. If two boats meet, both must 
put their helms to port. 

6. In a race, if two boats approach 
a shore or buoy, and the one to lee- 
ward has not room to tack so as to 
clear the other, and yet would be 
in danger by keeping on her course, 
she must hail the other, which must 
tack at once. The leeward boat 
must tack as soon as there is room 
to do so. 

NAUTICAL TERMS. 

In ordinary conversation, these 
should generally be pronounced as 
spelled but sailors have their own 
pronunciation (indicated in paren- 
thesis), which is commonly used on 
board a boat. 

Abaft. Toward the stern. 

About, Togo. To go on the other 
tack. 

Beain. The greatest width of the 
boat. 

Beating. Tacking to windward. 

Belay. To fasten a rope to a cleat 
by winding or twisting it around. 

Bend. To fasten, as a sail or rope, 
to a boom or yard. 

Bobstay. A rope extending from 
the end of the bowsprit diagonally 
downward to the cutwater. 

Boom. A spar to keep the foot of 
a sail stretched. The word is the 
same as beam. 

Brails. Ropes to assist in furling 
sails. From the old French bracieul, 
a leather breeches-band. 

Broach to. To come up quickly 
into the wind when running before 
a heavy sea. 

Cafs Paws. Little puffs of wind. 

Clews. The lower corners of sails. 

Cockpit. The place where the 
passengers sit in a partly decked: 
boat. 



SAILING 



605 



SAILING 



Combing. The raised board sur- 
rounding the cockpit. 

Close-hauled. Sailing as close as 
possible to the wind. 

Close to the wind. Nearly in the 
direction from which the wind is 
blowing. 

Crank. Easy to overturn, opposed 
to stiff. 

Cringle. A loop of rope, either 
plain, or made around an iron ring, 
^nd attached to a sail. Cringle 
means a ring. 

Down, To put the helm. To push 
the tiller to leeward. 

Down-haul. A rope to pull down 
Ci sail. 

Draught of water. The depth of 
the lowest part of the boat beneath 
the surface of the water. 

Foot. The lower edge of a sail. 

Fore. Forward. 

Fore-and-Aft. Lengthwise of the 
boat. 

Foremast. The forward mast of 
/essels having more than one mast. 

Foresail (fore-s'l). The principal 
sail on the foremast of a fore-and- 
aft rigged vessel. 

Furl. To fold a sail and lash it to 
the boom or mast. 

Gaff. The spar to which the up- 
per part of a fore-and-aft sail is fast- 
ened. From the French gaffe, a 
long pole with a hook, used in fish- 
ing. 

Gasket, a rope for lashing a furled 
sail to the spar or mast. From the 
French garcette. 

Grapnel. A small anchor having 
several claws. Yrovngrapple. 

Grommet. A ring of rope or metal, 
Derived from Xh^Yxtnoh gourmette, 
curb-chain. 

Gunwale (gun-nel). The topmast 
board or plank that forms the side 
of a boat. 

Halliard, or Halyard. A rope for 
hoisting a sail. Derived from haul 
and yard. 

Hawser, a large rope. From the 
German, haltseil, hold-rope. 

Hawse-hole, or Hawse-pipe. A 
hole through which passes the haw- 



ser or chain that holds the anchor. 

Head. The top of a sail. 

Helm. The steering apparatus. 
From the Anglo-Saxon, helma, rud- 
der. 

Hoist. The part of a fore and aft 
sail that slides up and down the 
mast. 

Jibs. Triangular sails set on ropes 
reaching from the foremast to the 
bowsprit. 

Jibboom. A spar extending from 
the end of the bowsprit. 

Jibe. To swing the boom from 
one side to the other, while sailing 
before the wind. 

Jigger. The small mast in the 
stern of a yawl, also called the 
mizzen. 

Keel. A timber running from bow 
to stern at the bottom of the boat. 
From the Anglo-Saxon ceol, keel. 

Keelson, (kel-son). A timber run- 
ning over the keel above the floor- 
timbers. 

Knot. A nautical mile (in the 
United States 6,o8oi feet), so called 
because it is the distance between 
two knots on the log line, by which 
distances at sea are measured. 

Larboard (lar-burd). The left- 
hand side of a vessel (looking for- 
ward) now generally replaced by the 
word "port," to avoid confusion 
with "starboard." It is probably 
contracted from lower board, be- 
cause the left side was considered 
inferior in rank. 

Lee, or Leeward (loo-ard). The 
side toward which the wind blows, 
originally a place sheltered from the 
wind. From the Anglo-Saxon hleo, 
a shelter. 

Leech. The after-edge of a fore- 
and-aft sail. Probably from the 
Latin licium, a thread. 

Luff. The forward edge of a sail. 
To luff, or luff up, is to steer close to 
the wind. Luff may be from the 
German luft, air. 

Mainmast. The principal or 
largest mast. 

Mainsail {vc\.2\vi-'=>'\). The large sail 
of a cat-boat or sloop. 



SAILING 



606 



SAILING 



Miss Stays. To fail in trying to 
tack. 

Mizzenmast. The after-mast in 
three-masted vessels. 

Off. Away from the point from 
which the wind blows, as in " Keep 
her head off." 

Peak. The point of the sail at the 
outer end of the gaff. 

Port. The left-hand side of a boat 
looking forward (see Larboard). 

Rake. Inclination, as " the rake 
of a mast," "a raking stern-post." 
Masts are usually given a rake aft 
to bnng their weight and that of 
sails and rigging farther aft. The 
word is from the Anglo-Saxon rae- 
can, to reach. 

Ratlines. Ropes fastened across 
the shrouds, making ladders by 
which the sailors in large vessels 
can climb to the masts. 

Reef. To fold part of the sail and 
fasten it together in order to lessen 
the surface exposed to the wind. 
The folded part of the sail is called 
also the reef. From the Anglo- 
Saxon reaf, a garment. 

Rig. The arrangement of masts, 
sails, and ropes in a boat. From 
the Anglo-Saxon wrigan, to cover. 

Rigging. The ropes of a boat, di- 
vided into standing rigging, the 
rope used to strengthen the masts, 
and running rigging, the ropes used 
to work the sails. 

Serve. To wind yarn or cloth 
around a rope's end to prevent its 
ravelling, or around any part to keep 
it from wearing away by rubbing. 

Sheet. A rope fastened to the low- 
er outer corner of a sail or to the 
boom, to haul it in and keep it in 
place. From the Anglo-Saxon Sceo- 
tan, to cast or extend. 

Shrouds. In large vessels, ropes 
extending from the head of the 
lower mast to strong timbers at the 
sides of the vessel. They serve to 
strengthen the masts. See ratline. 

Slack. Applied to a boat with a 
tendency to turn her bow from the 
wind, owing to improper construc- 
tion. 



Spar. A general term for masts, 
yards, booms, gaffs, and the like. 

Spi7inaker. A large triangular 
sail used by sloops in a light wind. 

Splice, to fasten the ends of two 
ropes by interlacing the strands. 
It is nearly the same word as 
" split," the strand being pulled 
apart. 

Sprit. A light spar extending 
from the middle of the mast to the 
outer corner of the sail, used in place 
of a gaff. From the Anglo-Saxon 
spreot, a spear or pike. 

Starboard (star-burd). The right- 
hand side of a boat (looking for- 
ward). From the Anglo-Saxon ste- 
oran, to steer, and bord, a border. 

Stay. A rope to steady a mast, 
extending diagonally forward from 
its top. Stays also extend between 
the masts and from the upper masts 
to the sides. 

Staysail (stay-s'l). A sail spread 
on a stay. 

Stem. The upright timber at the 
end of a vessel's bow to which the 
ends of the planking are fastened. 

Stern. The rear end of a boat. 
From the Anglo-Saxon steam, a 
hehn, because the helm is placed 
there. 

Stiff. Keeping upright, opposed to 
crank ; a boat is stiff when the 
wind makes her incline very little. 
Applied to a wind or breeze, stiff 
means strong. 

Tack. The lower fore-corner of 
a fore-and-aft sail, or a rope attached 
to that corner; also the direction of 
a boat when sailing to windward. 
A boat is on the starboard tack 
when the wind is on the starboard 
side; on the port tack when the 
wind blows against the port side. 
A boat is said to tack in changing 
from one tack to another. Tacki 
means to fasten. The first meaningj 
is the original one, the other being] 
derived from it, as the tack holdsl 
the corner of the sail when thewindj 
crosses it obliquely. 

Taut. Tight. 

Tarpaulin. Tarred canvas, from] 



SAILING 



607 



SAILING 



tar, 2ind. paulmg, provincial English 
for the covering of a cart. 

Topsail. The second sail above 
the deck. 

Tiller. The rudder handle ; from 
the provincial English tiller, the 
handle of anything, 

Trysail (try-s'l). A small fore- 
and-aft sail. 

Throat. The inner concave end 
of the gaff or boom, which fits 
around the mast. 

Topping -lift. A rope to hold the 
end of the boom clear of the cabin, 
in a large boat. 

Up, To put the helm. To put the 
tiller to windward. 

Vangs. Ropes to steady the gaff 
in a large boat, running from its 
peak to the sides of the boat. From 
the Dutch vangen, to seize. 

Wear. To turn the boat so that 
the wind will be on the other side, 
w^ithout tacking, the bow being 
turned away from the wind, and the 
sail jibed over. 

Weather. Windward, toward the 
wind. 

Weather-helm. A boat is said 
to have a weather-helm when the 
tiller must be kept to the weather- 
side. 

Wind. The direction from which 
the wind is blowing ; used in " bring- 
ing a boat's head into the wind," 
"turning her head out of the wind," 
" toward the wind," " away from the 
wind," etc. 

Windward. The direction from 
which the wind blows. 

Yaw. To go out of the proper 
course. From the provincial G^x- 
mangageln, to totter or shake. 

Knots, Some of the simplest 
kinds of knots are described in 
C. C. T. Besides these, the fol- 
lowing are useful. They are de- 
scribed in this article because they 
are used so often on a sail-boat; but 
every one should understand how 
to tie them. 

In making a knot, any bend or 
loop in the rope is called a " bight" 
(Anglo-Saxon hge, a bending). The 



part of the rope not bent in making 
the knot is called the "standing 
part." Some knots are made pur- 
posely very tight, so that they will 
last forever, and others are made 
to be easily untied. 

The Plain Overhand Knot (see C. 
C. T.) may be made at the end of a 
rope, either to prevent its untwist- 
ing, or to keep it from passing 
through a hole. For it may be sub- 
stituted the Figure Eight (see C. 
C. T.), which is easier to untie than 
the plain overhand. 

Boat Knot. An overhand knot 
whose end is not passed through 
the bight, but secured by a spike or 
piece of wood on withdrawing, 
which the knot unties at once. 

Square or Double Knot. This is 
formed of two overhand knots, and 
is the most common knot for fasten- 
ing two ends together, but it is 
made incorrectly by most people. 
The right way to tie it is shown 
in Figure i, and the 
wrong way in Figure 
2 ; it will be seen that 
in the former the 
bight on one side 
passes over both ropes 
and on the other side 
Fig. I. under both, whereas 

in the latter, called a " granny knot," 
each bight passes over one rope and 
under the other. 
When it is tied pro- 
perly a strain on it 
only makes it hold 
more tightly, and yet 
it can be loosened at 
once by pulling the 
Fig. 2. bights apart. It is 
secure only when the ends tied are 
of the same sized rope. This knot 
is sometimes called a reef knot, as 
it is used for fastening the reef 
points. 

Bowhne. This forms a loop 
which cannot slip, and is useful in 
a great number of ways. It is 
shown in C. C. T., but as it is 
important, the method of tying it is 
described here in more detail. A 





SAILI NG 



608 



sailing! 




loop is made and the end passed up 
through it as in Fig. 3, and then 
the end is passed 
over the rope 
above the loop 
and through the 
loop from behind, 
as in Fig. 4. 
When the knot is 
tightened, it will 
not slip. By 
3 i^ig- 4 pulling the rope 
in a bight througjh the loop thus 
formed, the best slip noose is made. 
This is called a "running bow- 
line." A " bowline on a bight" 
can be made in the middle of a long 
rope when it must be done imme- 
diately, and there is no time to find 
an end, as when a rope is to be 
thrown to a drowning man. The 
rope doubled is first tied, just 
as in Fig. 3 (see Fig. 5.), but then 
the end e is pulled 
apart and brought 
down over the bight, 
as shown by the 
dotted lines. 

Knots for fastening 
ropes to hooks, 
spars, or rings are 
often "hitches," or 
Fig. 5. "bends." 

One of the simplest hitches is 
a half hitch, shown inC. C. T. 
A timber hitch, shown in Fig. 6, 
is useful for 
fastening a 
rope to a post 
in a hurry. 

It holds 
tight under a 
strain, but it 
loosens as 
soon as it is 
Fig. 6. relieved. 

Clove hitch. This is shown in 
Fig. 7. The coils thus made are 
thrown over a post and drawn tight, 
or the end of the rope may be 
twisted around the post as shown in 
Fig. 8, where the end a is repre- 
sented as fastened to the standing 
part with a half hitch. 





Blackwall hitch. This is really 
no knot at all, but is useful for 




Fig. 8. 




hanging a weight from a hook, 
will be seen from Fig. 9, where i 
is shown, that the 
heavier the weight, 
the tighter the end of 
the rope is jammed 
against the hook. 

In fastening the 
end of two ropes for 
hauling, the simplest 
Fig. 9. method is to use the 
Common Bend (C. C. T.). 

Splicing. When two ropes are 
fastened together, end to end, with- 
out a knot, they are said to be spliced. 
Ropes must be spliced instead of 
knotted when they are to run 
through a pulley over anything 
on which the knot might catch. 
The appearance of a nicely spliced 
rope is shown in Fig. 10. To make 



Fig, 10, 

a "short splice," untwist the strands 
at the ends which are to be joined, 
and bring the ropes together so that 
the strands of one alternate with 
those of the other, as in Fig. il. 



SAILING 



609 



SAILING 



The strands must be interweaved 
tightly, but they are shown loose in 
the figure to make it plainer. Then 
take any strand, for instance that 
marked a^ pass it over f, and under 
e, which is lifted up for the purpose 

b 




Fig. II. 

with a tapering piece of wood or iron, 
called a marling-spike. Each strand 
is treated in the same way, then each 
is shaved down to about half its 
thickness, and the intertwining is 
repeated. 

An " eye splice" is made by mak- 
ing a bight and splicing the end into 
the standing part. 



For a " long splice" more of the 
ropes must be untwisted than for a 
short splice. After the strands have 
been laid alternately as before, un- 
twist one strand, as a, still further, 
for several turns, and in the vacant 
place thus left twist 
the opposite strand/. 
At the place where 
they join, cut off all 
of each but a few in- 
ches,shave both down 
about one fourth, and 
tie them with an 
overhand knot. 
Shave the ends down 
another fourth, pass each over the 
other and under the two next 
strands, cutting off the ends as they 
appear. One of A's strands is then 
worked into B in like manner, and 
the third pair of strands is shaved 
and knotted in the same way at the 
original junction. This splice, if 
neatly made, does not increase the 




Sailing-car 



SAILING 



6io 



SALIC LAW 



thickness of the rope apprecia- 
bly. 

Parcelling is covering rope with 
strips of tarred canvas to protect 
it. When a rope is wound tightly 
with spun yarn, it is said to be 
" served." Rope's ends are served 
to keep them from ravelling, and 
splices are often both parcelled and 
served. When the channels between 
the strands of a rope are filled, it is 
said to be " wormed." Parcelling is 
also kept down by a kind of chain 
stitch called " marling." 

In Fig. 12 the rope is " wormed " 
at a and " served" at b, 
and " marling " is shown 
at c. 

Sailing-Cars. On some 
. western railways cars 
propelled by the wind are 
often used instead of 
hand-cars to transport 
laborers and their tools. 
The car, which is about 
the size of an ordinary 
hand-car, is fitted with 
one or two masts. In 
one car the mainmast is 
eleven feet high, and 
both masts together 
carry about eighty square 
Fig. 12. feet of canvas. 
Ir is said that these cars have 
sailed at the rate of forty miles per 
hour directly before the wind. As 
they are confined to the rails, and 
therefore cannot tack, they cannot 
beat to windward, but it is said that 
they can sail very close to the wind. 
An ancient sailing-car, which 
probably never existed except on 
paper, is shown in the last picture, 
taken from an old book. 

For the history of Sailing, see 
Yachting. 

SALIC LAW, a solitaire game 
of CARDS, played with two packs. 
A King is selected from the packs 
before playing begins, and laid, face 
upward, on the table. Cards that 
cannot be used, as described below, 
are placed on this King until an- 
other one appears, when it is laid 



beside the first, forming the base 
for another pile of useless cards, 
till its place is taken by a third, and 
so on. In a row just beneath these 
piles the Queens are placed, as they 




Ancient Sail-car. 

appear, and below these the Aces. 
On the latter are placed, in order of 
rank, the Twos, Threes, and so on, 
up to the Knaves, not following suit. 
The top card of any of the piles 
above the Kings can be used at any 
time. When the pack is exhausted, 
the top card of any pile can be 
placed on any uncovered King, 
freeing the card beneath it. The 
player is allowed to draw one card 
from the interior of one of the piles, 
and may look at any of the piles to 
see how they are arranged. If the 
player is successful, all the cards of 
the two packs will be arranged on 
the table in three rows of piles at 
the end of the game, a face card at 
the top of each pile. 

The Salic law is a law that forbids 
women to come to the throne in 
some monarchies of Europe, and 
this game is so called because the 
Queens take no part in it. 



SALT 



6ti 



SCALES 



SALT, Experiments with. Make 
a strong brine by shaking salt and 
water together in a bottle, until the 
water will dissolve no more. Color 
the brine with any ink that will mix 
with water. Make a pile of salt on 
a plate, and pour the colored brine 
gradually into the plate. It will 
rise in the pile of salt by capillary 
attraction (See Small Tubes) till 
the whole pile is colored. The 
experiment will not succeed with 
water, because it will dissolve the 
salt in the pile ; but the brine has so 
much salt in it already that it can- 
not take up any more. 

2. Fill a glass funnel with salt, 
packing it in tightly ; invert it on a 
plate, and fit over the narrow end 
the mouth of an empty toy balloon, 
which has been kept very full of air 
a long time so that it will inflate 
with little force. Pour gradually 
into the plate some colored brine, 
prepared as before. It will mount 
higher and higher in the funnel, 
driving before it the air, which will 
inflate the toy balloon. The ex- 
periment will not succeed unless the 
salt is packed tight and unless the 
balloon has been well stretched, 
so as to inflate easily. 

SANCHO PEDRO. See All 
Fours. 

SAND, Experiments with. i. Fill 
a toy rubber balloon, or any kind 
of rubber bag, with clean, dry 
sand and shake it down thoroughly. 
Fasten in the neck a piece of glass 
tubing which is allowed to dip 
beneath the surface of a glass of 
water. Squeeze the sand. It might 
be expected that it would be pressed 
closer together, driving out air into 
the water, but vhis cannot be done 
by the hardest pressure. On the 
contrary, the bulk is actually in- 
creased by squeezing, as is shown 
by some of the water rising into the 
tube. The reason is that the grains 
of sand are closely packed and fitted 
together so that when they are 
disarranged by squeezing they oc- 
cupy more space. 



2. Shake down the sand as be- 
fore, pour in water till the bag is 
quite full, and tie up the neck of the 
bag. The bag will now be found to 
be quite hard and rigid, though it is 
full of sand and water. The reason 
is that the sand cannot be squeezed 
without altering its position and in- 
creasing the space between the 
grains, but as the bag is closed and 
nothing can enter to fill the extra 
space, the bag will not yield to pres- 
sure at all. 

The property of sand shown in 
these experiments is shared by shot, 
marbles, and almost any small 
objects. It was discovered in 1886 
by Prof. Reynolds of England, who 
called it "Dilatancy." 

SCALES. The different kinds of 
scales are told about in C. C. T. A 
pair of scales which will weigh 
pretty well up to ten pounds or 
so can be made thus. Take a stout, 
even stick, about three feet long, 
and bore a hole about an inch 
from each end, and a third in the 
middle, exactly half way between 
them. Take two shallow tin pans 
six or eight inches in diameter, and 
make three holes with an awl at 
equal distances around the edge 
of each. Tie in each hole the end 
of a piece of string about sixteen 
inches long, and unite the three 
strings at their other ends, so that 
the pan will hang horizontal. Tie 
each pan to the stick by means 
of the end holes, so that they hang 
at the same distance. Hold the 
scales by a loop of string passing 
through the middle hole. If prop- 
erly made, the pans should bal- 
ance, the stick being horizontal. If 
they do not, then either the pans 
do not weigh the same, or the third 
hole is not exactly in the middle. 
Put sand in one pan till it balances, 
and then untie the pans from the 
stick and exchange them. If they 
do not balance, this proves that the 
hole is not in the middle, and a new 
stick must be prepared. If they 
do balance, the scales are now all 



SCALES 



6l2 



SCALES 



right, but the sand must always be 
kept in the pan in which it was put. 
Even if the scales balance perfectly 
at first, it is just as well to change 
the pans. To make weights, go 
first to a druggist and ask him to 
weigh out some sand in a glass 
bottle, so that bottle, sand, and cork 
shall weigh just, quarter of a pound 
together. Place this in one scale of 
the balance, and pour sand into the 
other till there is an exact balance. 
Then put the bottle into the same 
scale with the sand, and into the 
other an empty bottle, its cork ly- 
ing beside it. Pour sand into this 
bottle till it balances all in the other 
scale, when it will weigh, of course, 
half a pound. Cork it and label it, 
and keep it for the half pound 
weight. In this way, by using the 
weights already obtained to weigh 
new ones, as many as desired may 
be made. These scales will do very 
nicely for rough weighings. 

Steelyards. To make steelyards, 
take a stick about three feet long 
and bore two holes, one about an 
inch from one end, and the second 
about an inch from the first. From 
the end hole hang a scale-pan, as 
shown above, and in the other fasten 
a loop to hold the steelyard by. Fill 
a bottle with sand till it weighs about 
half a pound — exactness does not 
matter. Suspend it by the neck to a 
short loop and slip the loop over the 
long end of the stick. Put a pound 
weight on the scale, and slide the bot- 
tle along till it just balances. Make a 
notch at this place. Put two pounds 
in the scale and slide the bottle 
along till it balances again, making 
another notch and marking it " 2 " 
with a pencil. So go on till you 
have a notch for every pound. 
Notches for the half pounds can be 
cut exactly half way between, which 
will not be far out of the way. To 
weigh six pounds, for instance, hang 
the bottle in the six-pound notch, 
and then put in the pan whatever 
you wish to weigh, till it balances. 

Spring Balance. Take a piece of 



elastic cord which can be stretched 
to a length of six or eight feet. 
Fasten one end to a nail near the 
ceiling, and at the other end tie a 
wire hook, to which are to be hung 
the articles weighed. Tie a bit of 
colored sewing-silk around the elas- 
tic cord just above the hook. Now 
fasten successively to the hook the 
different weights obtained by means 
of the scales described above, and 
make a pencil mark on the wall at 
the spot opposite which the silk 
stops, each time. Then anything 
which stretches the elastic just as 
much as the half pound weight, for 
instance, must weigh exactly half a 
pound. To weigh many pounds, a 
large and strong elastic must be 
used. 

Torsion Balance, a weighing ma- 
chine in which the object weighed is 
balanced by the " torsion " of a wire, 
that is, its effort to untwist. A sim- 
ple one can be made as follows: 




Torsion Balance. 

Fasten an iron wire, A B, firmly 
across a wooden standard like that 
shown in the picture. At its middle, 
H, secure one end of a strip of strong, 
light wood, C and D. This may be 
done by filing flat surfaces on oppo- 
site sides of the wire, splitting the 
end of the wood, fitting the cleft 
over the wire, and then winding it on 
both sides of the wire with strong 
waxed thread. The strip should 
project horizontally, or point slight- 
ly upward, when at rest. About an 
inch from the end tack to the strip 
a light paper box, D, to hold the ob- 
ject to be weighed. At the end of 
the strip, which must be pointed, an 



SCANDAL 



613 



SECRET WRITING 



upright wooden post, F G, is fixed 
for the scale to be marked on. A 
pencil mark is made on this, opposite 
the point of the lever, and then an 
object whose weight is known is put 
into the box. Suppose this to weigh 
an ounce. Mark the spot to which 
the lever falls, and then divide the 
space between the two marks into 
as many equal parts as you wish. 
If it be divided into ten parts, each 
will represent a tenth of an ounce. 
The size of the balance may be large 
or small, as desired. A short, strong 
wire will weigh large quantities — a 
long, thin one, very small ones. By 
using a fine platinum wire, and a 
wisp of straw for a lever, the hun- 
dred-thousandth part of an ounce 
may easily be weighed. 

SCANDAL, a game played by any 
number of persons, who sit in a row 
or circle. One of them whispers a 
story in the ear of his neighbor, and 
he, in turn, whispers it to the next, 
and so on till it reaches the last, who 
relates it aloud. The first player 
gives it as he told it at the beginning, 
and it will generally be found that 
the two stories are quite differ- 
ent. Instead of a story, a single sen- 
tence spoken very fast may be used. 
This game isnamed Scandal, because 
it shows how stories are often 
changed in passing from mouth to 
mouth. This game is called also 
Russian Gossip. 

SCOTCH WHIST. See Catch 
THE Ten. 

SECRETARY, THE, a game played 
with pencils and paper by any num- 
ber of persons. A leader is chosen 
called the Secretary, who gives to 
each player a slip of paper. After 
each has written his name on the 
slip and returned it to the Secretary, 
the latter shuffles the slips, and gives 
one to each person, at random, tak- 
ing care that no one sees any name 
but that on the slip given him. 
Each then writes under the name on 
his slip his opinion of the person 
bearing it, and then all the slips are 
given again to the Secretary, who 



reads them, one by one, aloud. As 
they are read the person about, whom 
the opinion is written guesses who 
its author is, and if the guess is cor- 
rect the author pays a forfeit. Some- 
times the players are required to 
write their opinions in verse, and 
sometimes, when there are few play- 
ers, each writes an opinion of every 
other, instead of only one. When 
there are few players, the opinions 
may be whispered by each one to the 
Secretary, instead of writing them 
down. That no one may venture 
to say anything disagreeably person- 
al, the Secretary should announce 
the author of each opinion at the 
close of the game. 

Another way of playing is for 
each one to write on his slip an as- 
sumed name, instead of his real one. 
After the second distribution of 
slips, each writes a description of the 
person he supposes to have adopted 
the name on the slip. The Secre- 
tary reads these one by one, an- 
nouncing the owner of the name at 
the end of each. 

SECRET WRITING. The sim- 
plest and commonest kind of secret 
writing is that in which every letter 
of the alphabet is represented by 
some letter, figure, or mark, and 
always by the same one. The cor- 
respondents must each have a key 
consisting of th j letters of the alpha- 
bet written in line, and under each 
the character that is to represent it. 
y, abcdefghijklmn 

"'rq4b5o3mzats g d 

opqrstuvwxyz x^ ^^.. 

iu- j. + ^«r- -In writ- 
wxukih72t t ill 
ing a letter, the figures in the lower 
row are used instead of those above, 
and the one who receives it writes 
down on a piece of paper for each 
character the one just above it. 
Thus the following sentence : 
z ow7db r kwqzdi d5ih zd hm5 rxxs5 
hk55 means " I found a robin's nest 
in the apple-tree." But though this 
kind of writing looks so mysterious, 
it is easily read. For instance, sup- 
pose the key to the above sentence 



SECRET WRITING 



614 



SECRET WRITING 



to be unknown. By looking over it 
carefully, the first and last letters of 
the third word from the end are seen 
to be the same as the first and the last 
two of the last word. Nowas"hm5" 
is the only word of three letters in 
the sentence, it is probably " the." 
The last word then reads t.ee (put- 
ting dots for unguessed letters), 
which must be " tree." The word be- 
tween " the " and " tree " very likely 
is the name of the tree. It ends with 
" e," and its second and third letters 
are the same. By trying the names of 
several kinds of trees, it is found that 
" apple " is the only one that answers. 
Now the letters standing alone, "z" 
and " r," are probably " I " and " a ;" 
and as the latter is the first letter in 
"apple," the former must be "I." 
The word of two letters before " the " 
must therefore be either " it," " is," 
or "in," and the word before it is 
te.t, se.t, or ne.t. The first would 
have to be " tent " or " test," neither 
of which makes sense. The second is 
either " seat " or " sent," and the last 
can only be " nest." If it were "seat," 
the last three letters of the previous 
word must be " isa," if "sent," they 
are " isn ;" if " nest," they are " ins." 
The second seems impossible, and if 
we select the letters " r . . ins nest," 
it is probable that " robin's nest " will 
occur to us at once. By trial in the 
same way the second word 
is found out, and thus 
the whole sentence is 
guessed. A long letter is 
much easier to guess than 
a single sentence, for then 
the same characters oc- 
cur over and over again, 
and words like "the" 
can be told at once from 
their appearing so often. 

This kind of writing 
can be made harder by 
making no spaces between 
the words, which the 
one who has the key can 
easily separate after he 
has written down the 
right letters. But even 



then it is possible to guess it by 
patient work, remembering that 
the letters occurring oftenest are 
the vowels. 

Another way of varying this kind 
of writing is to agree on ten or 
twelve signs which shall mean noth- 
ing at all, and which may be put in 
anywhere. Thus, if c, e, f, j, and 1 
were such, the first three words 
of the sentence given above might 
stand Cjzowe/dlbfjne. The reader 
who has the key simply strikes out 
the signs which mean nothing, or 
disregards them in reading. 

Another kind of secret writing is 
that in which every letter is repre- 
sented by a single character, but not 
always by the same one. There are 
many ways of effecting this. For 
instance, under the letters of the al- 
phabet may be written three or more 
different rows of characters. The 
first time a letter occurs, it is repre- 
sented by the corresponding charac- 
ter in the first row, the second time 
by the one in the second row, the 
third time by that in the third row, 
the fourth time by the one in the first 
row again, and so on. The charac- 
ters in the three rows must be all 
different, else even the reader who 
has the key may be confused. An- 
other way is to form an alphabet 
square like that below. 

X y z 



bcdefghijklmnopq rstuv 
hijklmnopqrstuvw 

klmn o pqr s tuvwx y'z ab 



bcdefghijklmno pq rstuvwxyz 

cdefghijklmno 

defghi j klmnop q 



rstuvwxyzabc 
fgh i jklmnopq rs t uvwxy z ab cd 
f gh i jk Imnopq r s t uvwxyz a b c de 
ghi j klmnopqr s t uvwxyza b c d ef 
hi j k Imnopqrs tuvwxyzab c d e fg 
ij klmnopqrs tuvwxyzabc de fgh 
jklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghi 
klmnopqrstuvwxy z abcde fgh ij 
Imnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefgh ijk 
mnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefghi jkl 
nopqrstuvwxyzabcdefgni jklm 
opqrs tuvwxyzabc defghij klmn 
pqr s t uvwxyzabcd e fgh i j klmno' 



i j klmnopqr 
j k 1 



m n o p q 



rstuvwxyzabcdef 
stuvwxyzabcdefg 

tuvwxyzabcdefghi j klmnopqrs 

uvwxyz abcdefgh i j k Imnopqrst 

vwxyzabcdefghi j k 1 mnopqrs tu 

wxyz ab c defghi j k 1 m nopqr s t uv 

xyzabc d efghij klmn opqrs tuvv« 

yzabcde fgh ijk Imno pqrst uvwx 

zabcde fghij klmnop qrstuvwxy 



SECRET WRITING 



615 



SECRET WRITING 



A word is then agreed on by the 
correspondents as " key-word." 
Let us suppose it to be " Cyclopae- 
dia." When a sentence is to be 
written, the key-word is first writ- 
ten under it. Thus : 
I hope to see you on Monday next, 
c yc 1 o pa edi acy cl opaedi acyc. 

To find the letter representing any 
given letter in the sentence, begin 
at that letter on the left of the al- 
phabet square, and follow a horizon- 
tal line till you come immediately 
below the corresponding letter of the 
key-word. Thus, the first letter in 
the sentence is " I," the correspond- 
ing one of the key-word is " c." 
The lecter in the same line with " I," 
which has " c " at the top of its col- 
umn, is found to be "k." In the 
same way, beginning at " h " and 
running along the line until we are 
under "y," we find "f" for the second 
letter. The sentence reads thus 
when completed : 
K fqas io whm yqs qy adnhdg ngvv. 

To translate it, the one who re- 
ceives it writes the key-word above 
it, and then, beginning at the left of 
the square with each key-word 
letter, follows the line till he comes 
to the letter just under it in the 
cypher. The letter at the top of 
the column will be the one he 
wants. Evidently this kind of 
secret writing cannot be translated 
without the key-word ; but when 
that is once obtained, the task is 
easy. If the sentence is separated 
into words, some of them may 
often be guessed, after several 
trials, and the key-word found out 
by the alphabet square. To avoid 
this, the correspondents may run 
their words together, or use a long 
sentence as a key-word — a proverb 
or quotation, for instance. Many 
other ways of making different 
characters represent the same letter 
at different times may be devised 
with a little ingenuity. 

Another kind of secret writing is 
that in which each word is repre- 
sented by a separate character, or 



by another word. If each word is 
to have its own character, as in the 
Chinese language, then each corre- 
spondent must have for his key a 
list of the words likely to be used, 
and the character belonging to 
each. This is awkward, and is sel- 
dom done. An easier way is to 
select some dictionary or vocabulary 
in which words are arranged alpha- 
betically, and agree that each word 
shall be represented by the word in 
the same position a certain number 
of pages ahead. This method was 
used in the famous political " cy- 
pher dispatches" in 1876. For in- 
stance, suppose Webster's Diction- 
ary (edition of 1890) be selected, and 
it be agreed that every word shall be 
represented by the one three pages 
farther on. Then " day," which is 
the second word on page 336, is rep- 
resented by " debit," the second 
word on page 339, and so on. An- 
other way is to select a book, and 
refer to a word by giving its page 
and number. Thus, 153-87 might 
mean the 87th word on the 153d 
page. Of course pages should be 
chosen in which the desired word 
comes near the top, to save count- 
ing. It may be agreed that when a 
line is drawn beneath the number, 
the counting is to be done from the 
bottom. 

But the most secret kind of writ- 
ing is that in which the very fact 
that there is any secret message at 
all is concealed. Any one who sees 
a letter written in one of the ways 
described above, knows at once that 
there is something to be concealed, 
and the object is sometimes to hide 
even that fact. This is usually done 
by writing what appears to be an 
ordinary letter in such a way that 
certain words, taken in order, form 
the secret message. For instance, 
it may be agreed that every seventh 
word in the letter shall makeup the 
message. Suppose it is wished to 
send the message, "Our plan has 
failed." Some such letter as the 
following may be written. " Dear 



seegI^ 



6i6 



seegX 



Fred : Will you come to our house 
on Tuesday, the 30th ? Our plan is 
to have a little picnic. Has John 
been in town lately? He failed to 
put in an appearance yesterday." 
The seventh words of this note, as 
will be seen by counting, make up 
the desired message. Another way 
to mark the words forming the mes- 
sage, is for each of the correspond- 
ents to have a sheet of blank paper 
with holes cut in various places, the 
holes in the two sheets matching 
exactly. The writer places his 
sheet over the paper on which he 
wishes to write, and writes the 
words of his message through the 
holes. Then he removes the sheet 
and fills up the spaces with other 
words, so as to make the whole read 
like an ordinary letter. The one 
who receives it places his sheet of 
paper over it, and reads the message 
at once through the holes. Both 
these methods require some skill. 
An easier way is to mark the words 
of the message by writing them in a 
slightly different hand, or by placing 
a minute dot, or other sign, under 
each ; but this, unless done very 
skilfully, is apt to betray the secret. 

Still another kind of secret writ- 
ing is that which is done, wholly or 
in part, with "sympathetic ink." 
This is some fluid which is invisible 
when first put on the paper, but is 
brought out by heating or applying 
some chemical. The whole letter 
may be written in the ink, or it may 
be used simply to mark words in 
what appears to be an ordinary 
letter. 

If the letter be written with water 
in which chloride of cobalt has been 
dissolved, the writing will be invisi- 
ble till it is heated. If it be writ- 
ten with a weak solution of boiled 
starch, it will appear blue when 
brushed over with iodine. Words 
written with copperas dissolved in 
water appear brilliant blue when 
the paper is dipped in a solution of 
prussiate of potash. 

SEEGA, a game played by two 



persons on a checker-board of 
twenty-five squares (five on each 
side), with twenty-four men of two 
colors, generally black and white. 
An ordinary checker-board and men 
will do if the board be reduced in 
size by strips of paper. It is played 
alternately and consists of two parts 
— placing the men and moving 
them. The player having first 
move places two of his men 
wherever on the board he chooses, 
either on adjoining or far separated 
squares. The second player lays 
down two men in like manner, and 
this is continued alternately until 
all the men have been placed on 
the board, care being taken by both 
players to leave the centre square 
unoccupied. 

When the men are thus placed, 
the first player moves one of his 
men backwards, forwards, or side- 
ways, but never diagonally. Evi- 
dently the first move must be into 
the middle or vacant square. Each 
player tries to move so as to catch 
one of his adversary's men between 
two of his own in horizontal or in 
perpendicular lines, not in a diago- 
nal. A man so caught is removed 
from the board. If, however, in 
moving, one player moves one of 
his own men between two of his 
opponents, he suffers no loss ; a 
capture must be forced by the op- 
ponent. If the player who has cap- 
tured one of his adversary's men 
can put a second or a third in danger 
by moving his own again, he has 
the right to do so ; but this move 
must be made before he has laid 
down the captured man. 

If one player becomes blocked 
and unable to move, the other 
either continues moving until he 
opens a way for the first, or lie has 
to remove one of his own men from 
the board, selecting one that per- 
mits the first player to move. The 
game is continued until one or the 
other player has lost all but one of 
his men. 

The method of placing the men 



SEEGA 



617 



SEE-SAW 



and the various moves will be easily 
learned from the following illustra- 
tive game, the diagram showing 
the men as placed before moving : 



• 


• 











• 








• 













• 


• 








• 


• 











• 


• 


• 



White 

1 C 
3A 

2 B 
2 E 

I D 
5A 



BCD 

Setting the Men. 

(Mr. W.). 

and 2 C 
and 3 B 
and 4 B 
and 4 E 
and 5 B 
and I E 



Black (Dr. B.). 

3 D and 3 E 

4 C and 5 C 
2 D and 4 D 

1 B and 5 D 

2 A and 4 A 
I A and 5 E 



Moves. 

2Ct0 3C 2Dt0 2C 



2 B 



8 3B 

X 2 

9 3A 



1 C 

2C 

2 B 
2 E 

I E 
X3E 



15 
i6 

17 
18 

19 
20 



2D 

1 D 
5B 
4B 

2 E 
I E 



to3C 
C 
to 2 A 



to 2 C 
to 2 B 
to 2 C 
to 2 D 
to 2 E 



to 2 C 
to I E 
to 4 B 
to 3 B 
to 2 D 
to 2 E 



and 3 C 
2 A to 2 B 

2 B to 3 B X 
and to 3 A 
A 

I B to I C 
I A to I B 

3 D to 3 C X 
3 C to 3 D 

3 D to 3 E X 



2C 

4E 



4Cto3C X 2 C 
and 3 C to 4 C 
X 4 B 
I C to I D 
5 C to 5 B 
4Cto3Cx3B 
4Dto3Dx2D 
I D to I E X 2 E 



And Black wins. 



History. Seega is an Egyptian 
game, probably of great antiquity. 
It is played much by the peasantry 
in Egypt and by the Bedouins in 
the desert, generally with black and 
white pebbles in holes made in the 
ground. The common game is 
with twenty-five holes or squares, 
like that described, but it is some- 
times played with forty-nine squares 
and forty-eight men, or with eighty- 
one squares and eighty men, though 
the latter makes it of tedious length. 
The holes or squares in the seega 
or board are called by the Egypt- 
ians oyoon (eyes), and the men kelb 
(dogs). Lane, in his " Modern 
Egyptians" (3d ed., 1842), says: 
" Several Seegas have been cut upon 
the stones on the summit of the 
great pyramid, by Arabs who have 
served as guides to travellers." 
Dr. H. Carrington Bolton, of New 
York, to whom we are indebted 
for an account of the game, saw it 
played by Bedouins in the desert 
of Mt. Sinai with pebbles in the 
sand. The game given herewith 
was actually played by him with a 
friend on a Peninsula and Oriental 
steamer. 

SEE-SAW, a board balanced at 
its middle over a block of wood or a 
fence rail. A person sits on each 
end, and the two, by pushing with 
their feet against the ground, make 
the ends move up and down alter- 
nately. The board should be as 
long as possible without bending, 
and the point on which it is bal- 
anced should be so high that the 
feet of the person on one end are 
well off the ground when those of 
the one on the other end are touch- 
ing it. Sometimes a third person, 
called the " Candlestick," stands in 
the middle and aids the motion 
first with one foot and then with 
the other. 

When those who ride on the see- 
saw are equal in weight, the plank 
must be balanced exactly in the 
middle, but otherwise it must rest 



SENSITIVE FLAMES 



6t8 



SENSITIVE FLAMES 




Ancient See-Saw. 



on a pivot nearer the heavier per- 
son. The light rider, therefore, has 
a longer ride, and moves faster than 
the other. 

See-sawing is a very old amuse- 
ment. An ancient French see- 
saw, called Bascule Double (Double 
Swing-down) is shown on the fol- 
lowing page. The boards swing on 
pivots A A in a standard E, and 
move at right angles to each other. 
B is a cushion, C is a back for the 
rider to lean against, and D a handle 
for him to hold on by. 

SENSITIVE FLAMES, Experiments 
with. Nail a block of wood, A, to a 
block, D, as shown inthe illustration, 
and fasten at the top of A a wire, 
B, with a ring five inches in diame- 
ter at one end. Lay a piece of wire 
gauze, C, over the ring. Make a 
glass jet, E (see Chemical Experi- 
ments), of tubing about quarter of 
an inch in outside diameter, the 
diameter at the opening being about 
three quarters of this. Bend it at 
right angles, and stick it with wax 
on the block E with its tip about 
two inches under the gauze. Con- 
nect the jet with a gas burner by 
rubber tubing, and light the gas 
above the gauze, where itshouldburn 
in a thin conical flame about four 
inches long. This flame is so sen- 
sitive to noises, that at the sound of 



a hiss, a whistle, a jingling, or the 
clapping of the hands, it shrinks at 
once to a small blue flame. 




Sensitive Flame. 

2. Cover the flame with a tube, T, 
from seven inches to two feet long, 
and from three-quarters of an inch 
to one and a half inches in diam- 
eter. The best size is about one foot 
long by one and one-fourth inches in 
diameter. The tube rests lightly onj 
the gauze. The flame is now still| 
moresensitive to high, sharp sounds. 



SETTO 



619 



SHADOW PICTURES 



If the gauze and tube be raised 
slowly, the flame shortensand finally 
begins to "sing" loudly. The gauze 
should now be lowered till the sing- 
ing just ceases, when the flame be- 
comes very sensitive, beginning to 
sing at the slightest sharp sound, 
but ceasing when the sound stops. 
The responses are so quick that 
when, for instance, the word " sen- 
sitive " is pronounced, the flame 
sings twice, once for each S. 
SETTO. See Synthesis. 
SEVENS AND EIGHTS, or DOM- 
INO WHIST, a game of cards played 
by any number of persons with a 
full pack. The scoring is done with 
counters, any number of which are 
distributed equally among the play- 
ers at the beginning of the game. 
The whole pack of cards is dealt, 
one at a time, and then each plays 
in turn, beginning with the eldest 
hand. The object of the players is 
to place the Sevens and Eights in 
two rows on the table, and then all 
the other cards in order, by suits. 
Thus, opposite the Sevens of Hearts 
mrst be placed in order the Six, 
Fi\ e. Four, Three, Two, and Ace of 
Hearts; and opposite the Eight, the 
Nine, Ten, Knave, Queen, and King 
of the same suit. No card can be 
put down out of its regular order 
except Sevens and Eights, which 
can be played at any time. Only 
one card is played at a time. Each 
one must play if he can, and if he 
cannot, he must place a counter in 
the middle of the table to form 
part of the Pool. He who first gets 
rid of his cards takes the Pool and 
in addition each of the other play- 
ers gives the winner a counter for 
every card left in his hand. 

Of course the first card played 
will be a Seven or an Eight, and the 
opportunity for playing will gener- 
ally be greater as the game goes 
on. A good player often holds 

I back a Seven or Eight as long as 
possible, thus preventing others 
from playing, increasing the pool, 

■ and enabling him to get rid of his 



cards before them. If there is not 
room enough on the table for the 
whole pack to be spread out, the 
other cards may be piled on the 
Sevens and Eights. 

The game is sometimes called 
Domino Whist because the cards 
are matched on the table somewhat 
as in DOMENOES, but it does not at 
all resemble Whist. 

SEVEN UP. See All Fours. 

SHADOW PICTURES, shadows 
thrown on a wall or screen so as to 
form pictures in various ways. The 
most common shadow pictures are 
made by holding the two hands so 
that their shadows will resemble 
some animal or bird. To make 
such pictures well requires consider- 
able skill. The position of the 
hands in making several of them 
is shown in the full-page illustra- 
tions. 

Another kind of shadow pictures 
is made by cutting out figures from 
sheets of paper and throwing their 
shadows on a sheet hung in a door- 
way, the spectators sitting on the 
opposite side. The best size for the 
pictures is about three feet long by 
two feet high. They may be made 
by cutting out parts of any large 
woodcut like those in the illus- 
trated papers, but care must be 
taken that the figures selected are 
in profile, so that their shadows will 
look well. If the exhibitor has any 
skill at all in drawing, a better way 
is to make pictures especially for 
the purpose. They may be drawn 
on an ordinary newspaper, and no 
matter how crude they are, they 
usually look well in shadow. All 
the pictures are made on paper of 
the same size, and then the sheet in 
the doorway is covered with papers 
pinned to it, all but a space in the 
middle just large enough to show 
the pictures, which will then appear 
in brilliant white on a dark back- 
ground. There should be two ex- 
hibitors, each of whom holds a cor- 
ner of the picture so that it hangs 
close afjainst the sheet. If there is 



SHADOW PICTURES 



620 



SHADOW PICTURES 




I. Old Man ; 2. Elephant ; 3. Doe ; 4. Rabbit ; 5. Horse ; 6. Negro ; 7. Bear ; 

8. Walrus. 



SHADOW PICTURES 



SHADOW PICTURE^ 




9. Chamois; 10. Hound ; n. Wolf; 12. Goat ; 13. Squirrel • i. B^d Flvinc 
15. Mastiff; 16. Mephistopheles. * ^' ^''^^^^^i 



SHADOW PICTURES 



622 



SHADOW PICTURES 



only one exhibitor, the pictures 
must be fastened to sticks, one end 
of which he holds ; otherwise he 
would be obliged to stand between 
the lamp and the picture. The 
pictures must be so drawn that no 
part that is to be cut out completely 
surrounds a dark part, otherwise 
the latter will have no support. If 
necessary, however, such a part may 
be fastened by pasting very narrow 
strips of paper from it to other 
parts of the picture. The shadows 
of the strips will not show at a 



little distance. After practice, these 
pictures can be made very rapidly; 
and as a lamp and a sheet are the 
only apparatus necessary to show 
them, an exhibition can be prepared 
at an hour's notice. Some of the 
figures may be cut out of separate 
slips of paper, and arranged so that 
they may be moved about, which 
will add to the amusement. 

Shadow pictures may also be cut 
out of paper so as to show as dark 
figures on a white ground, like sil- 
houettes. Sometimes they are so 




r^-^ ^ H-^M^si 



Shadow Pictures Cut from Papers. 



ingeniously made that it is difficult 
to tell what they represent till the 
shadow is thrown on the wall. In 
the illustration. Fig. i shows how 
the paper is cut. Fig. 2 is a sharp 
shadow thrown by it, and Fig. 3 a 
blurred shadow. The last gives the 
proper effect. 

Portraits may be made for exhibi- 
tion by throwing the sitter's shadow 
in profile on a sheet of paper pinned 
against the wall. The outline of 
the shadow is traced with a pencil 
and then cut with scissors. The 
portrait will be light on a dark 
ground or dark qn a light ground, 
according as the outside or inside of 
the paper is used to cast the shadow. 
Such portraits may be preserved by 
pasting them on black paper, and 
they may then be framed or kept in 
a portfolio. Care should be taken 
in tracing the outline that the 
sitter remains perfectly still, and in 




Drawing a Siliiouette. 

low the line exactly. A very smi 
deviation alters the expression. 



SHADOW PICTURES 



623 



SHADOW PICTURES 



Magic Dance. A second curtain, thrown. This magic curtain must 
called the magic curtain, is stretched j be perfectly opaque, being made of 
about two feet behind the white thick black cloth, or of canvas 
sheet on which the figures are to be ! painted black. In it are several 




holes which vary in size according 
to the size of the figures to be ex- 
hibited, and are arranged as the 
figures are to be grouped. The lat- 
ter may be cut out of paper which 
is pinned over the holes, or they 



may be painted in colors on glass 
like a magic lantern slide. If now 
the exhibitor stand behind the 
magic curtain with a lighted taper, 
such as are used for Christmas trees, 
an image of each figure will be 



SHADOW PICTURES 



624 



SHADOW PLAYS 



thrown on the screen in front. If 
he hold a taper in each hand, two 
images of each figure will appear, 
and if he move the tapers from side 
to side, or in curves, the figures 
will appear to move about in like 
manner. By multiplying the num- 
ber of tapers, the figures can be 
made to perform the most compli- 
cated kind of dance. The other 
tapers should be held by persons 
whose movements are controlled by 
the exhibitor by means of signals 
previously agreed on. One may hold 
several tapers by fixing them on 
cross-pieces nailed on a stick, but 
the images cast by those tapers will, 
of course, always preserve the same 
distance from each other. The 
effect is heightened if any of the 
figures can be made to disappear at 
will, as will be the case if the holes 
can be stopped up. The best plan 
is to stretch the magic curtain in a 
doorway and nail across it thin 
battens, one just above each hole. 
Pasteboard flaps are then sewed to 
the curtain under each hole, and 
when shut over the holes are fast- 
ened to the batten by a wooden but- 
ton; or, cloth flaps may simply be 
pinned over the holes by an assist- 
ant. The following is an example 
of what may be done with this 
arrangement. Suppose that there 
are four holes at the corners of a 
square, and that the figures in them 
represent old women in various 
attitudes. It is well to have some 
of the figures so drawn that they 
may be made to move either way 
without seeming to go backward. 
The holes are all stopped at first, so 
that the screen is dark. One of the 
flaps is removed, a taper is lighted, 
and an old witch starts out on the 
curtain. By moving the taper she 
is made to run back and forth, and 
leap mto the air. The operator 
must remember that the figure 
always moves in the opposite direc- 
tion from the taper, so that to make 
it leap up he must move the taper 
down. A second taper is now 



lighted and another similar figure 
appears. The two run forward and 
backward, and leap over and under 
each other, finally running together 
and melting into one. Another flap 
islet down and a different old woman 
appears. Thus by lighting and ex- 
tinguishing the tapers and stopping 
and unstopping the holes, one by 
one, the figures can be made to ap- 
pear, disappear, and dance about in 
the greatest confusion. In order 
that one figure may not interfere 
with another, the operator should 
practise his movements first, while 
some one on the opposite side of 
the screen tells him of the effect. 
This is necessary, since he cannot 
himself see the screen on which the 
pictures are thrown. 

SHADOW PLAYS, plays, in which 
not the actors, but their shadows, are 
seen by the audience. They may 
be spoken plays or pantomime. In 
any case, a large sheet is hung in 
a doorway, on one side of which the 
audience sit, while the actors per- 
form on the other, their shadows 
being cast on the sheet by a single 
lamp, which should be as bright 
as possible. With more than one 
lamp, double or triple shadows would 
be cast. Some skill is required al- 
ways so to act that the shadows will 
show the action distinctly. Profiles 
should be shown on the sheet as 
much as possible. Where the 
shadow-play is given in a hall, the 
shadows are thrown on a curtain of 
white muslin, which must be made 
with tightly-sewed seams. The 
shadows can be made more distinct 
by wetting the sheet or curtain just 
before the performance, which may 
be done with a sponge. Some of 
the most striking effects in a 
shadow-play are produced by a per- 
former's stepping over or under the 
lamp. In the first case he appears 
to the spectators to jump up through 
the ceiling, and in the second to 
sink through the floor. In those 
parts of the play where any one is 
to step over the lamp, it should be 



SHADOW PLAYS 



625 



SHADOW PLAYS 



placed on the floor about six feet 
from the curtain. Directly behind 
it should be placed a wooden box a 
little higher than the lamp, on which 
the actor can step. This box serves 
also to protect the lamp from being 
overturned. When a player is to go 
under the lamp, it is slowly raised 
by an attendant, who takes good 
care to stand so that his shadow 
will not fall on the screen. At 
other times, the lamp should stand 
on a low table about ten feet from 
the curtain. Some person should 
be given special charge of it, and 
should rehearse the pantomime with 
the performers, so that he will know 
exactly when to move the lamp. 
The position of the light must be 
changed very gradually in all cases. 



The performers should stand as 
close as possible to the curtain, as 
the shadows will' then be nearly of 
the natural size, and moving the 
lamp has less effect on them. The 
arms must be held at equal distances 
from the light, otherwise one will 
appear larger than the other. Step- 
ping over the lamp should be done 
quickly and with a single movement. 

All small " properties" are made 
of pasteboard, and when signs are 
needed they are cut out so that the 
letters appear in white on a dark 
ground. Sawdust or oatmeal is the 
best representative of water or 
blood. As any two objects in line 
with the lamp throw shadows in the 
same place, many comical effects 
may be produced. For instance. 




Shadow Plays. — Fig. i. 



the shadow of a pasteboard house 
may be thrown on the curtain, and 
a man rising slowly behind it may 
appear to come out of the chimney 
(Fig. i). Or, in the same way, a 
man may be shown leaping into a 
crocodile's mouth, as in Fig. 2. As 



many of these ridiculous effects as expensive 



possible should be introduced in 
the play. The chief advantage of a 
shadow pantomime is that these 
effects are very easily arranged, 
whereas in an ordinary pantomime 
they require the aid of apparatus 
which is difficult to make and often 



SHEEPFOLD 



626 



SHOOTING 




Shadow Plays. — Fig. 2. 



SHEEPFOLD, THE, agameplayed 
by any number of persons, two of 
whom are chosen as "Wolf" and 
"Lamb," while the others join hands 
in a circle, to form the " Sheepfold," 
inside of which is the Lamb. The 
Wolf endeavors to break through 
the joined hands so as to reach the 
Lamb, but if he does so, the Sheep- 
fold opens on the opposite side, let- 
ting the Lamb out, and closing in 
time to imprison the Wolf. The 
latter now tries, in the same man- 
ner, to get out, and if he does so the 
Lamb is admitted again. If the 
Wolf succeeds in catching the Lamb, 
the two players between whom he 
broke through the sheepfold last 
become Wolf and Lamb in their 
turn. 

SHOUTINQ PROVERBS. See 
Proverbs. 

SHOEMAKER'S WAX, Experi- 
ment with. Place a cake of shoe- 
maker's wax on three or four small 
corks. On the cake put several 
leaden bullets. Leave the wax 
alone, and in the Gourse of several 



weeks the corks will work through 
the wax to the top, while the 
bullets will go to the bottom. 
The reason is that shoemaker's 
wax, although very tough, has 
some of the qualities of a liquid. 
Hence the light corks rise to the 
top and the heavy bullets fall to the 
bottom, just as they would in water, 
if they are only given time enough. 
SHOOTING. The firearms gener- 
ally used for sport are the shot- 
gun, the rifle, and the pistol. For 
the general description and history 
of guns, see C. C. T. under Rifle. 
The rifle and pistol are used for tar- 
get shooting. In the field the rifle 
is best adapted to furred game — 
squirrels, deer, etc. ; and the shot- 
gun to bird shooting. Shotguns are 
single-barrelled or double-barrelled. 
The single is cheaper and lighter; 
the double has the advantage of 
giving a quick second shot. In a 
muzzle-loader the charge is inserted 
in the barrel at the muzzle and 
pushed in with a ramrod ; in a 
breech-loader it is inserted into 



SHOOTING 



627 



SHOOTING 



the chamber at the breech, the 
gun being opened or "broken" for 
the purpose. Muzzle-loaders are 
now almost entirely superseded by 
modern breech-loaders ; the former 
cost less, but the latter are more 
convenient to handle, more safely 
and more rapidly loaded, and de- 
cidedly more effective in their 
work. With a breech-loading shot- 
gun the sportsman need never turn 
the muzzle of his gun toward him- 
self. The charge in a gun consists 
of powder, shot, and wads, which in 
a breech-loader are contained in a 
metal or paper case called a shell, 
having in its base a cap or primer of 
percussion powder which explodes 



Fig. I. Fig. 2. 



Fig. 4. 



when struck by the hammer of the 
gun. 

The "action" of guns, both that 
by which they are opened or 
" broken " to put in the cartridges, 
and that by which they are fired, 
usually differs with the maker. 
Most guns must be cocked, before 
shooting, that is, the hammer must 
be pulled back ready to fall on the 
cap ; but hammerlessguns are made 
which are cocked by opening the 
gun to insert the cartridge, and 
which cannot be setoff accidentally 
by dropping them on the hammer, 
as the others can. 

Cartridges already loaded may be 
obtained at gun-shops, or shells may 

Fig. 6. 




Fig. 7, 



Fig. 9. 



Figs. 1-3. Swabbers. 
Fig. 7. Recapper. 



Fig. 8. 
Reloading Tools. 
Fig. 4. Decapper. Fig. 5. Cartridge-holder. Fig. 6. Charger 
Fig. 8. Cartridge-extractor. Fig. 9. Charge-measurer. 



be bought and loaded at home. 
Metal shells may be reloaded as 
often as desired ; but paper shells 
are commonly used only once. 
The tools for reloading are a de- 
capper, for removing the old cap, 
a recapper for putting in a new 
one, a funnel for pouring in the 
powder and shot, a wad-seater, 
a block for holding the shell, and 
for paper shells a creaser or 
crimper by which the shell is 
creased, or its edge turned over, to 
hold the charge in place. Some of 
these are shown in the illustra- 
tion. The new cap should be 



inserted before loading; for if it 
explodes then no harm can be done. 
The powder is then poured in, 
then wads are inserted, then the 
shot, and then a lighter wad. Wads 
are bought ready-made. If the gun 
is a muzzle-loader, the charge, in 
the order described above, is put 
directly into the gun instead of into 
a cartridge. The quantity of powder 
and shot, and the size of shot used, 
varies with the object to be shot at. 
Loads for different kinds of game 
are given in the article on Hunt- 
ing. The ordinary charge for 
guns with number 10 bore is from 



SHOOTING 



628 



SHOOTING 



4 to 4i drams of coarse powder 
and il ounces of shot; for 12-bore, 
3 to 3i drams of powder and i^ 
ounces of shot ; for 14-bore, 2^ to 3 
drams of powder and |- to i ounce 
of shot ; and for i6-bore, 2^ to 2f 
drams of powder and f to | ounces 
of shot. The extreme load is 4 
drams of powder in a 12-bore, and 

5 drams in a lo-bore gun. 

The sizes of shotguns are des- 
ignated by numbers express- 
ing the gauges or diameters of 
their bore, as 10 gauge, or 10- 
bore, i2-gauge, etc. The origin 
of these numbers was this : A ball, 
of which 10 weigh a pound, fits a 
lo-gauge ; balls weighing 12 to the 
pound fit a 12-gauge, etc. ; hence 
the higher the number of the gauge 
the smaller is its diameter. Bores 
range from 4 (large) to 20 (small) ; 
those in common use are lo's and 
12's. Guns are cylinder-bored, that 
is with the bore of the same diam- 
eter from chamber to muzzle ; or 
choke-bored, that is, having the 
bore " choked " or constricted at a 
point just back of the muzzle for 
the purpose of keeping the shot 
together in their flight through the 
air. The constriction is from 
Y^g-o of an inch to -j^^ of an inch. 

The relative merits of choke- and 
cylinder-bores are these : A choke- 
bore, delivering its shot in a more 
compact mass, will kill more surely 
at greater distance; but it requires 
more careful aim; it is specially 
adapted to wild-fowl shooting. A 
cylinder gun, because it spreads the 
shot over a wider circle, requires less 
careful aim, and is preferable where 
the game is shot at short range. 
Young sportsmen usually prefer a 
cylinder-bore. Many sportsmen 
prefer to have the right barrel of a 
double-barrelled gun cylinder-bored 
and the other choke-bored. The 
right barrel is used at close range, 
and the left at long range, because 
it scatters the shot so little. Choke- 
bored barrels were described as 
early as 1787 by a Frenchman 



named De Marolles, but he did not 
approve of them and they have been 
adopted only recently. Jeremiah 
Smith, of Rhode Island, devised a 
successful mode of choke-boring in 
1827, and was perhaps the first to 
do so, though the credit is given by 
some to other inventors. The 
merits of the system were first ex- 
explained to the public in 1879 by 
Joseph W. Long, in his book on 
" Wild-Fowl Shooting." Mr. Long 
says that choke-boring doubles the 
closeness of the " pattern " on the 
target at 40 yards. 

The shooting qualities of guns 
are determined by shooting at a 
target, usually a sheet of paper, 
placed at a distance of 40 yards 
from the muzzle of the gun. On 
the paper, before or after the gun is 
fired, is drawn a circle 30 inches in 
diameter. The marks made by the 
shot pellets which strike within this 
circle constitute the " pattern." If 
a large proportion of the entire 
charge strikes within the 30-inch 
space, the gun is said to " pattern 
closely;" and if the shot are evenly 
distributed, to "pattern evenly;" 
the pattern is also designated by the 
number of the pellets. The force 
with which the shot are projected 
is measured by their penetration 
through the leaves of a book or a 
pad of paper. A gun which gives 
good penetration is said to " shoot 
hard." 

The stocks of guns vary in length, 
and crook, bend, or "drop, "to fit 
different shooters. The length and 
bend should be such that when the 
gun is brought to the shoulder the 
rib or top of the barrels should be in 
line with the eye and a mark on the 
same level with the eye. A long- 
armed shooter will require a long 
gun-stock ; a long-necked shooter a 
stock with much drop. In selecting 
a gun care should be taken to choose 
one that fits the shooter. 

Safety. To avoid accidents with 
a shot-gun or rifle, the following 
rules should be observed : 



SHOOTING 



629 



SHOOTING 



1. The sportsman must always 
treat a gun as though it were 
loaded, even if he knows it to be 
unloaded. 

2. He should never allow the 
muzzle to point toward himself or 
any other person. 

3. He should never put his hand 
over the muzzle. 

4. He should take out both cart- 
ridges before climbing a fence, get- 
ting into a wagon, or entering a 
house. If the gun is a muzzle- 
loader, the caps should be removed 
in like circumstances, though some 
people think it unwise to keep a 
loaded gun in the house uncapped, 
because some one, thinking it un- 
loaded, might then put on a cap, 
snap it, and so discharge the gun. 
But if Rule I is closely observed, 
this will never be done. 

Cleaning. Most people clean their 
guns after each day's use, but some 
think that they should never be 
cleaned. The best way to clean 
them is to wash thoroughly with 
very hot water and then oil lightly. 

Trap Shooting. As shotguns are 
generally used to shoot birds when 
on the wing, the first acquirement 
of the beginner should be to aim 
quickly and correctly. To attain 
this practice should first be had on 
a mark at rest, and when, after re- 
peated tests, the ability has been 
acquired to bring the gun to the 
shoulder with correct aim, the 
learner should practise hitting small 
objects thrown into the air, etc. 
The best practice of this kind is 
trap shooting. A simple trap may 
be made of an elastic strip of wood 
4 feet long, 3 inches wide, and half 
an inch thick, one of whose ends is 
nailed to a heavy board, which is fas- 
tened to the ground by driving 
stakes through holes in it. The mid- 
dle of the strip is supported at such 
a height that its other end can easily 
be bent down and fastened to the 
board by a notched trigger. The 
end of the strip that is thus secured 
has a small tin box-lid fastened on it. 



and when the strip is released, by 
pulling a string tied to the trigger, 
anything placed in the box-lid, such 
as an apple or a potato, is thrown 
into the air, where it can be shot at. 
The traps sold by dealers in sporting 




Fig. 10. — Trap, 
goods (Fig. 10) are made with steel 
springs, and throw up artificial tar- 
gets, generally called "pigeons," of 
which there are numerous patterns, 
in general shape like a saucer (Fig. 
11). The clay pigeon is very thin 
and brittle, so that a single shot 
can break it. When thrown, these 
" pigeons" imitate very closely the 
apparent shape and flight of a bird. 




Fig. II. — Clay pigeon, 
the rounded edge, which is upward, 
looking against the sky like the out- 
line of the back and wings. Glass 
balls were formerly much used in 
trap-shooting, but have now gone 
out of fashion. The moving targets 
must be brittle, for it is hard to tell 
whether they are hit or not, unless 
the shot breaks them. For this 
reason also very small shot cannot 
be used, and the gun must not 
scatter its shot. The trap gives the 
object shot at great speed at first, 
so if the ball flies away from the 
shooter he must fire very quickly. 

The shooter must stand so that 
his arms may be free to move swiftly. 
His weight rests equally on both 



SHOOTING 



630 



SHOOTING 



feet, the left being somewhat ad- 
vanced, and the upper part of the 
body bent forward a little. The 
right hand holds the pistol-grip of 
the gun, the forefinger touching 
the trigger, and the barrel rests in 
the left hand, pointing slightly up- 
ward. At the word " Pull " the 
trap is sprung by an assistant, and at 
the same instant the right hand must 
be raised so that the gun comes to 
the level of the right eye, the breech 
resting in the hollow^ of the right 
shoulder. The rib between the 
barrels should be directly under the 
eye. While doing this, the shooter 
looks steadily at the point toward 
which he intends to fire, and when 
the gun is pointed toward it, he 
pulls the trigger. Long practice is 
required properly to bring the gun 
into position, to aim, and to fire, all 
at once. Many skilful marksmen 
never take aim by following the 
mark with the gun as it moves, 
(called " making a poke shot,"), but 
aim and fire instantly, called a " snap 
shot." This is especially the best way 
in trap-shooting, for a second's delay 
enables the object to get beyond 
safe range, as it moves very swiftly, 

In hunting, besides the "snap 
shot," there is another method 
called the "swing-shot," in which 
the sportsman swings his gun, till it 
is a certain distance in front of the 
bird, and then fires. Some keep 
the gun moving steadily, some 
stop it at the moment of firing, and 
others give it a quick motion to 
one side. The distance of the point 
aimed at in front of the moving 
object depends on the speed of the 
latter and its distance from the gun, 
and must generally be learned by 
experience. If the object to be 
hit is a bird instead of something 
thrown from a trap, the rules for 
handling the gun are the same. 
Other details will be found in the 
article on Hunting. 

In trap-shooting matches each 
shot is scored as a hit or a miss. In 
one style of trap-shooting the com- 



petitors who tie on their scores are 
divided into classes, and the several 
prizes are awarded to these classes. 
Thus if in a match at 10 targets each, 
with six shooters and 3 prizes, A and 
B hit 10 each, C, D, and E hit 9, and 



\. 



\ 



A 

Fds\ 



40 



)^ 



M 



/ 



/ 



Shooter's seor^ 
Diagram A, 




Shooter's score. 
Diagram B. 

F hits 8, the prizes are awarded 
thus : I St to ties of 10, 2d to ties of 
9, and 3d to F who scored 8, A 
and B, who tied on 10, may divide 
1st. prize, or shoot off to decide 
which shall have it ; but the one 



SHOOTING 



63T 



SHOOTING 



who is defeated in shootingoff the tie 
receives nothing, and cannot claim 
2d nor 3d, even though his score 



\ 




\20 yds; 

X 

/iOJds.\ 



/ 



\.. 



/ 



4/ V 



Shooter's scores. 
Diagram C. 



/ 



Shooter's scori> 
Diagram D. 

is actually better than those of the 
winner of the other prizes. 

RULES OF TRAP-SHOOTING. 

The following rules for matches 
are selected from those of the Amer- 
ican Shooting Association, 

I. Judges and Referee. Sec. i. — 
Two judges and a referee, or a 
referee alone, shall be selected to 
judge. 



Sec. 2. If the judges cannot 
agree, the referee shall decide, and 
his decision shall be final in all 
tournament or sweepstake shooting. 

Sec. 3. In individual matches a 
a referee, scorer, and puller may be 
agreed upon and named by the con- 
testants. 

3. special Duties of Referee. The 
referee shall see that the traps are 
properly set at the beginning of a 
match, and are kept in order to the 
finish. He shall endeavor to make 
the targets conform to the flight 
and direction indicated in Rule 12. 
He shall test any trap upon applica- 
tion of a shooter at any time, by 
throwing a trial bird therefrom. 
He may at any time select one or 
more cartridges from those of a 
shooter at the score, and must do 
so when the shooter is challenged 
by a contestant, and he shall publicly 
test the same for proper loading ; if 
a cartridge is found to be improperly 
loaded, the shooter shall suffer the 
penalty as provided for in Rule 16. 

4. Balk. If any contestant is 
balked or interfered with, or there 
is other similar reason why it should 
be done, the referee may allow an- 
other bird. 

5. Shooter at the Score. In all 
contests the shooter must be at the 
score within three minutes after his 
name is called to shoot, or he for- 
feits his rights in the match. 

6. Scorer. A scorer shall be ap- 
pointed by the management whose 
score shall be the official one. All 
scoring shall be done with ink or 
indelible pencil. The scoring of a 
lost bird shall be indicated by a o, 
and of a dead bird by a i. 

7. KeepiJig the Score. Sec. i. The 
call for a broken bird shall be " Dead 
bird," and the call for a missed bird 
shalt be " Lost bird." 

Sec. 2. When two judges and a 
referee are serving, one of the 
judges shall announce the result of 
each shot distinctly, and it shall be 
called back by the scorer. If the 
with the 



SHOOTING 



632 



SHOOTING 



decision of the judge calling, he 
shall announce it at once before an- 
other bird is thrown, and the referee 
shall decide it. In the event of an- 
other bird being thrown before the 
referee's decision, the bird so thrown 
shall be " No bird." 

8. Broken Birds. A bird to be 
scored " Dead bird" must have a per- 
ceptible piece broken from it while 
in the air ; a " dusted " bird is not a 
broken bird. No bird shall be re- 
trieved for shot marks. If a bird 
be broken by the trap, the shooter 
may claim another bird, as provided 
for in Rule 19; but if he shoots, the 
result must be scored. 

9. Announcing the Score. At the 
close of each shooter's score the 
result must be announced; if claimed 
to be wrong, the error, if any, must 
be corrected at once. 

10. Screens. Either pits or screens, 
or both, may be used, but the 
screens must not be higher than is 
actually necessary to fully protect 
the trapper. 

11. Arrangement of Traps. All 
matches shall be shot from three 
or five traps, set level, five yards 
apart, in the segment of a circle 
(see Diagrams A and C), or in a 
straight line (see Diagrams B and 
D). When in a segment of a circle, 
the radius of the circle shall be 
eighteen yards. In all cases, the 
shooter's score shall not be less 
from each trap than the rises pro- 
vided for in Rule 14. The traps 
shall be numbered from No. i on 
the left to No. 3 or No. 5 on the 
right, consecutively, according to 
the number used, as shown in the 
diagram. 

12. Adjusting Traps. Sec. i. All 
traps must throw the birds a dis- 
tance not less than 40 3^ards nor 
more than 60 yards, and each trap 
must be tested for this standard dis- 
tance before the shooting begins. 
If any trap be found too weak to 
throw^ the required distance, a new 
trap or spring, that will, must be 
substituted. 



Sec. 2. The lever or projecting arm 
of the trap shall be so adjusted that 
the elevation of the bird in its flight 
at a distance of 10 yards from the 
trap, shall not be more than 12 feet 
nor less than 6 feet, and the angles 
of flight shall be as shown on the 
diagrams. 

Sec. 3. After the traps are set 
for these angles, if the bird for any 
reason shall take a different course, 
it shall be considered a fair bird, 
provided the trap has not been 
changed. 

13. Pulling the Traps. Sec. i. 
The puller shall be placed at least 
six feet behind the shooter, and 
when the shooter calls " Pull," the 
trap, or traps, shall be instantly 
sprung. In single bird-shooting, he 
shall pull the traps as decided by a 
trap pulling indicator, if one is 
used. 

Sec. 2. Traps may be pulled in 
regular order from Nos. i to 3, or i 
to 5, or vice versa, if so decided by 
the management. 

Sec. 3. If the shooting is from 
traps to be pulled in regular order, 
the shooter may refuse a bird from 
a trap not so pulled ; but if he shoots 
the result shall be scored. 

Sec. 4. If the trap is sprung be- 
fore, or at any noticeable interval 
after the shooter calls " Pull," he 
can accept or refuse the bird ; but 
if he shoots the result shall be 
scored. 

Sec. 5. Should any puller not pull 
in accordance with the indicator, 
he shall be removed, and another 
puller substituted. 

14. The Rise. In single bird shoot- 
ing the rise shall be : 

18 yards for lo-bore guns. 
16 yards for 12-bore guns. 
14 yards for 14 and i6-bore guns. 

13 yards for 20-bore guns. 

In double bird shooting the rise 
shall be : 
16 yards for lo-bore guns. 

14 yards for 12-bore guns. 

12 yards for 14 and i6-bore guns. 
1 1 yards for 20-bore guns. 



SHOOTING 



633 



SHOOTING 



15. Calibre and Weight of Gun. 
No gun of larger caliber than a 10- 
bore shall be used, and the weight 
of all guns shall be unlimited. 

16. Loads. Charge of powder un- 
limited. Charge of shot: 

For lo-bore guns, i 1-4 ounces. 
For i2-bore guns, i 1-8 ounces. 
For 14 and i6-bore guns, i ounce. 
For 20-bore guns, 7-8 of an ounce. 

17. Loading Guns. In single bird 
shooting, only one barrel shall be 
loaded at a time, and the cartridge 
shall not be placed in the barrel 
until after the shooter has taken 
his position at the score. In double 
bird shooting both barrels shall be 
loaded at the score. Cartridges 
must be removed from the gun be- 
fore leaving the score. 

18. Position of Gun. Any the 
the shooter may adopt. 

19. Allowing another Bird. 
(Known or Unknown Angles.) 

Sec. I. The shooter shall be al- 
lowed another bird for the follow- 
ing reasons : 

A — For a bird broken by a trap. 

B — For any defect in the gun or 
the load, causing a miss-fire. 

Sec. 2. When the shooting is at 
known angles he shall have another 
bird from the same trap; but if the 
shooting is at unknown angles he 
shall have another bird from an un- 
known trap, to be decided by the in- 
dicator, except in case it be the last 
trap, when the shooter has a right 
to know which trap is to be sprung ; 
in this case he shall have another 
bird from same trap. 

20. Sifigle Bird Shootijig. Each 
contestant shall shoot at three or 
more birds before leaving the score, 
when the traps are set in the seg- 
ment of a circle. It two birds are 
sprung at the same time it shall be 
declared " No bird." 

21. Double Bird Shooting. Both 
traps must be pulled simultaneously, 
and each contestant shall shoot at 
three pairs consecutively, thrown as 
follows: If three traps are used, 
the first pair shall be thrown from 



traps I and 2; the second pair from 
2 and 3, and the third pair from i 
and 3. If five traps are used, the 
first pair shall be thrown from traps 
2 and 3, the second pair from 3 
and 4, and the third pair from 2 
and 4. If only one bird is thrown 
it shall be declared " No birds." If 
a bird is lost for reasons stated in 
Rule 19, it shall be declared "No 
birds." If one be a fair and the 
other an imperfect bird it shall be 
declared " No birds." If both birds 
are broken by one barrel it shall be 
declared " No birds." If a shooter 
fire both barrels at one bird inten- 
tionally, it shall be scored " Lost 
birds ;" but if the second barrel be 
discharged accidentally it shall be 
" No birds." 

Summary. A contestant must 
shoot at two whole birds while both 
are in the air, and break or miss one 
with each barrel to have his score 
count, and the referee shall be 
as prompt as possible in calling" No 
birds," and prevent unnecessary 
shooting when a bird is broken by 
the trap. 

22. Rapid Firing System. When 
the traps are set in a straight line 
and the rapid firing system is to be 
used, there shall be a screen before 
each trap on which shall appear the 
number of the trap, from No. i on 
the left, and each shooter shall stand 
at score opposite the trap from 
which the bird is to be thrown for 
him to shoot at ; after he has shot 
at his first bird he shall pass to next 
score to the right, and so continue 
until he reaches the end of score, 
when he shall return to the score 
opposite No. I, and continue as be- 
fore until his score is finished. If 
shooters are annoyed or there is 
delay in shooting by the smoke of 
previous shots, the traps may be 
pulled in reversed order, commenc- 
ing with the trap on the right. 

History of Trap-shooting. Until 
about 1875 live wild pigeons were 
used for targets at shooting- 
matches. They were thrown into 



SHOOTING 



634 



SHOOTING 



the air by spring traps much like 
those just described, and shot on the 
wing. Sometimes several thousand 
were killed in one match. Those 
that were missed escaped, but many 
were only wounded, and the sport 
was a cruel one, so Captain Bo- 
gardus, a well-known marksman, 
suggested that hollow glass balls 
should be used instead. As these 
represented birds neither in shape 
nor in manner of flight, George 
Ligowsky, a Cincinnati sportsman, 
invented the saucer-like "clay pig- 
eons" which, with various other 
artificial targets, have nearly every- 
where taken the place of live 
birds in shooting-matches. Skilled 
marksmen have shown wonderful 
accuracy in trap-shooting. 

Trap-shooting is said to have been 
the means of greatly improving 
modern shot-guns, as it has shown 
marksmen that the old guns were 
not fit for firing at such swiftly- 
moving small objects. 

Rifle Shooting. The rifle is de- 
scribed in C. C. T. As the range 
of this weapon is so great, even 
more attention must be paid to 
holding and aiming, than with the 
shot-gun. In hunting, the rifleman 
often rests his rifle on a tree or 
fence to take aim, but no such rests 
are allowed in target shooting. In 




firing a rifle from an upright posi- 
tion the left shoulder is thrown 



forward, and the right foot placed 
a step behind the left. The right 
hand holds the stock with the 
thumb uppermost, and the forefinger 
hooked around the trigger. The 
left arm, with bent elbow, holds the 
rifle barrel. The marksman bends 
his head to the right, touching the 
stock with his cheek, and closing 
his left eye, looks with the right 
along the barrel, bringing both 
sights into line. He aims first 
below the target, then raises the 
rifle slowly, pauses an instant just 
as the target is in line with the 
sights, and then pulls the trigger. 
The butt of the rifle should be held 
firmly to the shoulder, to counter- 
act the recoil of the weapon. Nearly 
every one holds his rifle a little dif- 




ferently. Some riflemen kneel on 
the right knee in firing, and rest the 
left elbow on the left knee, sitting 
either on the heel or side of the 
right foot. In long-range shooting 
the marksmen usually sit or lie on 




the ground, and there are many 
positions, some of which are curi- 
ous. Long-range shooting is diffi- 
cult, for the marksman has to make 
allowance for the force of the wind, 
the attraction of gravity, and the 
drift or deviation of the ball caused 
by the twist of the rifling. To cor- 
rect the aim for the wind and for 



SHOOTING 



^3S 



SHOOTING 



drift, the rear sight is often arranged 
so that it can be shifted sidewise, 
and the rifleman must know just 
how much to move it for a given 
range and force of wind. Riflemen 
describe the direction of the wind 
by the numerals on a clock-face. 
The marksman is supposed to be 
standing in the middle of the clock- 
face, and the target is at the figure 
XII. A wind directly from right to 
left is then blowing from the figure 
III., and is called a " Three o'clock 
wind." A wind from a point just 
to the left of the target is called an 
" Eleven o'clock wind," and so on. 
Gravity pulls the ball down so much 
in going a long distance that in fir- 
ing at a range of looo yards the rifle 
must really be aimed at a point 
about 80 feet above the target, but 
the rear sight can be moved up and 
down, so that the sights are in line 
with the target while the rifle is 
actually pointing above it. If the 
sights of a rifle get out of line, the 
rifle should be fixed in a vise and 
fired at a target. The sights must 
then be fixed in line with the hole 
made by the bullet. 

Rifle-Matches. In a rifle matcii 
the competitors shoot at several 
different distances, called ranges. 
At Creedmoor, on Long Island, 
there are ten ranges, one at every 
hundred yards, from 100 up to 1000, 
but all these are not used in the 
same match. The ranges selected 
depend on the ability of the con- 
testants, and the kind of rifle used. 
In a beginner's match with Flobert 
rifles, for instance, the ranges might 
even be 10, 25, and 50 feet. The 
targets are usually the same for 
each range, the distance being regu- 
lated by the places (called firing- 
points), at which the marksmen 
stand. Each competitor in turn 
fires a number of shots previously 
agreed upon, at the shortest range, 
and then the competitors go to the 
next firing-point. When two par- 
ties (called teams) are competing 
one against the other, the men in 



the opposing teams fire alternately. 
In skirmish firing (introduced at 
Creedmoor in 1886), teams of six 
men fire at a time, advancing 
rapidly from one firing-point to 
another, till they have shot from all 
of them, and then retiring in the 
same way. Targets to be used in 
only one match may be made of 
wood, but permanent targets are 
made of iron painted white, with 
black division lines. After each 
shot an attendant (called the mark- 
er) notes where the bullet struck, 
and then covers its mark with 
white paint, after signalling the 
score, as will presently be ex- 
plained. While he is so doing, a 
danger signal is displayed, so that 
no one may shoot when he is in 
front of the target. During the 
shooting he retires to a bullet-proof 
shelter. Behind the target should 
be a bank of earth, so that no shots 
may do harm. In a match not held 
on a permanent range, great care 
must be .taken to set up the target 
against a hillside. With very small 
rifles, many people think it neces- 
sary only to see that there is a thick 
high fence, or the side of a building, 
behind the target, which may be 
made of paper pinned to the fence ; 
but there are really no rifles which 
can be used thus safely. People 
have been killed by Flobert rifle 
bullets passing through a wall. The 
targets are square or oblong, and 
have painted on them three con- 
centric circles. The space within 
the smallest is called the Bullseye, 
between that and the second the 
Centre, between the second and 
third the Inner, and the remainder 
of the target the Outer. Some- 
times the Inner is bounded by a 
square instead of a circle. The size 
depends on the range. At Creed- 
moor there are three classes of 
targets. The first (Fig. i), used at 
ranges of more than 600 yards, 
measures 6 by 12 feet. The Bulls- 
eye is 36 inches in diameter, the 
Centre 54 inches, and the Inner is a 



SHOOTING 



636 



SHOOTING 




Fig. I. 



Fig. 2. 



Fig. 3. 



Plan of Targets. 



square of 6 feet. The second class 
target (Fig. 2), used at ranges of 
from 300 to 600 yards, is 6 feet 
square. The Bullseye is 22, the 
centre 38, and the Inner 54 inches 
in diameter. The third class (Fig. 
3), used at distances less than 300 
yards, measures 4 by 6 feet. The 
Bullseye is 8, the Centre 26, and the 
Inner 46 inches in diameter. For 
very small distances the size should 
be still further decreased. 

The marker signals the hits to 
the scorer in any way that may be 
agreed on. At Creedmoor a Bulls- 
eye is signalled by showing a white 
disk, a Centre by a red disk, an 
Inner by a white and black disk, and 
an Outer by a black disk. When a 
bullet hits the target after striking 
somethingelse.it is called 2iricochet 
(French for rebound), and is sig- 
alled by waving a red flag twice, 
from side to side, in front of the 
target. When a shot strikes the 
target support, the flag is raised 
and lowered thrice in front of the 
target. 

The scores of the various hits are 
as follows : 

Bullseye, 5 

Centre, 4 

Inner 3 

Outer 2 

RULES OF RIFLE SHOOTING. 

The following rules for rifle 
matches are condensed from those 
of the National Rifle Association : 

I. Rifle matches shall be in charge 
of an Executive officer, a scorer, and 
a Range officer. 



2. The Executive officer shall 
have general control of the conduct 
of the match, and the Range officer 
shall have charge of all the firing 
points. 

3. The competitors will be sta- 
tioned not less than four yards in 
rear of the firing points, until called 
by the scorer to take position at the 
firing point. The scorer will sit 
close behind the firing-point stake. 

4. As each shot is signalled, the 
scorer shall announce the name of 
the competitor and the value of the 
shot, and at the end of the score 
announce in like manner his name 
and total score. The score shall be 
open to inspection at all times by 
any competitor. 

5. No sights must be used that 
cover the target so as to conceal 
the danger signal. 

6. No artificial rests must be 
used. 

7. A breech-loader must not be 
loaded, nor a muzzle-loader capped, 
before the competitor takes his 
position at the firing point. 

8. Any objection to the record of 
a shot must be made before the 
next is fired. 

9. When two shots strike the 
target simultaneously, the shothav-l 
ing the higher value shall be marked 
first, and the competitor whose 
proper turn it was to shoot will 
be credited with that value. 

10. Any alteration in the score 
must be signed by the Range officer. 

11. When the danger signal is 
displayed, competitors about to fire 
will be required to open the breech- 
lock of their rifles (if breech-loa(^ 



SHOOTIMG 



637 



SHUFFLE-BOARD 



ers). If they leave the firing point, 
they must witlidraw the cartridge. 

12. No rifle shall be cleaned or 
wiped out except between ranges. 

13. If any competitor is not ready 
to fire when his name is called, he 
shall forfeit his turn. 

14. Competitors will be allowed 
01^ minute to each shot. 

9^- Ties. Ties shall be decided 
by the total score made at the long- 
est distance ; or if those scores are 
also tied, by the total score at the 
second distance. If that is a tie, 
then by the fewest outers in the 
entire score ; by the fewest inners 
in the entire score ; and by inverse 
order of shots, counting singly from 
the last to the first. In team shoot- 
ing, if there be still a tie, the com- 
petitor making the highest score on 
each side shall fire five rounds at 
the longest distance. 

16. Any competitor violating one 
of the rules, or refusing to obey an 
officer of the match, shall not be 
allowed to compete further. 

17. Any competitor firing when 
the danger flag is shown, or know- 
ingly discharging his rifle except at 
his target, shall not be allowed to 
compete further. This does not 
apply to a person accidentally firing 
at the wrong target when no danger 
signal is up. 

18. Any competitor found with a 
loaded rifle, except at the firing 
points when about to shoot, shall 
not be allowed to compete further, 

19. Any competitor firing his 
rifle accidentally may be required to 
withdraw from the match by the 
executive officer. 

History of Rifle Shooting. Rifle 
clubs have existed in this country 
for a long time, but scientific rifle 
matches and organized target prac- 
tice began in 1873. The National 
Rifle Association was organized in 
1871, and, with the aid of the State 
of New York, established in 1873 
the rifle range at Creedmoor on 
Long Island, where many matches 
have since been held. About 25,- 



000 men now shoot there every 
year. 

SHUFFLE-BOARD, or SHOVEL 
BOARD, a game played by two or 
four persons with iron weights, 
which are slid along a board sprink- 
led with fine sand. The board is 30 
feet long, with slightly raised edges 
to keep the weights from sliding off 
sidewise. Lines are drawn across 
the board five inches from each 
end, one for a starting line and the 
other for a finishing line. There 
are eight weights, or " pieces," weigh- 
ing about a pound each, and divided 
into two sets of four each. The 
players are divided into opposing 
sides, and each side has one of 
the sets of pieces. Each player in 
turn, standing at the starting line, 
slides his pieces along the board. 
Each piece that projects partly over 
the edge of the board scores three 
points, and each that lies on the 
finish line or between it and the 
edge of the board is said to be " in," 
and scores two points. If no piece 
is in, the one nearest the line scores 
one. After a round has been played, 
the players go to the other end of 





f+1^ 




6 


1 


8 


7 


5 


3 


2 


9 


4 




UioJ 





Ocean Shuffle-Board. 

the board and play toward what was 
the starting line, and they thus 
change places after each round. Or 
the sides may play in opposite direc- 
tions, each keeping its own end of 
the board. The side wins that first 
scores 21 points. 

Shuffle-board is much played on 



SIEGE 



638 



SINGLE-LINE DRAWING 



the decks of ocean steamers, but 
differently from the way just de- 
scribed. A figure is chalked on 
the deck like that shown below. 
The weights used are of wood, and 
are pushed from a distance of nine 
or ten paces by a long staff with a 
curved end. The players take turns, 
but nothing is scored till the end of 
the round, when each is given the 
number of points marked in the 
square occupied by his piece. An 
enemy's weight may be knocked 
out of the figure altogether, or 
a friend's shoved in, by a blow 
from a succeeding player. If a 
weight remain in the semi-circular 
space nearest the players, ten is 
subtracted from its owner's score. 
The winner must make exactly 50 
points ; all in excess of that number 
are subtracted instead of added ; 
thus if a player's score be 46 and 
he make 8 more, 4 points are 
added to bring him up to 50, and the 
remaining 4 are subtracted, mak- 
ing the total still 46. In like man- 
ner 48 and 3 would make 49, and so 
on. 

History. Shuffle-Board was played 
long ago in England, and its origin 
was probably similar to that of 
Bowling, Quoits, and Curling. 



It was sometimes played on tables 
with pieces like checker-men. 

Shuffle-Board was forbidden by 
law in the reign of Henry VIII., as 
one of the games that turned the peo- 
ple from the practice of Archery. 

SIEGE. See Fox and Geese. 

SIMON SAYS, a game played by 
any number of persons, who sit in a 
circle, or around a table. The l^P^^ 
says, " Simon says thumbs up," hold- 
ing out his clenched fist with the 
thumb uppermost ; " Simon says 
thumbs down," reversing it ; or 
"Simon says wiggle-waggle," mov- 
ing his thumb back and forth. The 
rest of the players must imitate him 
whenever he uses the words " Simon 
says," but when he says simply 
"Thumbs up," "Thumbs down," or 
"Wiggle-waggle" no attention is 
paid to him and the position of the 
players' hands is not changed. If 
any one obeys the leader when he 
should not, or fails to obey when he 
should, he must pay a forfeit. The 
leader tries to give his orders in 
such rapid succession that some 
of the players will be confused and 
make a mistake. 

SINGLE-LINE DRAWING. Puz- 
zles are often given out in which it 
is required to draw a certain figure 




C D G 

Single-line Drawing. 





without taking the pen from the 
paper or retracing a line. This 
kind of drawing may be called 
single-line drawing. Given any fig- 
gure whatever, the following rule 
will tell whether it can be thus 
drawn, and if not, with how few 
lines it can be drawn. 

Count all the points in the figure 
where an uneven number of lines 
meet. There will always be an even 
number of such points, if there are 
any at all. Half this number will 



be the fewest number of lines with 
which the figure can be drawn. 
Thus, of the four figures shown, the 
first has no points where an uneven 
number of lines meet, the second 
has two, namely A and C (BC and 
CD counting as separate lines) the 
third has four, E, F, G, and H, and 
the fourth six. 

Therefore, when a figure is given 
to be drawn in a single line, the first 
thing to do is to see whether it be 
possible so to draw it. Then, if il 



H 






SIPHON 



639 



SIPHON 



be possible, begin at one of the 
points where an uneven number of 
lines meet, but if there are no such 
points, any point may be taken as 
the starting-point. When a crossing 
is reached, it is better always to 
adopt some one plan and to follow it 
on all similar occasions to avoid 
confusion. For instance, the line 
to the right of the one you are 
on may be taken, supposing that 
you are facing the direction of mo- 
tion of your pencil. Or, you may 
plan so as always to cross a line, 
never taking the adjoining one. 
But if there is no system and you 
sometimes take one way and some- 
times the other you will often find 
that you have left part of the figure 
undrawn. 

SIPHON, an instrument for draw- 
ing liquid out of a vessel over the 
side. It consists of a U-shaped 
tube, one of whose branches is long- 
er than the other. The tube is first 
filled with the liquid and then the 
shorter arm is dipped in the vessel, 
when the liquid will flow over the 
bend and out of the longer arm. A 
simple siphon may be made by bend- 
ing a glass tube (see Chemical 
Experiments) or of a piece of rub- 
ber tubing. Instead of first filling 
the siphon with the liquid, the short 
end may be placed in the vessel and 
the mouth applied to the long end. 
The liquid is brought over by suck- 
ing it, and when it has" started it 
will continue to flow. The action 
should not be started thus, of 
course,unless the liquid is harmless. 

EXPERIMENTS, 

I. Using a bent rubber tube for 
a siphon, raise and lower the outer 
end while the water is running. 
It will be found that the water 
will run faster the lower the end 
is, and will stop when the end is 
just on a level with the surface of 
the water. The reason is that the 
difference of weight of water in the 
two branches of the tube makes the 
water flow. The greater the differ- 



ence, therefore, the faster the water 
will run, and when there is no dif- 
ference at all, it will stop. The part 
of the small end that is underwater 
does not count as part of the tube. 

2. Plug the lower end of an ar- 
gand lamp-chimney with a cork or 
rubber stopper through which passes 
the long branch of a glass tube 
bent into the form of a siphon, the 
bend and short branch being inside 
the chimney. Let water flow into 
the chimney through a tube much 
smaller than that used for the 
siphon. As soon as the level of the 
water reaches the bend of the 
siphon it will fill the siphon and be 
at once discharged. Then the supply- 
tube will fill the vessel again, and so 
on, the discharges taking place at 
regular intervals. This arrange- 




Exp. 2. Tantalus's Cup. 

ment is often called "the cup of 
Tantalus," from the old Greek 
legend of Tantalus, who was said to 
be doomed to stand up to his chin 
in water, which receded every time 
he tried to drink it. The illustra- 
tion shows the form of the toy sold 
by makers of chemical apparatus. 
Cups are sometimes made contain- 
ing figures of Tantalus, in which a 
siphon is concealed. Water is allow- 
ed to run in till it reaches the mouth 
of the figure, when it suddenly runs 
out. It is supposed by some people 
that intermittent springs, which 
flow at regular intervals, are natural 
siphons of this kind. The arrange- 
ment is used practically to "flush " 
or wash out sewer-pipes at regular 
intervals. 



SIREN 



640 



SIREN 



Cloth Siphon. Cut a strip of cloth 
an inch or two wide and about a 
foot long. Let one end dip in a 
glass of water raised six or eight 
inches above the level of the table 
by means of books, and let the 



other hang down into an empty 
glass standing on the table. The 
cloth, acting as a siphon, will in 
a short time transfer the water from 
the upper to the lower glass. 

SIREN, an arrangement for show- 




Siren. 



ing that musical notes are made up 
of a regular succession of noises. A 
simple one can be made by having 
cut out a disk of sheet-iron about a 
foot in diameter, with holes large 
enough to admit a lead-pencil 
around the edge. A similar row 
containing half as many holes is 
made a little nearer the centre. The 
holes in each of these rows must 
be at equal distances apart. The 
disk has also a hole in the middle 



so that it can be fastened to a 
TwiRLER. A glass tube, drawn out 
at one end to a jet (see Chemical 
Experiments), is fixed to the end of 
a rubber tube. The other end of the 
tube is held in the mouth, while the 
jet is held pointing toward one of 
the holes in the disk. The twirler 
is now turned, and by blowing 
through the tube a succession of 
puffs is heard as the stream of air 
passes through the holes. Bv turn- 



SIXTY-SIX 



641 



SKAT 



ing faster this series of noises can 
be made to pass into a musical note, 
though in this rough form of siren 
it is mixed with a whistling or hiss- 
ing sound. The faster the disk 
twirls the higher the note is, and 
the smaller row of holes always 
gives a note an octave lower than 
the other. If the disk is large 
enough, the notes of the musical 
scale can be formed by making eight 
rows of holes containing successive- 
ly the following numbers, or num- 
bers proportional to them : 24, 
27. 30. 32, 36, 40, 45. .48. If a 
glass tube having a cork in one end 
be placed with its mouth toward the 
disk, as in the illustration, the 
sound will grow suddenly louder 
when the disk reaches such a rate 
of speed as to give the note to 
which the tube responds, and this 
may be varied by pushing the cork 
backward or forward in the tube. 

SIXTY-SIX. See Bezique. 

SKAT, a game of CARDS, played 
by three, four, or five persons, with a 
Euchre pack. Only the three at the 
dealer's left take active part in the 
game at a time. The dealer gives 
five cards to each active player, lays 
two cards face downward on the 
table to form what is called the 
"Skat," and then deals five more 
cards to each. The cards may also 
be dealt three, four, and three at a 
time, or two at a time, in which 
case the skat may be laid out be- 
tween any two of the rounds. 

The privilege of playing any one 
of several different games is now 
sold to the highest bidder, as follows: 

The eldest hand first decides on 
the game that he can play best, de- 
pending on the cards in his hand, 
and says, "I ask." (The names of 
the different games, and the values 
of the corresponding bids, are given 
below.) 

The player on his left then makes 
his bid, by mentioning the kind of 
game he can play best, and the eld- 
est hand, if its value is larger than 
his own estimated bid, says, " I pass." 



If his own bid is the larger, he says 
"Yes," and then the other may bid 
again or pass. This is repeated till 
one or the other passes. The third 
active player then bids against the 
one that did not pass, in like man- 
ner. When bidding is over, the 
highest bidder announces the name 
of his bid and playing begins. The 
object of the highest bidder is to 
make 61 points in the hand. If he 
does, he scores the amount of his 
bid ; if not, each of the others, in- 
cluding the silent players, if there 
are any, scores that amount. (An 
exception, in the case of the bid 
called " Null," is explained below.) 
In playing, suit must be followed, 
but if that is impossible any card 
may he played. In reckoning the 
necessary 61 points, the cards count 
as follows for the player taking the 
trick containing them : 

Ace, 1 1. 

Ten, 10. 

King, 4. 

Queen, 3. 

Knave, 2. 

The Nines, Eights, and Sevens 
have no counting value. 

In the lay suits the rank of the 
cards, beginning with the highest, 
is Ace, Ten, King, Queen, Nine, 
Eight, Seven. The four Knaves, 
which are always the highest trumps, 
are called " Matadores." and their 
rank, beginning with the highest, is 
Knave of Clubs, Knave of Spades, 
Knave of Hearts, Knave of Dia- 
monds. (The bid "Null" is an ex- 
ception to this also, as explained 
below.) All trumps count as Mata- 
dores in bidding. 

The Bids. In some of the bids 
the suit on which they are based 
must be mentioned, and the value 
depends on the trump and on the 
number of Matadores held, as will 
be explained. The bids are as fol- 
lows: 

I . Simple Game, or Simple. When 
the highest bidder has bid a simple, 
the suit named in his bid becomes 
trumps, unless he chooses to change 



SKAT 



642 



SKAT 



it to a higher suit. (The suits rank 
is the same order as the Matadores.) 
The successful bidder takes the Skat 
into his hand, and then discards two 
(including one or both of the Skat 
cards if he wishes). 

2. Tournd (toor-nay). The suc- 
cessful maker turns up as trump one 
of the Skat cards, and then, taking 
the Skat into his hand, discards as 
in simple. But if the turned-up 
card is a Matadore or a Seven he 
may change his bid as explained 
under Grand Tourni, and Null 
Tourne. 

3. Solo. The trump is the suit 
announced by the highest bidder in 
his bid, or he may change it to a 
higher suit. The Skat is not looked 
at till the close of the hand, when 
the value of its cards is added to 
the lone player's count. 

4. Grand Solo. This is like Solo, 
except that no suit is announced 
with the bid, and the only trumps 
are the four Matadores. 

5. Grand Ouvert. Like Grand 
Solo, but after the first trick is taken 
all play with their cards lying face 
upward on the table. 

6. Grand TournS. When the 
highest bidder has bid Tourne, and 
turns up a Matadore, he may change 
his bid to Grand, still taking up the 
Skat cards, but he may not change 
if he has looked at the other Skat 
card. 

7. Null Solo. The player making 
this bid undertakes to win no trick 
atall, otherwise he loses. No points 
are reckoned, the Knaves cease to 
be Matadores, and the cards rank 
as in whist. There is no trump, 
and the lone player plays without 
the Skat. 

8. Null Ouvert. The same as 
Null Solo, except that after the first 
trick the hand of the bidder is laid 
face upward on the table, while his 
opponents play as usual. 

9. Grand Null Ouvert, or Revolu- 
tion. The cards of all the players 
are turned face upward on the table 
before the first card is led. The 



opponents of the highest bidder can 
exchange what cards they please 
before playing begins, and can also 
consult during the game. The lone 
player takes the Skat into his hand- 
le. Null Tourni. When the bid 
der of Tourne turns a Seven he may 
change his bid to Null, before look- 
ing at the other Skat card. He 
takes the Skat into his hand as be- 
fore, but there is no trump. 

II. Null Tourni Ouvert. After 
taking up the second Skat card in 
Null Tourne he can again change 
his bid and play as in Null Ouvert. 
It will aid the learner to remem- 
ber these bids if he recollects : 

1. That in Tourne bids (French 
Tourne, turned) the Skat cards are 
taken into the hand, and that one 
of them is turned for trump (though 
in Grand Tourne and Null Tourne 
it does not count as such) ; 

2. That in Solo bids (Italian Solo, 
alone) the Skat is not looked at till 
after playing is ended ; 

3. That in Grand bids the four 
Matadores are the only trumps ; 

4. That in Ouvert bids (French 
Ouvert, open), one or more hands 
are exposed while playing; and, 

5. That in Null bids the rank of 
the cards and method of counting 
is changed. 

It will be noted that with some of 
these bids it is much easier for the 
bidder to make his 61 points than 
with others, and they are accord- 
ingly given different values, which 
the winner adds to his score as be- 
fore stated. The value of any bid 
is calculated by multiplying its unit- 
value (given below) by a number 
depending on the Matadores in 
hand and other things, as explained 
farther on. The unit-values are as 
follows : 

In Diamonds, Hearts, Spades, Clubs, 
Simple, I 234 

Tourne, 5 6 T ^ 

Solo, 9 10 II 12 

Grand Tourne, 12; Grand Solo, 16; 
Grand Ouvert, 24. Null Tourne 



SKAT 



643 



SKAT 



16; Null Solo, 24; Null Tourne 
Ouvert, 32 ; Null Solo Ouvert, 48. 
Revolution, 72. 

It will now be explained how the 
numbers are obtained by which the 
unit-values must be multiplied. 

Matadores. In announcing any 
bid except a Null bid, the bidder 
must say how many Matadores he 
has in unbroken order, beginning 
with the highest. In bidding, all 
trumps count as Matadores. If he 
has not the highest Matadore 
(Knave of Clubs) he can announce 
none. If he has the highest but not 
the next, he bids "with one Mata- 
dore," no matter how many lower 
ones he has. If he has the highest 
three, but not the fourth, he must 
bid " with three Matadores," and 
so on. In the bids where the Skat 
cards are not looked at till the play- 
ing is over, any Matadores in the 
Skat count in reckoning the value 
of the hand. Thus if a player bid 
"with three Matadores," having 
also the fifth, and the fourth is in 
the Skat, his bid is reckoned as if it 
had been "with five Matadores." 
Absence of Matadores counts the 
same as their presence, as without 
these cards the difficulty of winning 
is increased. Thus, if a player has 
not the highest, he can bid " with- 
out one Matadore;" if the highest 
three are wanting, "without three 
Matadores" and so on. In forming 
the multiplier of the unit-value, 
bids with or without i Matadore 
count I ; with or without 2 Mata- 
dores count 2 ; with or without 3 
Matadores count 3 ; and so on. 

Sck?ieider and Schwartz. If a 
player make 91 points in playing 
he makes his opponents Schneider 
(German Schneider, a tailor), and if 
he makes all the points (120) he 
makes them Schwartz (German 
Schwartz, black). In these cases he 
is also said to win Schneider or 
Schwartz. If he lose, and his op- 
ponents make 91 or 120 points, they 
win Schneider or Schwartz. 

A player may bid to make 



Schneider or Schwartz, in which 
case he loses altogether if he does 
not do so. The value of these points 
differs according as they are made 
when bid or not bid. They count 
toward forming the multiplier as 
follows : 

Schneider made, not bid, i. 

Schneider bid and won, 2. 

Schwartz made, not bid, 3. 

Schwartz bid and won, 4. 

(The loss of a player when he bids 
and loses Schneider or Schwartz is 
told below). 

The value of a bid is found by tak- 
ing its unit-value, and multiplying 
by the sum of the points for Mata- 
dores and Schneider or Schwartz, 
plus one. Thus, to find the value of 
a Spade-Tourne bid, without four 
Matadores, in playing which a 
Schneider is won: 

The Unit value is 7. 

Four Matadores count 4. 

Schneider won, not bid, counts I. 

We must therefore multiply 7 by 
4-1- 1 -fi, or 6, and obtain 42 as the 
value of the bid. This seems diffi- 
cult at first, but with a little prac- 
tice the value of any bid can be told 
very quickly. 

If a player bid to make Schneider 
and fails to make his 91 points, his 
opponents score what he would 
have scored had he won. If he 
fails to make even 31 points, mak- 
ing himself Schneider, they score 
in addition what his bid would have 
been worth without his announced 
Schneider. 

In the case given above, if the 
player had bid to make Schneider 
and won, he would have made 49. 
If he had lost, his opponents would 
score 49. If he was made Schneider 
in addition, they would score 49-!- 
35, or 84. 

The game of Skat differs accord- 
ing to the bid that is made, and to 
give an example of each would take 
too much space. The following 
hints may aid the beginner: 

The highest bid on which 61 
points are likely to be won should 



SKAT 



644 



SKAT 



be made. Making 61 points de- 
pends not so much on the counting- 
cards in hand as on those that are 
likely to be captured. 

In those bids where the trump is 
turned, not made, the player should 
have high Matadores and other 
high cards to begin with. 

Solo bids require stronger cards 
than bids where the Skat is taken 
into the hand. 

Null should not be bid unless the 
player has three Sevens, and no 
commanding card in his hand. 

Grand should usually not be bid 
without four Matadores, unless the 
other cards are very high. 

In playing, the highest bidder 
should remember that all cards not 
in his own hand are against him 
(except when the Skat is not taken 
up). On the contrary, each of the 
opponents is in doubt as to whether 
his friend or his enemy holds any 
card that is not in his own hand. 
The opponents of the bidder can 
assist each other in many ways. It 
is better for the one at the left to 
get the lead, for then the other will 
play last, and can put on a counting- 
card or not, according as his part- 
ner or the lone player has taken the 
trick. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. Before the game begins, each 
player draws a card from the pack. 
He who draws the lowest is dealer, 
and the others sit at his left in 
order, beginning with the holder of 
the next to the lowest, and ending 
with the holder of the highest card. 
If two players draw cards of the 
same value they must draw again. 

2. The deal passes in order to the 
left, but if more than three play, 
the dealer is never an active player, 
cards being dealt only to the three 
in order at the dealer's left hand. 

3. Each player must count his 
cards before he raises them, to 
make sure he has the right number. 

4. If a misdeal is discovered be- 
fore a card is led, there must be a 



fresh deal by the same dealer; but 
if play begins while a player has the 
wrong number of cards, his side 
forfeits the game. 

5. If players on both sides begin 
to play with the wrong number of 
cards, that hand does not count, 
and the deal passes to the next. 

6. If a player deal out of turn and 
play has begun, the deal is good, 
and the next deal passes to the 
player on his left. 

7. In case of two bids of equal 
value, the elder hand has prefer- 
ence. 

8. The successful bidder may 
change his bid to a higher, but not 
to a lower one. 

9. If a player revoke, his side 
loses the hand, unless the revoke 
is corrected before the next lead. 

10. If a card be led, or played, 
out of turn, it must be withdrawn, 
unless all have played. 

11. A card so withdrawn, or ex- 
posed in any other way, must be 
played afterward at the command 
of an opponent, unless such play 
would be a revoke. 

12. Only the last trick may be 
looked at. 

13. If either or both of the Skat 
cards are lifted by one who is not 
entitled to do so, his side loses the 
game. 

14. If the bidder, after the first 
trick has been played, and before 
the next lead, sees that he is sure 
to be beaten, he may throw down 
his cards and give his opponents 
their points, thus securing himself 
against being made Schneider or 
Schwartz. 

History. Skat is a German game. 
It is said to have originated in 
Altenburg in the present century, 
and is probably a mixture of Hom- 
bre. Solo, and other games. It is 
very popular in Germany, where 
many different kinds of Skat are 
played. The kind described here, 
which is played in America, is 
called in Germdiny Jiezchskat (Regu- 
lation Skat). 



SKATING 



645 



SKATING 



SKATINC. Skates are ground 
either perfectly flat on the bottom, 
or with a slight groove, so that the 
sharp edge holds the ice. The bot- 
tom may be straight, or slightly 
curved like a rocker. They were 
formerly always secured to the foot 
by straps, but now usually by 
clamps, fastening with a screw or 
lever. 




Strap Skates. 
In the strap skate, if a strap breaks 
it can be replaced in an instant or 
mended at any harness-maker's, 




Clamp Skates. 
whereas a broken clamp skate can 
usually be mended or replaced only \ 
with great trouble, unless the wearer 
lives in a city, and even then he j 
must wait some time. But, on the 
other hand, the strap skate can be 
buckled securely to the foot only bv 
pulling the straps so tight that they 



interfere with the circulation of the 
blood, making the feet cold and un- 
comfortable. It also takes much 
time to put it on properly. Any 
clamp skate can be put on in a few 
seconds, but all are apt to come ofi 
under great strain unless the clamps 
have been properly adjusted. Those 
in which the clamps are fitted with 
spikes sometimes tear ofT part of 
the sole of the shoe. Screw skates 
are simple, and can be tightened 
easily ; but the screw is apt to loosen, 
and in those where the strain comes 
directly upon it, it often breaks. 
Taking all things into considera- 
tion, a lever skate is best if it is 
properly used, but skaters with weak 
ankles should use a heel-strap in 
addition. Shoes with thick soles 
must be worn, that the pressure of 
the clamps may not bend them, and 
the clamps should be properly ad- 
justed to the shoes once for all, so 
that the skates may be fastened by 
simply moving the lever, without a 
series of trials to see when the 
clamps fit properly. 

The beginner's chief difficulty 
usually is to keep the ankles stiff. 
When this has been overconie, he 
may try walking on the ice on his 
skates. He will see that it is nec- 
essary to turn the foot that remains 
on the ice a little to one side to 
prevent its slipping back while he is 
advancing the other, and also that 
the less he lifts the forward foot the 
better, it being easier to slide it 
along the ice, while the rearward 
foot pushes. At the end of the 
slide, or stroke, the rear foot is 
brought forward ready to make a 
stroke in its turn. The skate-marks 
will be soi7jething as in Fig. i. (In 
the diagr.'ims, the full lines show 
the track df the left foot, the doited 
ones tha': of the right. The foot- 
print shows always the position of 
the skate at the beginning of the 
stroke.) At the end of each stroke, 
the foot which is about to leave the 
ice gives a sidewise push to give 
impetus to the other. The body 



SKATING 



646 



SKATING 



must be inclined so as to tlirow its 
weight on the advancing foot. The 
rear foot may now be held in the 
air till the forward one has finished 
its stroke, and the stroke may be 
lengthened by giving a more vigor- 
ous push, as in Fig. 2. Plain skat- 
ing of this kind may be varied in 
several ways. Thus it may be 
changed to a motion resembling 
running, the strokes being nearly 
straight ahead and the push given 
by turning the toe slightly. This is 




Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 

an awkward motion, but much used 
in playing running games, where 
quick dodging is necessary. The 
pushing foot, instead of being lifted 
from the ice, may remain on it, the 
push being given gradually so that 
the skate-marks are like Fig. 3. 

A push is given by the left foot at 
2, and by the right foot at i, but 
after the stroke has been learned 
this push is scarcely perceptible even 
to the skater. The body is inclined 
in the direction of the stroke, as in 
ordinary skating. 

From this point the skater should 
practise with a view to using the 
outside edge. If in making the 
stroke the opposite shoulder should 
be thrown a little forward, and the 
body inclined toward the advancing 
side, the skate will rest on its outside 



edge and the skate-mark will be 
more of a curve, as in Fig. 4 or Fig. 
5. To avoid changing to the inside 
edge of the skate, in giving the 
push for the next stroke, the rear 




Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 

foot may be crossed over the ad- 
vancing one in beginning the stroke, 




Fig. 6. 



Fig. 7. 



after being swung slowly around to 
aid the advancing foot in making 




Fig. 8. Fig.9. 

the curve. Skilful skaters can 
easily make a complete circle on 



SKATING 



647 



SKATING 



the outer edge of one skate, and 
another on the other in an opposite 
direction, as in Figs. 6 and 7, thus 
moving over and over on a figure 8. 
Inside Edge. Figs. 8 to 11 show 
the same strokes made on the inside 
edge of the skate, which is some- 
what more difficult. 




Fig. 10, Fig. II. 

Combinations. By using the out- 
side edge always with one foot and 
the inside with the other, a circle is 
described on the ice in the direction 
of the foot that skates on the out- 




Fig. 12. Fig. 13. 

side edge. Each foot must be 
crossed over the other at the begin- 
ning of its stroke, but the foot on 
the outside of the circle must be 
crossed farther than the other. Figs. 
12 to 15 show other combinations of 
inside and outside edge. 

To skate backward, the learner 
must reverse the directions given 
above for skating forward, begin- 
ning by trying to walk backward 
slowly on his skates. By combining 



the inside and outside edges, for- 
ward and backward, a great variety 




V 

Fig. 16. Fig. 17. 

of fancy steps can be executed, of 
which hints for several are given in 




Fig. 18. 
the diagrams. 



Fig. 19. 
Figs. 16 to 22 show 



backward motions alone. Figs. 23 



SKATING 



648 



SKATING 



to 26, combinations of forward and 
backward. The simpler ones may 
be understood without explanation- 
In Fig. 13 the feet follow nearly the 
same path, the left leading. In Fig. 
25 the feet both move forward at 




Fig. 20. 





Fig. 22. 



first, the left on the 
outer edge from i 
to 2, and the right 
on the inner from 
4 to 5, then both 
change to the 
backward stroke, 



the left taking the inner and the 




Fig. 25. 

right the outer edge. In Fig. 26 
there is a change from forward to 
backward, or the reverse, at each 



angle in the curve. Fig. 27 shows 
attitudes in skating. 




Fig. 26. 

Stopping. When the skate run- 
ners are not curved up behind, the 
easiest way to stop is to rise on one 
or both heels, thus digging them 
into the ice. When the skates are 
curved behind, one skate may be 
held at right angles to the forward 
direction and tipped slightly, so that 
its edge will scrape. Another way 
is to place both feet in nearly a 
straight line, the heels toward each 
other, so that the skater describes 
a circle, till his motion is spent, or 
the feet may be held firmly at a 
slight angle with the toes pointing 
a little inward. 

Safety. A skater may glide over 
unsafe ice by motion previously 
gained where it would be dangerous 
to make a stroke. Ice will also sup- 
port one lying flat on it when it 
would break if he stood upright, be- 
cause when he is lying down his 
weight is distributed, instead of 
pressing all on one spot. The 
strongest ice is that generally 
known as "black" ice, being per- 
fectly clear and free from air bub- 
bles. It is not really black, but 
perfectly transparent, and the skater 
over it can sometimes see objects 
at the bottom of the stream dis- 
tinctly at a depth of fifteen or twen- 
ty feet. It appears black because 
it does not reflect the light of the 
sky, as bubbly or snow-ice does. 
Black ice half an inch thick, which 



SKATING 



649 



SKATING 



rests directly on the water, will bear 
a skater. It is very tough, and 
bends greatly before it breaks, little 
cracks running through it in all di- 
rections. Ice filled with bubbles is 





Fig. 27. 

not so tough, and ice which has 
snow mixed with it is weakest of all. 
Snow-ice two inches thick is no 
safer than black ice half an inch 
thick. It bends very little and 
cracks suddenly. In general, it is 
best not to venture on ordinary ice 
till it is three or four inches thick, 
and to examine carefully in a thaw. 
When the water in a pond or river 
falls after the ice has formed, the 
ice falls with it in the middle, but 
is held up by the shore on the edges. 
Near the shore, therefore, it is not 
supported by the water, and is more 
apt to break. It often parts from 
the shore by its own weight, or 
long cracks run along the banks 
with a loud noise, called " boom- 
ing." Ice on any water is safe in 
some places and unsafe in others. 
Springs or currents of slightly 
warmer water may prevent the 
water from freezing, making "air- 
holes," or even large open spaces. 
The channel of a river, or the parts 
of a lake near the inlet or outlet, 
usually freeze last, because the wa- 
ter there is in motion ; and when 
they freeze, they usually become 
covered with black ice, so that it is 
difficult to tell at a distance whether 
they are open or not. No skater 
should venture on such a place till 




he knows it to be safe. On lakes 
surrounded by hills, gusts of wind 
often blow continually in certain 
places, keeping the water in mo- 
tion, so that it does not freeze, and 
there are there- 
fore large open 
spaces. When a 
skater is in 
doubt as to 
whether ice will 
bear or not, the 
best way is to 
test it by throw- 
ing a heavy 
stone on it. 
Should the skat- 
er find that he 
is on a weak 
spot, he should 
not stop, but turn in a sweeping 
curve and get off as quickly as 
he can, without straining the ice 
by taking a stroke, if he is going 
fast enough. If necessary, he 
may lie down and roll to a place 
of safety. If he go through the ice 
and the water be over his head, 
there is nothing to do but to seize 
the edge of the hole and cry for 
help. As he goes in he should 
stretch out his arms on either side 
as far as possible. If he has slipped 
into an air-hole, the surrounding ice 
may be strong enough to let him 
climb out unaided. His compan- 
ions should get a board or fence- 
rail and shove it out to him. If 
none is at hand, one skater should 
lie flat on the safe ice and one lying 
behind should push him, holding 
his feet, as near the hole as possible; 
another may, if necessary, lie be- 
hind the second, and so on until 
the line reaches safe ice. So long 
as each holds tightly, no one can be 
carried under the ice even if it break 
again. 

Unless the weather is very cold 
the skater should not wear his over- 
coat. He may wear a knit woollen 
jacket under his coat. Skaters often 
build fires on the ice, which, es- 
pecially at night, adds much to the 



SKATING 



650 



SKATING 



sport. A fire may be built on mod- 
erately thick ice without danger; for 
the layer of ashes that forms beneath 
it is a non-conductor of heat, and 
prevents the ice from melting. 

Skating Contests. These are of 
two kinds — races and contests of 
skill in fancy skating. The former 
are usually governed by the same 
laws as running races (see Athlet- 
ics), and the latter are regulated by 
the rules given below, or similar 
ones. The programme of events is 
made out beforehand, and includes a 
number of well-known movements, 
ending with an exhibition of " spe- 
cialties," in which each skater per- 
forms such other figures as he 
wishes. When a skater begins to 
execute his figure he is said to " take 
the surface." The judges decide at 
the opening of the contest on a scale 
of marking, which may range from 
o for the poorest up to 10 for the 
best. 

RULES OF SKA TING CONTESTS. 

1. The judges shall, at the com- 
pletion of each movement in a con- 
test, mark on a slip of paper the 
number of points for each contest- 
ant, and deposit the slip in a closed 
box; these slips shall not be referred 
to till the close of the contest, when 
the judges shall foot up all the slips, 
and the number of points gained by 
each contestant shall constitute 
their award, which shall be final. 
In case of a tie the contest shall be 
decided by a general display of com- 
bined movements at the option of 
the contestants. 

2. The order of taking the sur- 
face by each contestant shall be de- 
cided by lot, and the number of 
figures to be executed shall be de- 
termined as nearly as possible by 
the number of contestants. 

3. No point shall be given for a 
movement under the head of spe- 
cialties, if the skater who executed 
it has executed the same movement 
during the programme ; but if the 
skater, under a particular figure ex- 



ecutes a movement which the judges 
rule to belong to another figure, or 
to specialties, the skater shall have 
the right to execute that figure in 
its proper pl.ace. 

4. In specialties, the leading con- 
testant shall execute one specialty, 
which his opponent shall then exe- 
cute if he can ; the second contest- 
ant shall then execute another, to 
be copied by his opponent, if he can, 
and so on, leading alternately till 
the contestant whose turn it may 
be to lead shall not be able to exe- 
cute any more, when he shall sit 
down, and the judges shall score on 
the merits up to that point. 

5. When the contestant falls in 
executing any movement he shall 
forfeit one point; if, however, the 
judges unanimously consider the 
fall to have been occasioned by un- 
avoidable accident (such as an ob- 
struction in the surface, or the 
breaking of a skate), they may allow 
him to recommence the figure with- 
out forfeit. In specialties, a fall 
only counts against the skater in the 
particular specialty in which it oc- 
curs. When any part of the person 
except the feet or hands touches the 
surface, the skater is considered to 
have fallen. 

Skier or Snow-skates. These hold 
a middle place between ice-skates 
and SNOW-SHOES. They are much 
used by the Norwegians, who are 
very skilful with them. Formerly 
regiments of soldiers in Norway 
were equipped with skier, on which 
they performed many remarkable 
evolutions; but the last body of this 
kind was disbanded in i860. The 
ski is a strip of wood 5 feet long, 
2^ to 3^^ inches wide, and i to \\ 
inches thick, tapering toward the 
ends, and having the toe turned 
up to the height of about 4 inches. 
The movement of the snow-skater 
is a sort of shuffle, and the skilful 
wearer can go on these skates very 
swiftly along a level surface of hard- 
ened snow, or even up a steep in- 
cline, by zig-zagging. Down-hil] 



SKATING 



65 1 



SKATING 



motion requires no effort, the skater 
simply coasting, as on a sled. 

Roller-skating. In 1819 skates 
having three rollers of copper in 
place of the runner were used in 
Paris, but they were not popular. 
On April 16, 1849, they were used 
in the same city in the skaters' 
ballet in Meyerbeer's opera of " The 
Prophet." But the first successful 
roller-skate was invented in 1869 
by James L. Plimpton, of New 
York. It rests on four wooden 
wheels, two at the toe and two at 
the heel, so hinged that they remain 
fiat on the surface even when the 



foot is inclined to one side. The 
principle is shown in the illustra- 
tion, in which AB represents the 
foot-piece, RR two of the rollers, e 
an inclined pivot on which the 
roller-axle turns, and which is fast- 
ened to the foot-piece at a. If the 
body inclines, turning over in the 
direction of the lower arrow, the 
foot-piece tips up as shown at vx, 
and the wheels are thrown around 
so that the skater moves off in the 
direction of the arrow z. The 
curve described by the skater is 
thus toward that side on which he 
inclines his body, just as in skating 




*-!> 



Principle of the Roller-skate. 



on ice. Roller-skating began to 
be popular in the United States 
about 1875, and from 1884 to 1886 it 
amounted to what is often called a 
"craze." Every town had its rink, 
and there were few persons who 
did not at least try the sport ; but 
since that time it has declined in 
favor. Many games were played 
on skates in the rinks, especially 
POLO. The principal difference be- 
tween ice-skating and roller-skat- 
ing is that the later requires more 
exertion, since the friction is great- 
er ; but the motion is not quite the 
same, and a good ice-skater is often 
unable to use roller-skates the first 
time he tries them on. 

History. Skating probably origi- 
nated in the north of Europe, where 
skates have long been used to travel 
from place to place on the ice ; but 
skating as a sport has been devel- 
oped in temperate countries where 
there is less snow, such as England, 



States. In Holland, where there 
are many canals, skates are widely 
used. 

The earliest skates were of bone 
fastened to the feet with cords. 
Such skates were used in London 
in the reign of Henry II., but the 
sport first became common in Eng- 
land in 1662, after the restoration 
of the Stuarts. It was not until 
1830 that the first club devoted to 
figure-skating was formed in Eng- 
land, but since that time the art has 
been greatly developed, and hun- 
dreds of new figures invented, some 
of which require the co-operation 
of as many as eight skaters. Ameri- 
can skaters also are very skilful in 
figure-skating, and they hold the 
best records for fast skating. The 
fastest times for various distances 
are given in the appendix. 

In 1886 the National Skating As- 
sociation was organized, and it has 
since held annual contests for the 



Germany, Holland, and the United championship in or near New York 



SKATING 



652 



SKATING 



City. The events in these contests 
are races for one hundred yards, 
one furlong, quarter mile, half mile, 
one mile, five miles, ten miles, and 
twenty-five miles, and a trial of 
skill in figure-skating. 

Skate-sailing. On a windy day it 
is possible to move very rapidly, let- 




Skate-sailing. — Fig. i. 
ting the wind blow the skater along, 



on both sides, or carry an open um- 
brella; but to get back, it is nec- 
essary to skate against the wind. 
If the skater carries a frame fitted 
with a sail, so that he may turn 
it at an angle with his course, he 
may with practice "tack" back like 
a sail-boat (see Sailing). 




Skate-sailing. — Fig. 2. 
There are several forms of skate- 



especially if he hold out his overcoat 1 sails. The oldest is stretched on an 




Skate-sailing.— Fig. 3. 



oblong frame about three feet high 
by six feet long, and carried by a 
spar running horizontally along the 
middle. The " Cape Vincent" rig 
(Fig. i) is triangular, the longest 
side being from eight to fifteen feet 



long. The " Norton rig (Figs. 2, 3) 
invented by Col. Charles L. Norton 
(late president of the Canoe Club), 
of New York, consists of two sails, 
each about three feet three inches 
square, fastened together corner- 



SKATING 



653 



SKATING 



wise, about a foot apart, by a spar 
made of two strips of wood, as seen in 
the illustration. The skater stands 
between the sails (Fig. 3), thus 
having nothing to obstruct his view. 
The sails are kept stretched by being 
buttoned to the ends of the spar and 
yards, and are connected by a short 
rope. Any of these rigs may be 
made of light wood and stout cot- 
ton cloth. The rig is held firmly in 
the hands or under the arms, and 
any one who understands sailing 
a boat will be able to move in any 
direction by its aid, if there is plenty 
of wind. 

The English Rig is a small lateen 
sail (see Sailing) fastened to a mast 
which rests in straps bound around 
one of the skater's legs. He holds 
the rig by passing one arm around 
the mast, and grasping the upper 
spar with the other (Fig. 4). It has 




Skate-sailing. — Fig. 4. 

the disadvantage of being fastened 
to the sailor, so that he cannot eas- 
ily get loose in case of accident. 

Skate-sails have long been in use 
in Norway, Denmark, and other 
northern countries (Fig. 5 shows 
one of the rigs used there), but they 
have only recently been introduced 
into this country. The sport has be- 
come popular in some towns. 

The following rules are suggested 
by Colonel Norton for the govern- 
ance of skate-sailing regattas. The 



nautical terms are explained in the 
article on Sailing. 




Skate-sailing. — Fig. 5. 
RULES OF SKATE-SAILING. 

1. Those on the port tack must 
give way to those on the starboard 
tack. 

2. When moving side by side, or 
nearly so, on the same tack, those 
to windward must give way to those 
to leeward when requested to do 
so, if there is an obstacle in the 
course of the leeward most. But 
the leeward skate-sailor must go 
about or change his course at the 
same time as the windward skate- 
sailor, or as soon as he can without 
coming into collision. The new 
direction must be kept at least un- 
til the obstacle has been cleared. 

3. When side by side, as in Rule 
2, and approaching a windward ob- 
stacle, the leewardmost must give 
way when requested to do so. But 
the windwardmost must change his 
course at the same time as the lee- 
wardmost, or as soon as he can do 
so without coming into collision, 
and the new direction must be kept, 
at least until the obstacle has been 
cleared. 

4. When running free, it rests 
with the rearmost ones to avoid col- 
lision. 

5. Those running free must al- 
ways give way to those on either 
tack. 

6. Violators of any of the forego- 
ing rules in the course of a race 
shall forfeit all claim to victory. 

7. A touch, whether of person or 
of rig, constitutes a collision, either 
with another skate-sailor or with a 
mark or buoy, and he who is re- 
sponsible for it, under the rules, 
forfeits all claim to the victory. 



SKIPPING ROPE 



654 



SLINGING 



8. No means of locomotion other 
than that afforded by the wind are 
permissible during a race. 

SKIPPING ROPE. See Jumping 
Rope. 

SKIPPING STONES. See Duck 
AND Drake. 

SLAP-JACK, a game played by 
not more than ten persons, with a 
full pack of cards. The cards are 
dealt and placed as in everlast- 
ing, but each player plays only one 
card at a time. When a Knave or 
"Jack" is thrown on the table, all 
the players try to slap it, and the one 
who does so first takes all the 
cards in the middle of the table and 
adds them to his pile. The object 
is to obtain all the cards, and he 
who does so is the winner. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. Each -player must turn his 
cards face outward so that the 
other players will see them first. 

2. No one, except the player, 
shall touch the table, or raise his 
hands above it till before seeing the 
face of the card that is being turned, 
and the player may do so only so 
much as may be necessary in turn- 
ing and playing his card. 

3. If one or more players slap a 
card that is not a Jack, the one that 
slaps first shall receive a card from 
each of the other players from 
the bottom of their piles. 

SLINGING, the art of sending mis- 
siles with the sling. The simplest 
sling consists of an oblong piece 
of leather with a slit in the middle 




Sling. 



and a string fastened to each end. 
The end of one of the strings is 
looped. The slinger places on the 
leather a pebble which the slit holds 
in position, and holds the ends of 
the strings in his hand : one tightly, 



aided by the loop, through which 
he passes his middle finger, and the 
other loosely. After whirling the 
sling around his head, he releases 
the loose string, and the stone flies 
off. Slings are made also entirely of 
leather. Practice is required to 
send the stone accurately, for unless 
the loose string is let go exactly at 
the right time it will fly off in the 
wrong direction. The best missiles 
to use are perfectly smooth and 
round clay marbles. 

A kind of sling can be made by 
slitting a stick at the end so that it 
will hold a pebble securely, but not 
too firmly. The stick is held by the 
other end, and with it the pebble 
can be thrown to a great distance. 
Apples are sometimes thrown in 
this way, but they are usually stuck 
on the end of the stick, which is 
sharpened instead of being cleft. 
The reason why missiles can be 
thrown swifter and farther with the 
aid of a sling than with the hand is 
that the sling or stick adds, as it 
were, to the length of the arm. 
The longer the sling or stick, the 
swifter the pebble, provided it is 
not too long for the strength of the 
slinger's arm. 

Throw Stick, a sort of sling for 
throwing a lance or long arrow. 
It is cut from a flat piece of wood, 



5lDEVIEVr. 



Throw-Stick. 

and has a projecting tooth at one 
end, as shown in the illustration. 
The thrower takes the throw-stick 
by the end opposite the tooth, and 
placing the butt of the lance against 
the tooth, supports it with the 
thumb and first finger of the hand 
which holds the stick. Releasing 
it, he propels it at the same time 
by a slinging motion of the throw- 



SLINGING 



65: 



SLINGING 



stick, which can be learned only by 
practice. With one of these sticks, 
a skilled thrower can send a javelin 
much farther than with the hand 
alone. They are the invention of 
the natives of Australia, who use 
them in war and the chase. 

Catapult, a kind of sling in which 
the missile is shot by force of a 
stretched elastic cord. Catapults 
may be bought at toy-stores, or 
made by selecting a forked stick in 
the shape of the letter Y, the prongs 
being about two inches apart, and 
fastening to each one end of a stout 
India-rubber band. The stem of the 
Y is held in the left hand, and a small 
pebble or shot being placed in the 
middle of the band, it is drawn out 




Catapult. 

as far as possible and then let go. 
The band, snapping back, sends the 
missile with great force. The size 
of the rubber band used depends on 
the strength of the shooter and the 
size of the missile. The weapon is 
improved by fastening a concave 
piece of leather in the middle of the 
band, to hold the missile. In this 
way a volley of bird-shot may be 
sent at once. Catapults may be 
used by skilled shooters with almost 
as much effect as fire-arms, and they 
are nearly as dangerous, not to the 
shooter, but to other people. Their 
use is usually forbidden by law in 
the streets of large towns and cities, 
but in the country they may be 



made the source of much amuse- 
ment. 

Bolas, a kind of sling. One to 
catch birds may be made as follows : 
Six marbles, round stones, or leaden 
bullets are wrapped tightly in cloth, 
forming a sort of 
bag around each, 
and to each is fas- 
tened a piece of 
string about two 
and a half feet 
long. The other 
ends of the strings 
are tied together. 
The bolas is held 
by the tied end, 
whirled around 
the head, and 
thrown into the 
air, when the 
heavy ends will 
fly apart, so that 
the whole spreads 
over a space 
about five feet in 
d iamet er. A 
bolas thrown into 
a flock of birds 
generally brings 
Bird Bolas. Q^g down, either 

by stunning or by entangling it. 

History. The use of slings is prob- 
ably older than that of bows and 
arrows. In the Bible, it is related 





Saxon Slinger. 

that in the time of the Judges there 
were 700 men of the tribe of Ben- 
jamin who were so expert with the 
sling that they "could sling stones 



SLING THE MONKEY 



656 



SMALL TUBES 



at a hair-breadth and not miss," us- 
ing their left hands. The sling was 
early known in Europe, and the 
Romans, who used it as a military 
weapon, probably introduced it into 
Britain. The picture represents the 
manner of using it among the Sax- 
ons in the 8th century. Slings 
used with very large stones were 
sometimes attached to a staff three 
or four feet long, and whirled with 
both hands. As late as the 15th 
century an English poet, writing 
on " Knyghthode and Batayle " 
(Knighthood and Battle), advises 
every warrior to learn the use of the 
sling, because it could be easily 
carried and stones could be picked 




Ancient Slingers. 

Up anywhere. The last illustration 
shows ancient slingers in a tower. 

SLING THE MONKEY, a game 
played by any number of persons, 
one of whom takes the part of the 
Monkey. He is fastened to a 
branch of a tree by a rope, tied 
around his waist, of such a length 
that his feet can just reach the 
ground. All the players, including 
the monkey, are armed with knotted 
handkerchiefs. The monkey is 
" basted," or struck, by the others, 
and tries to baste them in his turn. 
If he succeeds in striking any one, 
that one must take his place. 

The monkey should swing him- 
self about by the rope from one side 
to the other, and, that he may have 
free play, the branch from which he 
is suspended must be at consider- 
able height. Sling the monkey is a 
favorite game on shipboard. 

Fox, a game resembling that just 
described, except that the monkey 



is called the Fox, and can neither 
strike nor be struck while he is in his 
" den," represented by a circle 
marked on the ground. Even when 
he is out of his den he can strike 
only when he is standing on one leg, 
and if he put the other to the 
ground he must retire to his den 
before trying to strike again. 

Baste the Bear, a kind of Fox, 
m which the player attacked, called 
the Bear, has no handkerchief, but 
is defended by another player, who 
takes the part of his keeper. The 
Bear must remain on his hands and 
knees and must keep some part of 
his body inside the den. The 
keeper holds one end of a rope, 
about four feet long, which is tied 
to the Bear's leg, and must not let 
go of it. The Bear may aid the 
keeper in any way, so long as he 
keeps on all-fours and does not go 
entirely outside of the den. Any 
player struck by the keeper's hand- 
kerchief must take the Bear's place. 
Each Bear is allowed to choose his 
own keeper. 

SMALL TUBES, Experiments with. 
I. Take a number of small glass 
tubes, varying in size from a ther- 
mometer tube to one quarter of an 
inch thick. Thrust the ends into 
water (Fig. i), and the water will 
rise in each, but higher in the 
smaller tubes. The water also rises 







Fig. I. 

higher at the side of the tubes than 
in the middle. 

2. Put the tubes into mercury 
(see Fig. 2). The mercury will be 
lower inside the tubes than outside. 
It will sink lowest in the smallest 
tubes, and will be lower at the sides 
of the tubes than in the middle. 



SMOKE RINGS 



657 



SMOKE RINGS 




Fig- 3. 



3. Hold two pieces of glass to- 
gether like a wedge, and dip them 
sidewise into water and then into 
mercury. The water will rise higher 
____,,.— —-r\ where the plates 
-^ ' y/^ are close together, 

rNj and the mercury 
will fall lower 
there. In each 
case the surface 
of the liquid will 
form a curve. 
Fig. 3 shows how 
two pieces of glass 
may thus be held 
together by a rubber band, being 
kept apart at the wide-open side 
by two bits of wood. The curve 
made by the water surface within 
the wedge is also shown. 

SMOKE RINGS, Experiments 
with. I. Cut in the bottom of a 
pasteboard box a foot square a 
round hole about as large as a silver 
dollar. Over the open top of the 
box pin a handkerchief tightly. Fill 
the box with smoke by burning 
touch-paper in the hole (see Air 
Currents), or in any other way. 
Then by tapping on the handker- 
chief, as the box stands on its side, 
smoke rings will issues from the 
hole, like those which smokers 
sometimes blow from theirmouths. 
The experiments described below 
may be performed with a box like 
this, but it is better to make a larger 
one as described in the next experi- 
ment. 

2. Take a dry-goods box about two 
feet square, and saw a hole about 
three inches in diameter in the bot- 
tom (see Fig. i). Tack tightly over 



n^J 



Fig. I. Box for Smoke Rings. 

the top a piece of heavy muslin, and 
stand the box on its side. To keep 
it full of smoke, place strong am- 



monia in one flask or bottle and 
hydrochloric acid in another, and 
support them so that they can be 
heated beneath with alcohol lamps. 
Fit the corks with short tubes of 
bent glass or rubber whose ends 
pass through small holes into the 
box. By heating the flasks the 
fumes of the ammonia and the 
acid are thus led into the box where 
they mix, making a dense white 
smoke. It will not be necessary to 
heat the flasks all the time, but only 
at intervals when the smoke gets 




Fig. 2. 

thin. By tapping on the muslin 
large and beautiful smoke rings are 
driven out of the hole in the box. 

3. Tap lightly on the box ; the ring 
will move slowly. Give a hard tap ; 
it will go swiftly, thus the speed of 
the rings can be regulated at will. 

4. Hold the hand or the face in 
front of one of the rings. Even if 
it be moving slowly a puff of air will 
be felt. The reason is that the 
particles of air in the ring are mov- 
ing around and around, those on 
the outside backward and those on 
the inside forward. These latter 
make the puff of air, for though the 
whole ring may be moving forward 
slowly, its particles may be revolv- 
ing quite fast. See Fig. 2, where 
the small arrows show the motion 
of the smoke in the ring, and the 
large one that of the ring as a 
whole. 

5. Send a ring across the room 
against a lamp or candle. It will 
be put out. 

6. Try experiments 4 and 5 with- 
out any smoke in the box. The 
result is the same. This is so be- 
cause the rings are made of air. 

1 The only use of the smoke is to 



SMOKE RINGS 



658 



SMOKE RINGS 



make them visible. Wliere it is 
desired to blow out a candle with 
an invisible ring it is best to try first 
with a visible one, and then keep 
the box and the candle in the same 
positions so that the ring will be 
sure to strike the candle. 

7. Send two rings from the box, 
one close after the other. If they 
a-re close enough the one in the 
rear will contract and go through 
the front one, which then, being 
itself in the rear, will do the same 
thing in turn. This will be re- 
peated till the rings are broken up 
by rubbing against each other. In 
practice it is hard to make them 
do it more than once each. 

8. This requires two smoke boxes. 
Send rings from both so that they 
will strike at various angles. They 
will bound from one another as if 
made of India-rubber. But if one 




ring strike another flatly, as they 
move in exactly opposite directions, 
the two will simply grow larger and 
larger till they break, remaining in 
the place where they strike. 

9. Rings similar to these can be 
formed in water by dropping into it 
a solution of permanganate of pot- 
ash or some other bright-colored 
salt. As each drop descends in the 



water it takes the form of a ring, 
which soon breaks up into several. 

10. Another way of producing 
them is to drop hydrochloric acid 
into a weak solution of mercuric 
nitrate. The two liquids act on one 
another chemically, producing a 
cloud of mercuric chloride which 
descends into the vessel in the form 
of a vortex ring. 

11. Smoke rings can be formed 
in water as shown in Fig. 3. Bore a 
hole in the side of a glass jar close 
to the bottom. Pass through the 
cork a glass tube reaching nearly to 
the bottom of the jar, bent at right 
angles near the top, and drawn out 
to a jet at its upper end. Half fill 
the jar with water, place the thumb 
over the hole, and hold the end of 
the jet in a candle flame. On re- 




Fig. 4. 

moving the thumb so that a little 
water may run out, some smoke will 
be drawn down into the bottle and 




Fig. 5. 

rise in a ring to the surface. If 
this be repeated a series of rings 
will be formed like those in Fig. 4. 
Fig. 5 shows a curious " collar " of 



SMUT 



659 



SNAP THE WHIP 



smoke formed around the bottom 
of the tube. In Fig. 3 the jar has 
a faucet in the hole at the side, but 
it can be stopped with a wooden 
plug just as well. 

SMUT. See Muggins. 

SNAKE'S TA!L, a game played by 
any number of persons, one of whom 
is selected as Catcher, and the oth- 
ers form in single file to represent 
a snake, the last player being called 
the Snake's Tail. Each player in 
the tile places his hands on the 
shoulders of the one in front of 
him. At the opening of the game 
the Catcher stands about twenty 
feet from the head of the file, facing 
him, and at a signal tries to catch 
the Tail without pushing any one in 
the row. The Snake defends its 
tail by moving about in any way, 
but if the row breaks itself it is a 
foul, and the Tail is considered as 
caught. When the Tail is caught, 
he becomes Catcher in turn, and the 
Catcher takes his place at the head. 

Another way of playing the game 
is to allow the Catcher to name any 
one in the row as the one he in- 
tends to catch. If he catches the 
one named, they change positions. 
The player at the head of the line 
may stretch out his hands to im- 
pede the Catcher's progress, but is 
not allowed to push him. 

History. This is a Japanese game. 
Its name in Japan is Hebi 710 wo 
toro (Catching the snake's tail). 
The second form of the game is 
called Ko wo toro (Will catch a 
child). The head of the row in this 
case is called the Mother and the 
other's children. The game begins 
by the catcher's shouting " Will 
catch a child." The Mother asks 
"Which child do you want.'*" and 
when the Catcher names his choice, 
she replies " Try to catch if you 
can," when the game begins. 

SNAP, a game played by any 
number of persons with 36 cards. 
Each card bears a figure or design, 
and every design is on three cards. 
The cards are distributed equally, 



and each player places his share, 
without looking at them, in a pile, 
face downward, before him. Each 
in order then turns over his top 
card and places it, face upward, 
as the beginning of another pile. 
When a player turns a card having 
the same design as one on the top 
of another player's exposed pile, 
both must say " Snap," and he who 
says it first takes the exposed pile 
of the other. When a player's cards 
are all turned, he reverses his ex- 
posed pile. Cards taken from oth- 
er players are placed underneath 
the back -upward pile. He who 
gets possession of the whole pack 
wins the game. 

SNAP THE WHIP, an out-door 
game played by any number of per- 
sons, who stand side by side in line, 
holding hands. The line is usually 
formed in order of size, the largest 
players at one end, and the smallest 
at the other. All run forward till 
three or four at the large end sud- 
denly stop, causing the rest of the 
line to swing around sharply like 
the lash of a whip when it is 
snapped. The strain is so great 
that usually two or more of the 
players are forced to let go their 
hands, and those at the smaller end 
are thrown down if they are not 
careful. The game is best placed 
on skates. In this case, when the 
line breaks, the fragments shoot off 
with great velocity, like stones from 
a sling. The best way to hold 
hands in this game is to form a sort 
of hook by bending all the fingers 
of one hand, and hold the neighbor- 
ing player's hand as in the picture. 




Butcher's Grip. 

This arrangement (sometimes 
called the "Butcher's Grip ") enables 
the player better than any other to 
resist a straight pull. 



SNEEZING 



660 



SNOW IMAGES 



SNEEZING, a game played by any 
number of persons. A leader is ap- 
pointed who gives to each a syllable 
ending in "sh,' or some similar one 
sounding like part of a sneeze, as 
" ash," " esh," " ish," " osh," " oush," 
"aish,"or "ashoo." At a given sig- 
nal from the leader, all the company 
pronounce their syllables together. 
The effect is amusing, sounding like 
a sneeze if it is properly produced. 

SNOWBALL FIGHTS, contests be- 
tween two parties armed with snow- 
balls. The object of one of the 
parties should be to drive the 
others from some position, which 
the latter strive to hold. This is 
generally a fort built of snow, and a 
snow fight should usually be the 
siege of a snow fort. One kind of 
fort is built of great balls of snow, 
made by rolling, which are placed 
in the desired form, and then ce- 
mented together with snow. To 
give such a fort a finished look, it 
should be smoothed, the wall being 
made sloping on the outside and 
perpendicular inside. Another way 




to make a snow fort is to dig it from 
a drift, piling up on every side the 
snow taken out. If the drift is firm- 
ly packed, snow may often be taken 
out in great square blocks, with 
which a regular wall can be built. 
In making a fort, care should be 
taken to shape it so that the be- 
siegers will be exposed to fire at all 



points. The simplest form is a 
square, but if the besiegers advance 
close to the fort at the middle of 
one of the sides, it is not easy to fire 
at them except at the corners, and 
then the defender has to lean far 
over the wall, exposing himself too 
much. This fault can be remedied 
by making the fort the shape in the 
figure. In this way every point in 
the outside wall of the fort is ex- 
posed to fire from the inside. Here 
the best place for the besiegers to 
assault is on one of the sides of the 
points, for these are exposed to fire 
from one side only ; whereas the 
part between two points is under 
fire from both sides. These princi- 
ples are the same that have to be 
taken into consideration in building 
real forts. Snowballs should be 
made so they will sting when they 
strike, without doing any injury. 
They should therefore never be 
soaked in water, nor allowed to 
freeze. To use such missiles is like 
throwing stones, and a snowball 
fight with them ceases to be a 
sport. When the garrison of a fort 
is closely besieged, the best throw- 
ers are often stationed at the walls, 
while others make snowballs for 
them. The snowball makers, how- 
ever, should be changed as often 
as possible to give them a share 
of the real sport. As soon as a cer- 
tain number of besiegers succeed in 
getting into the fort, the victory 
should be given to them and the 
parties should change sides. 

SNOW IMAGES. Images may be 
made of snow in two different ways : 
by sticking together balls or lumps 
of snow, or by making a mass of 
snow and then carving the image 
out of it. The former is the usual 
way, but better images can be made 
by the other method. The snow 
should be slightly moist, when a 
large mass may be collected by roll- 
ing a ball till it has gathered a great 
quantity. Another similar ball is 
then rolled and lifted to the top of 
.the first. For a tall figure» a third 



SNOW-SHOEING 



66i 



SOAP 



will be needed. The best tool to 
cut and shape the mass is a mason's 
trowel, but a shingle or other thin 
flat piece of wood may be used 
instead. In this way, figures of 
men, birds, and animals may be 
made. 

If the arms of the image are to 
be extended, a stick should be 
thrust through the body so as to 
project on each side, and the snow 
moulded over it. An image often 
made by boys is that of a man fitted 
with an old hat, with cinders for 
eyes and a clay pipe in its mouth, 
and then used as a target for snow- 
balls. A snowballing match may be 
held with such a figure, as in the 
game of Aunt Sally, 

SNOW-SHOEING, walking on soft 
snow by means of snow-shoes, or 
wooden frames strung with thongs. 
Snow-shoes, which are shown in the 
illustration, are usually made each 




Snow-Shoer. 

of a single light strip of hickory or 
ash, whose ends are bent until they 
meet, and then bound together for 
from 6 to lo inches. Thin pieces 
of flat wood are fitted across this 



frame to strengthen it, and it is then 
woven with thongs or tendons, so as 
to make a sort of basket-work. 
The shoe is from three to six feet in 
length, and from 12 to 20 inches 
wide. It is fastened to the foot by 
a toe-strap and two thongs that 
pass over the instep. The toe of 
the foot points toward the rounded 
end of the snow-shoe. That the 
foot of the wearer may not be ham- 
pered, the heel is left free to rise 
and fall without the shoe, and a 
hole is left in the basket-work under 
the toe-strap, into which the wear- 
er's toe sinks at every step. It is 
difficult to walk on snow-shoes, and 
to attain skill requires much prac- 
tice. The shoe is not lifted as in 
ordinary walking, but rather slipped 
over the snow. Skilled snow-shoers, 
however, walk with as much ease 
over deep drifts of soft snow as on 
hard ground, the basket-work bear- 
ing the weight of a man in places 
where without it he would sink out 
of sight. Experts raise the shoe a 
little with the toe at the beginning 
of the step, letting the end trail, 
keep head and shoulders erect, and 
glide the shoes one over the other. 
Beginners are apt to catch the toe of 
one shoe under the edge of the oth- 
er, and so trip themselves up. The 
Norwegian snow - skates, or skier, 
which are half skate and half snow- 
shoe, are described in the article on 

SKATING. 

SOAP, Experiments with. Soap is 
described in C. C. T. i. To make 
hard soap as an amusement, a few 
ounces of castor-oil and half a 
dozen sticks of caustic soda are 
needed. The caustic soda should be 
handled very little and kept in a 
tightly-corked bottle. Dissolve half 
an ounce of the soda in a gill of soft 
water, and pour into it an equal vol- 
ume of the oil ; on stirring, the mix- 
ture becomes turbid. Boil it gently 
for half an hour, then add about a 
gill of water, bring it again to the 
boiling point and put in a large tea- 
spoonful of fine salt. After the 



SOAP BUBBLES 



662 



SOAP BUBBLES 



mixture has cooled an hour or two 
the soap will be found collected in 
a layer at the top, from which it is 
easily removed. To make soft-soap 
caustic potash must be used instead 
of caustic soda. 

2. Dissolve shavings of castile- 
soap, or any pure white soap, in 
boiling water, and add to part of it 
a teaspoonful of sulphuric or hy- 
drochloric acid, diluted with con- 
siderable water. A greasy white 
substance rises to the top. This is 
stearine, which is often used in 
making candles. 

3, To another part of the soap 
solution made in experiment 2 add 
some lime-water. The mixture be- 
comes white and nearly solid after a 
time. This is because "lime soap" 
is formed, which water will not dis- 
solve. It is this which is formed 
when soap is used with hard water. 

SOAP BUBBLES, bubbles made 
by blowing into a film of soap solu- 
tion. The solution may be made by 
dissolving any kind of soap in warm 
water, but better bubbles will be 
made if glycerine be added. One 
of the best solutions for making 
bubbles is formed after the following 
recipe : 

Into a pint bottle half filled with 
distilled or rain water, put one ounce 
of white castile-soap shavings. 
Shake the bottle till the soap dis- 
solves, and if it will not do so add 
more water. Then add one gill of 
glycerine, shake, and allow to settle. 

The bowl of a common clay to- 
bacco-pipe is dipped into the liquid 
so that the rim just touches the sur- 
face, till on raising it a film is 
stretched across the bowl. By blow- 
ing carefully into the stem of the 
pipe the film will stretch out into a 
bubble and then by a quick jerk of 
the pipe to one side the bubble will 
be detached and will float away, its 
elasticity closing at once the hole by 
which the air entered it. If it is 
strong it will bound on the floor or 
table, and can be rolled along by 
blowing it with the breath. Finally, 



evaporation makes it very thin and 
it bursts into spray. If the solution 
is not strong enough, the bubbles are 
weak, and burst before they are 
fully blown. The better the solu- 
tion, the larger the bubbles can be 
made, but it is better to begin by 
making small ones, and gradually 
increasing their size. After the 
bubble has been blown, the end of 
the pipe should be closed with the 
finger, for the bubble is elastic and 
tends to grow smaller, driving out 
again the air that was blown into it. 
Too much of the liquid, or a mass 
of froth, must not be taken up with 
the pipe, as it collects at the bottom 
of the bubble and often breaks it 
by its weight. Such a collection of 
froth may often be removed by 
touching it with the finger. 

Gas Bubbles. By fitting one end 
of a piece of rubber tubing over a 
gas-burner, and the other over the 
end of a clay pipe, bubbles can be 
blown after a little practice, by 
turning on the gas little by little. 
As the gas is lighter than air, these 
bubbles will rise to the ceiling, and 
if a lighted match be touched to 
them, they will burn in the air. 
Still lighter bubbles can be made by 
blowing them with HYDROGEN. 

Bubbles blown with a mixture of 
OXYGEN and HYDROGEN gascs ex- 
plode in the air with a loud report 
when they are lighted, but this mix- 
ture is dangerous, and should be 
used only by an experienced person. 

Soap Bubble Parties, entertain- 
ments at which the blowing of soap 
bubbles is the chief feature. Prizes 
are usually offered, whic^ are 
awarded in various ways. Each 
person may be allowed a certain 
number of trials, and he who blows 
and detaches the greatest number 
of bubbles may be declared winner. 
Or each one may blow till he 
makes a certain number of bubbles, 
and he whose bubbles last longest 
may receive the prize. Or each 
may be required to roll his bubble 
across the table by breathing on it. 



SOAP BUBBLES 



663 



SOAP BUBBLES 



Sometimes two goal-posts or pegs 
about six inches long and three or 
four inches apart are placed at the 
end of the table, and the bubble 
must be blown so as to roll between 
them. The sport may thus be varied 
in many ways. Care should be 
taken to test the liquid, which 
should be in good condition before 
the blowing begins. 

Experiments with Bubbles. i. A 
huge soap bubble can be blown by 
covering the hands well with suds 
and then holding them so as to form 
a cup, as in drinking from the hands, 
but leaving a small hole at the bot- 
tom. The mouth is then held 
about a foot from the hands and a 
current of air is blown into them. 
Bubbles a foot or more in diameter 
can be blown in this way. 

2. Soap bubbles can be made to 
>-'^->. carry little figures cut 
*- ^ from tissue-paper. 

One of these figures 
is attached by thread 
to a disk of paper D 
about as large as 
one's finger-nail, by 
passing the thread F 
through the paper 
and knotting it (Fig. 
i). When the bub- 
ble is blown, and be- 
fore it is detached, 
the thread is taken 
between thumb and 
finger and the disk 
applied to the side 
of the bubble (Fig. 
2). If properly done 
it will glide down to 
the lower part, where 
it will stick. The 
bubble can then be 
detached, and it will 
float away, bearing the figure with 
it. The bubble should be blown 
with a glass tube, so that a very 
little shake will detach it. 

3. Bubbles blown from melted 
rosin in the same way as soap-bub- 
bles, retain their form for many 




months, and possess a silvery lustre 
which makes them very beautiful. 

4. Pour some ether into a wide- 
mouthed jar and then drop a soap 
bubble into the jar, where it will 
float on the heavy vapor of the 
ether. (See also Carbonic Acid.) 
Let it remain a few seconds and 
then remove it by pulling the jar 
down from under it. When a 
lighted match is touched to the 
bubble it will flash into flame. This 
is because some of the ether vapor 
has entered the bubble through the 
soap-film. 

5. Blow two bubbles, and while 
they are hanging to the pipes try to 
make them join, placing the finger 
over the end of the pipe-stem so as 
to keep the bubbles the same size. 
No matter how forcibly they are 
pushed together, they will bound 
from each other as if made of India- 
rubber, and will not join. But if 
an electrified body be brought near 
them they will unite at once into a 
single bubble. 

6. The colors on a soap bubble 
may be thrown on a screen by plac- 
ing a lens in the path of a sunbeam 
from a heliostat and holding the 
bubble just beyond the focus of the 
lens, where the rays begin to spread 
apart. The colors will be thrown 
on the walls and ceiling of the room, 
and very beautiful changes of tint 
will be seen as the walls of the 
bubble grow thinner. 

7. Make a stand of a piece of wire 
like the tripod stands described 
under Chemical Experiments. 
With a little practice a bubble can 
be made to rest upon it and remain 
a long time. The bubble may be 
pierced with a pin or cut with a 
knife without breaking, so long as 
the pin or knife are perfectly clean, 
but if either have the smallest par- 
ticle of grease on them the bubble 
will break at once 

The beautiful colors of soap bub- 
bles are due to what is called the 
interference of light, caused by the 



SOAP FILMS 



664 



SOLITAIRE 



thinness of their walls. The same 
colors can be seen in any very thin, 




Fig, 2. 
transparent substance, like a sheet 
of mica, or a film of oil floating on 
the water. The color is different as 
the thickness varies, and scientists 
have thus been able to measure the 
latter. Probably the most skilful 
soap-bubble blower living is Mr. C. 
Vernon Boys, an English scientist, 
who has performed many interesting 
experiments with bubbles. Among 
other things he is able to blow one 
bubble inside another. 

SOAP FILMS, Experiments with. 
The bubbles made of soap film are 
described under Soap Bubbles. 
The following experiments can be 
tried with the soap-water used in 
making bubbles: i. Dip the large 
end of a glass funnel into the 
water. The film formed will run 
into the funnel. This is because it 
is so elastic that it shrinks to as 
small a size as possible. If a bottle 
be blown at the large end, and the 
neck left open, the bubble will 
shrink, driving out the air within 
it. A skilful operator can blow out 
a candle by the air thus expelled. 

2. Make a circle of wire, and 



touch it to the soap-water, lifting off 
a film which stretches across the 
circle. Place carefully on this film 
a small ring of silk thread, which 
has been wetted with the soap- 
water. Break the film inside this 
ring, and the thread will be stretched 
into a perfect circle by the elastic 
film on all sides of it. 

SOLITAIRE, any game played by 
one person. The oldest solitaire or 
solitary game is played on a circular 
board in which are 
either 37 or 33 holes 
arranged as in the 
figures. The form 
with 33 holes, which 
is now generally 
used, is the same 
that is used for play- 
ing Fox AND Geese. 
In the second fig- 
ure it is arranged 
also for the form 
of Fox and Geese 
called the Battle Game. In each of 
these holes is a peg, though some 




Solitaire Boards. 

boards are made with depressions, 
instead of holes, in which marbles 
are placed. One peg or marble 
being taken out by the player, a 
peg two holes distant from the 
vacant spot is placed in it, and the 



SOLITAIRE 



665 



SOLITAIRE 



peg over which it jumps is taken 
from the board, like a captured man 
in Checkers. Another peg is 
jumped mto one of the two vacant 
holes now on the board, and tnis 
is kept up as long as possible, a peg 
being taken from the board at each 
move. The player's object is either 
to remove all but one of the pegs 
from the board or to leave those 
that remain at the end in some 
given arrangement. 

The marbles may thus be removed 
from the board in several ways, no 
matter what marble is taken at the 
beginning. Suppose the holes in 
the modern board to be numbered 
in vertical rows and lettered in the 
horizontal rows as below : 

C I D I E I 

C 2 D 2 E 2 
AiBi C3 D3 E3 FiGi 
A2B2 C4 D4 E4 F2G2 
A3 B3 C5 D 5 E5 F3 G3 

C6 D6 E6 

Cy D7 E7 
There are only seven different 
cases, and a solution of each is given 
below. 

The direction C 4 to C 2, for in- 
stance, means that the marble in C 4 
is to be placed in the empty hole 
C 2 and the marble between them 
removed from the board. 



I. Remove 
D2 to D 



Fi 
Ei 
E4 
Ci 
Ei 
E6 

G I 

S3 
B3 
C7 
C4 

E/ 
C7 



D4 

4 

3 

3 

2 

I 

3 

4 

5 

3 

3 

5 

5 

5 

6 

7 



C2 
Ai 
D3 
A3 
Ai 

D5 
D3 
Bi 

?^ 
F2 

C4 

E3 

F3 

D6 



to 



C 
C 
B 
A 
C 
D 
B 
B 
D 
F 
D 
E 
E 

D5 
D4 



2. Remove 
numbers this 
the middle bii 



A 2. (By changing the 
solution is good for 
11 of any outside row.) 



C4 
C2 
D4 

E2 

D6 
D4 
Di 
E4 
Ei 

G2 

E4 
Gi 
E2 
F3 
E7 
D5 



to 



A2 

C4 

B2 
C2 

D4 
D2 

D3 

E2 

E3 
E4 

E2 

E3 

E4 

F3 



G3 

Cy 
E4 
E7 
B3 
E5 
Ai 

D3 
Ci 
C6 
C4 
A3 
Ai 
C2 
C4 



to 



E7 
E6 

E5 
D5 
C5 
C3 
B I 

C3 
C4 

C2 

A I 
C3 
C4 

A2 



3. Remove D 3. (This applies 
also to E 4, D 5, and C 4.) 

Fi to D3 C4 to C2 

F3 " Fi Ci '• C3 

Gi " E3 C6 " C4 

G3 " Gi C4 " C2 

D3"Fi A2"C4 

Gi " E3 E5 " C5 

D5 " F3 C5 " C3 

E7 " E5 E3 " E5 

F3 " D5 C2 " C4 

C 5 " E 5 D I " D 3 

D7 " D5 Ei - E3 

C 7 " C 5 D 3 " F I 

C4"C6 C4"E4 

A3 " C5 E5 " E3 

C2"C4 Fi"D3 
Ai " C3 ^ 

4. Remove D 6. (This solution 
applies also to B 2, D 2, and F 2.) 

D4 to D6 C6 to C4 

F3 " D5 A3 " C5 

E7 " E5 Ai " A3 

C7 " E7 D5 " B3 

E4 " E6 A3 " C5 

E7 " E5 C4 " C6 

E2"E4 C6-E6 

Gi"E3 E4"E2 

G3"Gi E2"C2 

D3 " Fi C2 " C4 

Gi"E3 E6"E4 

Bi " D3 B2 " D4 

C I " C 3 D3 " D ? 

E I " C I F 2 " D 4 

C4"C2 D4"D6 
Ci " C3 

5. Remove C i. (This applies 
also to each of the seven other corner 
marbles.) 



SOLITAIRE 






6( 


C3 


to 


C I 


C6 


to 


E6 


Ai 




C3 


E7 


" 


ES 


D3 




Bi 


E4 


" 


E6 


A3 




Ai 


C7 


" 


E7 


Ai 




C3 


E7 


" 


E5 


B3 




Bi 


F3 


« 


D5 


Bi 




D3 


C4 


« 


E4 


E2 




C2 


C5 


<( 


Es 


Ci 




C3 


E5 


" 


E3 


E4 




E2 


E2 


" 


E4 


Ei 




E3 


Gi 


" 


E3 


G2 




E4 


E4 


(( 


E2 


E4 




E2 


C3 


« 


E3 


E6 




E4 


E3 


<< 


Ei 


G3 




E5 


Ei 


" 


Ci 


DS 




F3 








6. Remove C 2 


. (Th 


LS 


applies 


also to C 6, E 2, 


E 6, B I, 


B 


3, Fi, 


and F 


3-) 










C4 


to 


C2 


E7 


to 


E5 


Ci 


<« 


C3 


F3 


" 


D5 


A2 


" 


C4 


C6 


« 


E6 


C4 


" 


C2 


C7 


" 


E7 


Ei 


« 


Ci 


E7 


<< 


E5 


Ci 


« 


C3 


C4 


<< 


C6 


E2 


<< 


C2 


E4 


" 


C4 


C2 


(( 


C4 


C3 


" 


C5 


Ai 


<i 


C3 


C6 


'• 


C4 


E4 


<« 


E2 


E5 


" 


C5 


Gi 


" 


E3 


C4 


(( 


C6 


E2 


" 


E4 


A3 


" 


C5 


F3 


(( 


F I 


C6 


<< 


C4 


G3 


(< 


G I 


E3 


** 


C3 


Gi 


<< 


E3 


C4 


" 


C2 


D5 


" 


F3 








7. Remove C 5 


. (This also applies 


toC3, 


E 3. or E 


5-) 






E5 


to 


C5 


E2 


to 


C2 


E3 


" 


E5 


C I 


" 


C3 


D3 




D5 


D3 


" 


Bi 


E6 




E4 


B3 


" 


D5 


C5 


« 


E5 


Bi 


" 


B3 


E4 


" 


E6 


A3 


<< 


C5 


C3 


" 


C5 


A I 


<< 


A3 


Gi 


" 


E3 


D3 


" 


B3 


E2 


" 


E4 


A3 


" 


C5 


G3 


ti 


Gi 


C6 


<< 


C4 


F3 


" 


F I 


E6 


" 


C6 


Gi 


" 


G3 


C7 


tt 


cs 


E4 


<( 


E2 


C4 


tl 


C6 


Cf 


" 


C3 


E7 


" 


C7 


Bi 


" 


D3 


C7 


« 


C5 


C3 


" 


Ci 









666 



SOLITAIRE 



The form of solitaire board with 
37 holes is now seldom seen, so but 
one method of removing the pegs is 
given. The notation is like that 
above, save that the B and F 
col umns have each five holes instead 
of three. 

Remove C i 



E I to C I 


C4 to C6 


D3 ' 


♦ Di 


C6 • 


• E6 


E3 ' 


' E I 


F5 " D6 


Gi ' 


' E3 


E4 ' 


' E6 


B I ' 


' D2 


E 7 " E 5 


C4 ' 


' C2 


C2 ' 


' C4 


C I ' 


' C3 


C4 ' 


' E4 


C 6 " C 4 


E4 ' 


' E6 


C4 ' 


' C2 


E6 ' 


' C6 


E4 ' 


' E2 


Di ' 


' D3 


Ei ' 


' E3 


Fi ' 


' D2 


E6 ' 


' E4 


D2 ' 


' Da 


E4 ' 


' E2 


D4 " D6 


A I ' 


' C3 


D7 " D5 


A2 


' C4 


B5 • 


' D6 


A3 ' 


' C5 


D 5 " D 7 


G2 


' E4 


C7 ' 


' E7 


G3 


' E5 







This game of Solitaire was fash- 
ionable in France about 1700, and 
some writers say that it was in- 
vented by a prisoner in the Bastile 
for his amusement. Others say 
that it was suggested to a French- 
man in America by the way in 
which the Indians stuck their ar- 
rows in the quiver when they re- 
turned from hunting. Others still 
derive it from the Magic squares 
early in use in the East. Leibnitz, 
the great German mathematician, 
was very fond of the game, and said 
of it : " It is good to play reasoning 
games, not for themselves, but be- 
cause they aid in perfecting the art 
of thinking." 

In England the name is some- 
times translated, and it is called 
"The Solitary Game." In eastern 
Switzerland it is known as Rath- 
hausabheben (City-hall Lifting), or 
In das Nagelloch Springen (Jump- 
ing into the Peg-hole). 

Solitaire with Cards, or Patience. 
In these games the player's object 



SOUND FIGURES 



667 



SOUND FIGURES 



is to arrange the cards in some par- 
ticular order, generally in what are 
called " families," a family being the 
whole series from Ace to King, 
whether of one suit or not. Famil- 
ies may be formed by piling or 
" building" upward, that is, by al- 
ways placing a higher card on the 
one next below it, or downward, in 
the opposite way. The pack or 
packs, sometimes with the exception 
of certain cards which are laid face 
upward on the table, is first shuffled. 
The cards are then held in the play- 
er's hand, backs upward, and played 
one by one, always turning them 
face upward. In building, cards 
are sometimes taken from the pack 
in this way, sometimes from an ar- 
rangement of card piles on the table, 
and sometimes from either. The 
player is generally allowed to place 
any top card of these piles on any 
other just above or below it in rank, 
freeing the cards underneath that 
they may be used in building. This 
is sometimes called " making mar- 
riages." Cards that cannot be 
used are placed aside to form^ what 
is called stock, and this stock may 
generally be shuffled and used over 
again once or twice. 

The arrangements of cards in 
these games are often given fanciful 
names, and success depends some- 
times on the skill of the player, and 
sometimes entirely on chance. The 
different games of card Solitaire or 
Patience are described in separate 
articles in this book. 

In some countries games of Pa- 
tience are used as fortune-tellers, 
the player supposing that some pro- 
ject will turn out well or ill accord- 
ing as he is successful or not in his 
game. 

SOUND FIGURES, Experiments on. 
I. Buy at a hardware store a piece 
of sheet-brass one-eighth of an inch 
thick and six inches square. If it 
is not perfectly flat, have it ham- 
mered flat. Have the sheet cut in- 
to a circle and rounded off at the 
edges, and have a hole three "^ix- 



teenths of an inch in diameter cut 
in the centre. If the disk has been 
hammered it must now be heated 
red-hot in a stove and cooled slowly. 
From a broom-handle cut off a 
piece six inches long and fix one 
end firmly in a heavy block of wood. 
Round off the edges of the other 
end and then screw the brass disk 
to it. By drawing a violin-bow 
over the edge of the disk a sound 
may be produced. This should be 
practised till the note is clear and 
strong. Sprinkle sand on the disk 
and it will dance about while the 
note is sounding. This is because 
the disk is vibrating. 

Now touch the edge of the disk 
with the finger, and draw the bow 
at a place one eighth of tne dis- 
tance around the disk. The sand 
will gather into two lines at right 
angles, one of which starts from the 
finger. The reason is that the disk 
now vibrates in parts, one part mov- 
ing up while another is moving 
down, and the lines between these 
parts have no motion ; hence the 
sand settles on them. By drawing 
the bow at different distances from 
the finger, or by touching the disk 
in more than one place, while some 
one else draws the bow, many other 
sand-figures can be made, some of 
which are shown in the illustrations. 




Fig. I. 

If lycopodium powder (whicn '"-an 
be bought of a druggist) be mixed 



SOUND FIGURES 



668 



SOUND FIGURES 



sound will be. This is because, as 
stated above, the disk does not vi- 
brate at the sand-lines, and the 
parts of the disk on opposite sides 
of any line are always moving in 
opposite directions, one going up 



while the other is 



goin 



sf down. 



with the sand, it will form curious 
little heaps and whirlpools while 
the disk vibrates. Instead of being 
round, the sheet of brass may be 
square, as in Fig. i, which shows a 
form mounted on a standard, to be 
bought of any dealer in physical ap- 
paratus. 

2. Make a cardboard cone about 
ten inches long, two and one half 
inches in diameter at its larger end, 
and small enough at the other to fit 
into a rubber tube about two feet 
long. While one person is making 
the disk vibrate, let another hold 
the large opening of the cone over 
various parts of it, at the same 
time applying the end of the 
rubber tube to the ear. When 
the middle of the cone is 
exactly over one of the sand- 
lines, scarcely any sound at all 
will be heard, and the nearer the I may be supported at the centre on 
coneistoasand-line, the weakerthe I an ordinary spool by pressing it 



Hence their effects on the air in the 
cone balance, and there is no sound 
there. 

Instead of a brass plate, one of 
glass may be used in these experi- 
ments. It should be six or eight 
inches square, and should have its 
sharp edges smoothed down with a 
file moistened with turpentine. It 




><5 


o 


X 



/' 






1 




/r-r 


.-A — !_ 

4....i., 



Fig. 3. 



down firmly with the thumb, just 
over the spool. Figs. 2 and 3 show 
a variety of sound figures. In Fig. 
2 the position of the bow is marked 
b, and that of the finger/. 

The figures can also be produced 
without a bow in the following 
manner : In a flat lump of lead fix 
a piece of lead-pencil about an inch 
long, having on its end a common 
rubber eraser. This serves as a 
^andard. To the central point of 
A common window-pane, attach by 



sealing-wax a glass tube three six- 
teenths of an inch in diameter and 
twenty inches long. Place the plate 
on the standard, so that the end of 
the tube is just over the rubber 
eraser. Holding the upper end of 
the tube in one hand, rub it gently 
up and down with the moistened 
thumb and forefinger of the other. 
The tube is thus thrown into vibra- 
tion, and causes the pane to vibrate 
also. Sand strewn on the glass will 
assume figures similar to those ob- 



SPATTER-WORK 



669 



SPECULATION 



tained by the other methods. In 
this experiment the plate is caused 
to vibrate from the centre instead 
of from the edge. 

SPATTER-WORK. Procure a box 
three inches deep, and as large as 
desired. Remove the bottom and 
top, and tack wire netting (which 
can be bought at a hardware store) 
over the top. The edges of the bot- 
tom must be covered with cloth, so 
that the box will not injure what- 
ever it stands on. On the paper 
which it is desired to decorate with 
spatter-work lay some leaves, a fern, 
a design cut out of paper, or any- 
thing fiat, and then place the box 
over it. Dip an old nail-brush in 
ink and draw it across the wire net- 
ting. The ink will spatter through 




Spatter-work. 

in fine drops on the paper. When 
the work is as dark as desired, the 
leaves or paper design is removed, 
and its shape will be seen in white 
on the spattered background. If 
part of the leaves are removed be- 
fore the spattering is finished, the 
design will be in two shades, white 
and gray. The veins of the leaves 
maybe drawn afterward with pen 
and ink. 

SPECULATION. I. A game of 
CARDS played by any number of per- 
sons with a full pack. At the begin- 
ning of the game, each player is given 
an equal number of counters, and 
eachplaceson thetable a number pre- 



viously agreed upon to form the pool, 
the dealer usually being required to 
put in more than any of the others. 
Three cards are dealt to each, one 
at a time, and the last is turned as 
trump. The hands are placed face 
downward on the table, each in 
front of its owner. Beginning at 
the dealer's left, each player in order 
turns up his top card till some one 
turns a higher trump than the 
trump card. The owner of this 
higher trump may then offer to sell 
to the one bidding the highest 
number of counters for it, whose 
property it then becomes. The 
player on the new owner's left then 
begins to turn up again, and so on 
till a still higher trump appears, 
which may be sold as before. The 
dealer has the privilege of refusing 
to turn up any card till a higher 
card than the trump card appears, 
and of selling either the trump card 
or his whole hand. Any one turn- 
ing up a five or knave of a lay suit 
pays one counter to the pool. When 
the cards have all been turned, the 
owner of the highest trump takes 
all the counters in the pool. When 
the game is played at evening par- 
ties, after a certain number of 
rounds the one having most coun- 
ters is given a prize. If any player 
look at his hand or play out of 
turn, he forfeits his privilege of tak- 
ing the pool, even if he have the 
highest trump. 

II. Another game is played as 
follows: Two packs are used, one 
of which is all dealt to the players, 
one card at a time, and the other 
placed face downward before the 
dealer. Four or five cards are drawn 
from this pack without being 
looked at, and placed face down- 
ward by themselves, each with a 
different number of counters piled 
on it. The players may look at their 
hands and show them to each other. 
At a signal, they begin the game by 
bargainingwith one another for any 
cards they wish, each buying from 
whom he pleases, at any price 



SPECULATION 



670 



SPELLING-MATCH 



agreed upon. This either goes on 
for a time previously agreed upon, 
or the dealer may be allowed to 
stop it when he likes. He then 
turns up the cards of the unseen 
pack, one by one, and the holders 
of the corresponding cards give 
them up. When all have been 
given up, the holders of the remain- 
ing cards (which of course corre- 
spond to those laid aside) take the 
counters that were piled on them. 
The game then begins again, and 
after a number of rounds previously 
agreed upon the player having the 
largest number of counters is usu- 
ally given a prize. 

In playing the game a player may 
choose to sell all his cards, hoping 
to make a large number of counters 
in this way, and giving up his 
chance for the prize cards, or he 
may prefer to buy as many cards as 
he can, hoping to get the prize cards 
in this way. The price of cards is 
generally small at the opening of a 
game and increases toward the end, 
hence it is often desirable to buy at 
first and then sell. Sometimes the 
dealer turns part of the unseen pack 
and then allows more bargaining. 
Sometimes a number of the cards 
are not called for, and he who has 
most remaining is given a prize. 
Sometimes the holders of the prize 
cards are given separate prizes in- 
stead of counters, and the game may 
be varied in many other ways, at 
the pleasure of the players. 

III. A game played by any num- 
ber of persons with cards, on some 
of which are written the names 
of stocks, and on others words 
that occur in those names. Thus 
on one card might be " West- 
ern Union Telegraph," or " Lake 
Shore," and on others " Western," or 
"Shore." The cards are distributed 
evenly, and each player piles his 
hand in front of him, backs up. 
Each, in order, turns a card, and the 
first to turn a "stock" card says, 
" I speculate on Western Union," or 
whatever it may be. The first one 



after him that turns up a card bear- 
ing one of the words in the name 
of that stock takes all of the specu- 
lator's cards that have been turned 
over. So the game goes on till 
some one has all the cards, thus 
winning the game. When any one 
has turned over all in his pile he 
turns the whole pile back into its 
former position. 

SPELLING-MATCH, a contest be- 
tween two parties to see which con- 
tains the best spellers. A number 
of people may choose sides (see 
Choosing Sides), or the match 
may be between two schools or 
societies. The numbers should be 
equal, unless otherwise agreed be- 
forehand. Each side must have a 
leader or captain, and the opposing 
parties generally sit or stand in two 
rows opposite one another, the cap- 
tains at the head. Some one, not 
on either side, selected for the pur- 
pose, now gives out a word to be 
spelled to each side alternately, first 
to the first player on one side, then 
to the first on the other, then to 
the second on the first side, and so 
on. When any one spells a word 
incorrectly, the same is given out 
again till it is spelled correctly; and 
if it is so spelled on the side which 
did not miss it at first, the captain 
of that side is allowed to choose 
any one of the opposite party, who 
must then take his place on the 
winning side. If the word is spelled 
correctly by a member of the side 
on which it was first missed, there 
is no choosing. The match goes 
on thus till one side has all the 
players. A captain cannot be 
chosen till he is the only one re- 
maining on his side. Instead of 
being given out by an outsider, the 
words may be given out by the cap- 
tains, each giving out to the players 
in the opposite party. When one 
party orthe other has won the match, 
it is often ended by "spelling down." 
In this process words are given 
out in regular order, and those who 
miss sit down, until only one is 



SPELLING-MATCH 



671 



SPHEROIDAL STATE 



left, who is considered the victor. 
Sometimes there are no sides at all, 
and the spelling down constitutes 
the whole match. In this case 
prizes are often given to the players 
who sit down last. Sometimes, in- 
stead of passing the word to the 
next player when it is missed, the 
one who gives the words announces 
the correct spelling, and then gives 
out a different one. This is the 
fairest method in the case of words 
which can be spelled in only two 
ways, so that if one is wrong the 
other must be right. A good plan 
is to allow the one who misses the 
word first to decide whether or not 
it shall be given out again. Spell- 
ing-matches are not really means 
of finding out the best spellers, but 
they are often exciting sport. The 
fairest kind of spelling-match is one 
where the words are written by each 
contestant, all writing the same 
word at the same time. When all 
have finished, the words are spelled 
correctly by the leader, and each 
player scores one for every word he 
has written as it should be. The 
side with the highest score wins. 
The following rules give an idea of 
how a public spelling-match should 
be conducted. They may be modi- 
fied or changed as desired. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. The officers of the match shall 
consist of a leader and one or more 
judges. 

2. The leader shall give out only 
such words as may be decided on 
before the match. For instance, he 
may be limited to words contained 
in a certain dictionary or spelling- 
book, or to words not obsolete, or 
to words of a certain number of 
syllables. 

' 3. Any contestant is at liberty to 
demand that the leader pronounce 
the word again, or that he define it. 
4. If the word given out be 
spelled correctly, the leader shall 
say " Right," and at once give out 
another word. If it be spelled in- 



correctly, he shall say " Wrong," 
and either give out the same word 
again, or another one, as has been 
agreed before the contest. If he 
give out a different word, he shall 
first spell correctly the word missed. 
The speller may appeal to the 
judges either on the ground that he 
spelled the word correctly and was 
misunderstood by the leader, or 
that his way of spelling is allowable. 
In the first case the judges may 
take the opinion of other players, 
or decide on their own. In the 
second, they shall consult such 
books of reference as were agreed 
on before the contest, and if the 
spelling given is allowable it is ad- 
judged correct. [The best plan is 
to select two or more dictionaries 
as standards ; say Webster's and 
Worcester's, and allow any spelling 
given in either,] 

5. No contestant shall be allowed 
more than one minute from the 
time when he understands the 
word, and if he delay longer than 
that time he shall be considered to 
have failed. 

Pronouncing-Matches. The same 
rules apply to these as to spelling- 
matches, except that the leader 
spells the words and contestants 
pronounce them. Instead of spell- 
ing them, the leader may display 
them written or printed on placards, 
or lists of the words may be dis- 
tributed to the contestants at the 
opening of the match. 

SPHEROIDAL STATE, Experi- 
ments on the. I. When warm water 
is dropped on an ordinarily hot 
stove it turns quickly to steam ; but 
if the stove be red hot, the water 
forms itself into one or more little 
balls, and rolls about, taking a long 
time to evaporate. As a stove-top 
is flat, the water usually rolls off. so 
the experiment can be tried better 
by holding the bowl of a metal table- 
spoon in an alcohol flame till it is 
red hot and then dropping warm 
water into it. The handle must be 
inserted in the split end of a piece 



SPHYGMOGRAPH 



672 



SPOIL-FIVE 



01' wood so that the hand will not 
be burned. Let the spoon cool, and 
when it has cooled enough the little 
ball of water will suddenly turn to 
steam. This state in water or any 
other liquid is called the spheroidal 
state, because the liquid takes the 
shape of a flattened ball or spheroid. 
The reason it does not dry up at 
once is, that the water is supported 
on a kind of cushion of steam so 
that it does not touch the metal 
at all. 

2. Put into a cold silver spoon a 
drop of water in which sulphide of 
sodium has been dissolved. It will 
turn black, because sulphide of silver 
is formed. Now try the above ex- 
periment with a drop of such water, 
and the spoon will not be blackened 
till it has cooled down below red 
heat. This is because the liquid, 
when in the spheroidal state, did 
not touch the spoon at all. 

SPHYGMOGRAPH, an arrange- 
ment for recording the beats of the 



light so as to reflect a spot on the 
wall, and this spot moves with each 
beat of the pulse. The room should 
be darkened if possible, all light be- 





Sphygmograph.— Fig. 2. 

ing shut out save that which falls on 
the mirifer. Another form, some- 
times sold as a toy, is shown in 
Fig. 2. 

The word sphygmograph is from 
the Greek sphugmos, the pulse, and 
graphein, to write. 

SPOIL-FIVE, a game of cards 
1 1 lyed by two to ten persons with a 
I 11 pack. The rank of the cards is 
I culiar. In the red suits it is as in 
W HIST, except that the Ace ranks 

I low the Two. In the black suits 

I I e order is reversed below the 
k lave, the Ace coming next, and 
ll en the Two, Three, Four, and so 

to the Ten, which is lowest. The 
\ ;e of Hearts is always a trump, 

d the order of the cards in the 
t imp suit is Five, Knave, Ace of 
Hearts, Ace of trumps. King, 
<>jeen, and then as in common 

its. The following table shows 

e order briefly : 



minion Suits. 



Trumps. 



pUlse. -rt. suijpic uiic t-ctii uc luauc 

by fastening a bit of looking-glass 
to the wrist just above the pulse, 
with an elastic band, as .in Fig. i. 
The mirror is held in a beam of 




RED. 




BLACK. 


<?> ^ 




♦ ♦ 


<?> 




♦ 


^ ^ 




4 ♦ 


1 




^S 



SPOIL-FIVE 



673 



SPOIL-FIVE 



Common Suits. 

RED, BLACK 





s 


9? 


-■l 


9? 


-^ 


F" 


""^1 


9 


-^ 


9? 


9? 




9? 

9? 
9? 

9? 


^ 

"Q 


9? 


^ 


9? 


V 


"^ 


9 


9 


^ 


9 


s? 


9? 




9? 


^ 


9? 


^ 


9? 


«;? 


9? 




9? 




9? 




9— 




9? 




9? 


9? 



4. ^ 



4. 4. 



4. 4. 

4. 4. 



4. 4. 
4. 4. 
4. 4. 



4-,^ 

4» 
4. 4. 

4. 4. 

^^ 

4. 4. 

4> 

4, •^4' 

4. 4. 



4.^4. 



Trumps. 

RED. BLACK. 



9? 9? 

9? 9? 



9? 9? 
9?^9? 



9? 9? 

9? 
9? 9? 

9? 

9? 9? 



9? 9? 

9? 
9? 9? 

9? 9? 



9? 9? 
9? 9? 
9? 9? 



9? 9? 



9? 9? 



Ace of 
Trumps.* 



♦ ♦ 



♦ ♦ 






%* 

♦ ♦ 

♦ ♦ 












■* Omitted, of course, when Hearts are 
trumps. 



Five cards are dealt to each player, 
usually two and three at a time, 
as in Euchre, and the top card 
of the stock is turned as trump. 
When only two play, the non-dealer 
is often allowed to ask the dealer 
for another trump, and if the latter 
agrees the second card is turned. 
This is called "Fivingit." If the 
trump card is an Ace, the dealer has 
the privilege of " robbing," that is, 
he may discard any card he chooses, 
placing it face downward under the 
pack, and take the Ace into his 
hand. The dealer must rob, if at 
all, before the eldest hand plays. If 
any player holds the Ace of trumps 
in his hand, he must rob before he 
plays his first card. When a common 
suit is led, any player may trump, 
though able to follow suit ; but if he 
hold no trump he must follow suit 
if possible. If a trump is led, suit 
must be followed, except that the 
Five of trumps, the Knave of trumps, 
and the Ace of Hearts need not 
be played when an inferior trump is 
led. This is called " reneging." Thus, 
if the Two of trumps is led and 
a player have no trump but the 
Knave, he need not follow suit ; but 
if the Five had been led, he would 
be obliged to play the Knave. A 
player who takes three tricks in one 
hand wins the game, and playing 
ceases as soon as any one has taken 
three tricks. If no one wins, the 
game is said to be "spoilt." If the 
score is kept with counters, each 
contributes to the pool a number 
previously agreed upon, and the 
whole pool is taken by the winner. 
When the game is " spoilt," the 
pool remains, and each puts in more 
counters (usually half or a third of 
the original number). Sometimes 
every trick taken counts five, and 
he who gains a fixed number of 
points (usually 25 or 45) wins the 
game When the game is 45, the trick 
won by the best trump out counts 
ten, unless some one has taken 
enough tricks to win the game be- 
fore that trump is played. Wh^n 



SPOONS 



674 



SPORTS WITH FLOWERS 



the game is scored thus, if any one 
take all five tricks he wins at once. 
This is called "Jinking it." Some- 
times jinking is allowed also in the 
regular game. In that case, when a 
player has taken three tricks he 
may continue to play. If he take all 
the tricks, he wins double the pool ; 
but if not, he wins nothing at all. 

In Spoil-Five it is considered best 
to lead the worst card and to reserve 
good cards till the third trick. A 
non-leader should trump, if he 
holds only one trump (unless it can 
renege), but two trumps should be 
reserved. 

Unless a player has a very strong 
hand, he should try to '* spoil " the 
game, and to this end should allow 
no one to get more than one trick, 
if possible. When only two play, it 
is, of course impossible to " spoil " 
the game. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. The deal is determined accord- 
ing to agreement either by dealing 
the cards one at a time, in which 
case he who receives the first Knave 
deals, or by cutting, in which case 
lowest deals. 

2. If there is a misdeal, the deal 
passes to the left. 

3. If a player deal out of turn he 
may be stopped before the trump is 
turned. If he is not so stopped, the 
deal is good, and passes to his left 
as if he had dealt in turn. 

4. If a player neglect to rob be- 
fore he plays to the first trick, he 
loses the right to rob, and can win 
nothing that hand. 

5. If a player rob when he is not 
entitled to do so, or leads or plays 
wrongly, or reneges when he is not 
entitled, he cannot win in that hand. 
(This is called " hanging " the hand.) 

SPOONS. See Blind Man's 
Buff. 

SPORTS WITH FLOWERS AND 
FRUIT. A variety of sports and cus- 
toms are connected with flowers and 
leaves, most of them observed only 
by young children. By plucking the 



petals of the daisy or any similar 
flower, they pretend, in play, that 
they can tell different things about 
their future lives. Thus the fol- 
lowing rhyme is repeated, one word 
as each petal is plucked : 

" Rich man, poor man, begg^ar man, thief, 
Doctor, lawyer, Indian chief." 

This is repeated over and over again, 
and the word spoken as the last 
petal is plucked is supposed to tell 
what the child's condition is to be 
if a boy, or if a girl, whom she is to 
marry. In the same way, to dis- 
cover where he will live, he says, 
'* Big house, little house, pigsty, 
barn ;" to tell what his dress is to 
be, " Silk, satin, calico, rags," and 
to find what he is to ride in, " Coach, 
wagon, wheelbarrow, chaise." Flow- 
ers are asked questions in this way 
in many parts of the world. In 
Switzerland the list of occupations 
runs : 

*' Nobleman, beggar, farmer, soldier, student, 
Emperor, king, gentleman." 

In this country, instead of pulling 
petals, the verse is often repeated 
while touching the buttons of the 
coat or dress. In Italy the leaves 
are plucked from the branch of a 
tree in the same manner. In the 
same way young girls pretend to 
find out whether their sweethearts 
love them, saying: 

" He loves me, he loves me not," 
or, 

"A little, much, passionately, not at all." 

To find out when they are to be 
married, they repeat, while plucking 
the petals, 

" This year, next year, some time, never;" 

Dandelions gone to seed are often 
called " dandelion clocks," and chil- 
dren amuse themselves by trying to 
see in how few puffs they can blow 
away every seed. The number of 
puffs required is supposed to tell 
the time of day. Sometimes, if all 
the seeds can be blown off in three 
puffs, it is considered a sign that 
the successful one will be married 
within a year, or that his mother 



SPORTS WITH FLOWERS 



675 



SPORTS WITH FLOWERS 



wants him. Dandelions are also 
used to make chains and curls. 
Chains are made by cutting off the 
head of tne flower and pushing the 
small end of the stem into the large 
end, thus making a circular link; 
another link is fastened to it by 
putting the second stem through 
the first before it is closed, and so 
very long chains can be made. 
This way of making chains is very 
ancient, and gave rise to the Ger- 
man name Kette-blume (Chain- 
flower). Dandelion curls are made 
by splitting the stems into strips 
and putting them into water, when 
they curl up curiously. By splitting 
a stem partway, making some wide 
and some narrow strips, the form 
of the curls may be varied. 

Violets are used in the following 
sport : Each of two boys holds one 
of the flowers by the end of the 
stem, and placing them so that the 
stems will touch at about their mid- 
dles, gives a sudden jerk, so that 
the flowers will catch together. 
One of the flowers is almost certain 
to be pulled off the stem, and the 
uninjured one is the victor. Some- 
times a violet with a strong stem 
will come off best in many such 
contests. 

The Magic Rose. Dust some 
finely powdered aniline red over a 
white rose, and then shake it off. 
Sprinkle the rose with cologne wa- 
ter and it will turn red. The reason 
is that the alcohol in the cologne 
dissolves the fine particles of aniline 
which remain on the rose, rendering 
their color visible. 

Sports with Leaves. The leaves 
of the lilac, the " live forever," 
and some other plants and shrubs 
have a thin, light-colored skin on 
the under side, by scratching which 
with a pin a dark mark is made. 
These leaves can thus be used to 
write messages on and to play many 
kinds of writing-games. Leaves 
with long stems can be fastened to- 
gether by pushing the stem of one 
through the other, as shown in the 



illustration. In this way crowns, 
garlands, baskets, and other things 
may be made. Leaves with short 




Leaf-chain. 

stems may be used in like manner 
by pinning them with long thorns 
or pine-needles, A drinking cup 
can thus be made which will hold 
water long enough to carr)'' it from 
a spring to the mouth. 

Sports with Crass. An inter- 
esting game is played thus with 
grass : An even number of blades 



SPORTS WITH FLOWERS 



676 



SPORTS WITH FLOWERS 



(about ten is the best number) is 
selected by each player. The blades 
should be from six to twelve inches 
long. Each lays his blades side by 
side, and, sitting down, holds one 
end of the branch between his 
knees. He ties the free ends firmly 
together in pairs, and then, placing 
the knotted ends between his knees, 
ties the others in like manner. 
Each now examines his bunch of 
grass to see how it is tied together. 
Those who have tied their grass so 
as to form a perfect circle are win- 
ners. The next best arrangement 
is a circle of all the blades but two, 
the others forming a little circle by 
themselves. The next is a circle of 
all but four, these forming a sepa- 
rate circle, and so on. In any case 
two circles linked together are bet- 
ter than two entirely separate. 
There are thirty ways in which ten 
blades can be thus arranged, and 
the more blades are used the greater 
will be the number of arrangements. 
With ten blades there is a very 
slight chance of making a perfect 
circle. With four blades the pos- 
sible results are only three; perfect 
circle, two circles linked, and two 
circles unlinked. The game is en- 
tirely one of chance, as no one is 
allowed to look at the knots on one 
end while tying the others. The 
game is often played as a Solitaire. 
Sometimes the bunch of grass is 
given the name of a playfellow, and 
the player pretends that his success 
in tying it tells him how much 
that playfellow likes him. Another 
sport with grass is to place a blade 
between the thumbs and blow on it, 
which, if correctly done, makes a 
rough, screech ing note. The thumbs 
are held so that there is a little 
crack between them, and the edges 
of the blade must be stretched ex- 
actly in the middle of this crack. 
The broader the blade, the lower 
the note, and a very high tone can 
be made by using a thin shred. 
The note can also be varied by 
bending the thumbs a little, thus 



tightening and loosening the blade 
of grass. 

Green, a game or custom preva- 
lent among children in some parts 
of Georgia and South Carolina. 
One points the finger at any other 
with whom he is playing, or whom 
he may meet, saying, "Green." 
The one addressed must then pro- 
duce a leaf, bit of grass, or the 
like from some part of his dress. 
Children hide leaves in their shoes 
and other unlikely places with the 
object of making their playmates 
think that the "green" has been 
forgotten. It is considered a dis- 
grace not to be able to produce 
the green when it is called for, and 
sometimes a forfeit is required from 
the one so caught. 

This game was probably brought 
to this country by French Hugue- 
nots. It was played long ago in 
France, and is still common in some 
parts of that country, where per- 
sons of all ages take part in it at 
certain seasons. The French ex- 
pression ''Prendre sans verd" (to 
catch anyone without green), means 
to take by surprise, and is derived 
from this game. The custom is 
probably an old May-day game. 

Sports with Nuts. The ancient 
Roman boys played with round nuts 
as we do with marbles. At the 
present day they are used in such 
simple games as Odd or Even, 
and for carving into various shapes, 
particularly little baskets, a circle 
of the shell being left for a handle, 
and the meat cleaned out. The 
horse-chestnut is most used for this 
purpose, as its shell is thin and 
easily cut. Pretty baskets may be 
made also of filberts and hazelnuts, 
and even of cherry pits. Cherry 
pits too may be made into chains 
by cutting them with a sharp pen- 
knife into rings, which, when cut 
open at one side, may be opened 
enough to put another ring 
through. 

Acorn cups can be used as play- 
dishes, and with a little trimming 



SPORTS WITH FLOWERS 



677 



SPORTS WITH FLOWERS 



with a knife may represent cups, 
saucers, or plates. 

Pea-nuts may be used in playing a 
variety of games, some of which 
are described in the article on Pea- 
nut Sprees. 

Philopena, a game played by two 
persons with nuts, usually almonds. 
When a person finds one of these 
with two kernels in it. he may ask 
any one he chooses to eat a philo- 
pena with him. If the one asked 
consents, each eats one of the ker- 
nels, and whoever says the word 
" Philopena" first on meeting the 
other after the end of a certain time 
(usually after the day on which the 
philopena is eaten) is entitled to a 
present from the other. 

A more common way of eating a 
philopena is called Give and Take. 
If either of the players takes any 
object whatever from the other's 
hands, the giver is entitled to say 
" Philopena" and receive a present. 
This arrangement goes into force 
as soon as the philopena is eaten. 
Constant watchfulness is required 
to avoid being caught, and the play- 
ers use all sorts of tricks to throw 
each other off his guard. For in- 
stance, one may pass the other a 
plate at table, or hand him a book 
or other article to look at. I 



The Philopena is said to have 
originated .'n Germany, where it is 
called Viel-liebchen (much beloved), 
and some think that the first part 
of the word Philopena is a corrup- 
tion of this name, the Latin word 
po37ia (punishment) being added be- 
cause the gift was thought to be a 
penalty. Others think that the 
first part is from the Greek 
(a friend). 

Fruit Sports. Children eating ap- 
ples give them names, and then 
count the seeds to decide their own 
fate. The following rhyme is re- 
cited while counting: 

•' One, I love ; Two, I love ; 
Three, I love, I say ; 
Four, I love with all my heart, 
And Five, I cast away. 
Six, he loves ; Seven, she loves ; 
Eight, both love ; 
Nine, he comes ; Ten, he tarries ; 
Eleven, he courts ; Twelve, he marries." 

This rhyme is at least a century 
old, and probably much older. 

To Make Designs on Gi-owing 
Fruit. While the fruit is still green 
fasten on the side exposed to the 
sun letters or designs cut from tin- 
foil, or from thin sheet-waz, such as 
is used for making wax flowers. 
The foil or wax will prevent the sun 
from coloring the skin of the fruit 
underneath, and if it is removed 




Cucumber Horses. 



SPORTS WITH FLOWERS 



678 



SQUAILS 



when the fruit is ripe the letters 
will be left in light green. Fruit of 
some other color than green when 
ripe should of course be chosen. 
Among the best for the purpose are 
rosy apples. 

Cucumber Horses. The illustra- 
tions show how toy horses can be 
made from cucumbers and matches. 
Still more life-like ones can be made 
of crook-necked squashes. 

Apple-skin Bird. Cut a thin slice 
from an apple (Figs, i and 2) and 
then pare the skin from it in one 
piece, leaving some of the apple 
adhering to it, and including a bit 
of the stem at the top, as shown in 
Fig. 3. Cut through all but the 
thin outer skin near the top of the 
strip (Fig. 4) and then, holding it 
between the thumb and finger just 
below the cut, pinch it slightly (Fig. 
5). The effect of pinching is to 




Apple-skin Bird. 

move the top part backward and 
forward, like a bird pecking at some- 
thing. If a piece of bread be held 
in one hand and the bird be made 
to peck at it, the resemblance at a 
little distance is quite striking. 

Other sports with fruit, nuts, etc., 
are described in the article on Hal- 
loween. 



SQUAILS. A game played by any 
number of persons, usually four or 
six, with disks of wood, like CHECKER 
men, called squalls. The players, 
divided into two sides, sit alternately 
around a table with a smooth top, 
in the centre of which is a short 
metal column called the Process. 
Each player has two squalls, which 
are numbered or colored to distin- 
guish them from the others, and 
each in turn plays a squail toward 
the Process by placing it so that 
the edge projects from the table, 
and then striking it with the palm 
of the hand. The object is to get 
as near the Process as possible. 
The player may play his squail from 
any part of the table edge that he 
can reach with either hand while 
sitting in his chair. He may try to 
drive friendly squails nearer the 
Process, or knock those of the en- 
emy away. Any played squail fall- 
ing from the table, or going within 
three inches of the edge, is " dead " 
for that round. At the close of the 
two rounds the side which has the 
nearest squail to the Process scores 
one for each squail nearer than any 
of the enemies'. If a player knock 
the Process from the table, or 
within three inches of the edge, the 
opposing side scores two and the 
Process is replaced. 

Cachinole. A kind of Squails 
placed on a circular board, in the 
centre of which is the Process. The 
squails are snapped with the fingers 
from the edge of the board. 

Squails and Cachinole are practi- 
cally the game of Curling adapted 
to in-door playing. The principal 
difference between them and the 
similar out-door games is that the 
players shoot from all sides toward 
a centre, instead of from one end to 
the other of a rink or alley. 

The natives of the Friendly and 
Samoan Islands, in the South Pa- 
cific Ocean, play a game like Squails, 
called Laffo, in which the players 
pitch beans upon a mat, trying to 
strike off those of the other players. 



I 



STAGE-COACH 



679 



ST. HELENA 



STAGE-COACH, a game in which 
all the players sit in a circle except 
one, who stands in the middle. 
Each of those sitting takes the 
name of some part of a stage-coach, 
of some article of dress of a passen- 
ger, or of something else connected 
with a stage ride. The one in the 
middle of the room then tells a 
story, bringing in these names as 
often as he pleases. Whenever he 
speaks the name a player has taken, 
that player must rise and turn 
around, or pay a forfeit. When 
the word "stage-coach" is spoken, all 
must rise and turn. The story ends 
with the words " the stage turned 
over," at which all change seats. 
In the confusion the story-teller 
tries to slip into a chair, and if he 
succeeds, the one left standing must 
take his place and tell a similar 
story. Of course there must be 
only chairs enough in the game for 
those sitting. If the story-teller 
gets a seat, he may take the name 
of the one left standing, or choose 
a new one. If he is unsuccessful, 
he must tell another story. This 
game may be varied in many ways : 
thus, the story may be about a sea 
voyage, and the players may be 
named after parts of a ship. 

This game is similar to that of 
Echo, where instead of turning at 
certain words the players repeat 
them after the story-teller. The 
Germans call it " Die Reise nack 
Jerusalem" (The Journey to Jerusa- 
lem), but it is entirely different from 
our " Going to Jerusalem." 

STARCH, Manufacture of. 
Starch may be made from flour as 
follows : Mix flour with enough 
water to make a stiff dough, and 
then knead or roll it between the 
fingers on a piece of muslin stretched 
over a bowl or dish, pouring on a 
little water every few seconds. The 
water that flows through the mus- 
lin carries with it a white matter, 
which gradually settles to the bot- 
tom and may be collected. This is 
starch. When all the starch has 



thus been removed from the dough, 
a sticky mass remains, which is 
called gluten. 

STATUARY. See Living Statu- 
ary. 

STEAM-WHEEL. A simple kind 
of steam-engine can be made as 
follows : Fasten the lid of a tin 
baking-powder box to the box with 
shellac varnish, and punch two holes 
in the side of the box, one about as 
large as a pin and the other as large 
as a slate-pencil. The latter must 
be fitted with a wooden plug. This 
box is the boiler of the engine. It 
must be glued between two upright 
posts fixed in a board, so that the 
pin-hole is on top. The upright 
posts rise about two inches above 
the boiler and bear, on an axle 
made of stiff iron wire, a wheel like 
a water-wheel, or the paddle-wheel 
of a steamboat. This can be made 
by taking a large pill-box, cutting 
slits in the sides, and drawing slips 
of pasteboard through the slits so 
that they project about half an 
inch. The slips are steadied by 
filling the box with damp sand be- 
fore putting on the lid. This wheel 
is arranged so that one side is di- 
rectly over the pin-hole. The 
boiler is now supplied with water 
through the plugged hole, and an 
alcohol lamp is placed under it. 
When the water begins to boil, the 
steam will issue from the pin-hole, 
and striking the paddles of the 
wheel, will spin it around very rap- 
idly. If a grooved wooden wheel 
be glued to one side of the paddle- 
wheel, it may be connected by a string 
to one of the moving toys which 
are sold at toy-stores to be set in 
motion by miniature steam-engines. 

ST. HELENA, a solitaire game 
of CARDS played with two packs. 
The four Kings of one pack are laid 
in a row on the table, and under 
them the four corresponding Aces. 
Cards are then placed, as they come, 
in a row above the Kings, and in an- 
other below the Aces ; and then 
two cards are placed at the right of 



SttLL POND 



6go 



STOCK EXCHANGE 



the rows and two at the left. The 
whole pack is distributed in this or- 
der. The player's object is to build 
up families by suits, downward from 
the Kings and upward from the 
Aces, and whenever a card can be 
placed in its proper order it is so 
placed ; but those that fall in the 
upper row can be used only on the 
Kings, and those in the lower row 
on the Aces. The side cards can 
be used on either row. After the 
pack has been distributed, the top 
card of any pile can be placed on 
any other top card just above or 
below it in rank ; and when a card is 
thus uncovered that can be used in 
building, it is so used, bearing in 
mind the restriction noticed above. 
If it is necessary to pick up the 
outer rows, reshuffle them and re- 
lay them. It may be done once, 
and then any cards may be used in 
building, no matter on what row 
they fall. This game is said to have 
been played much by Napoleon in 
exile on the island of St. Helena, 
and this gives it its name. 

STILL POND. See Blind Man's 
Buff. 

STILTS, poles or crutches to raise 
the feet above the ground in walk- 
ing. The stilts are held as shown 
in the picture. As usually made, 
each stilt has a step 
of wood, on which a 
foot is placed ; but 
some stilts have in- 
stead a loop or stir- 
rup of leather, into 
which the foot is 
thrust. The latter 
kind is dangerous, 
for if the wearer trip 
or lose his balance 
and fall, the feet are 
apt to become entan- 
I gled, whereas in the 
^ other case he can 
easily jump from the 
stilts to the ground. 
Skilful walkers have 
Stilts. their stilts strapped 

tightly to their legs, so that they 




may use their hands freely. The art 
of walking on stilts depends on the 
principles of balancing, and is best 
learned by practice. The learner 
should mount at first from a stump 
or fence, high enough to step at 
once onto his stilts. It is impos- 
sible to stand still on stilts without 
the aid of a staff, for the ends of 
the poles do not offer so broad a 
support as the feet ; but by taking 
little steps in one direction and an- 
other, the walker may remain near 
one spot as long as he pleases. It 
is easier to balance the body on 
long stilts than on short ones, for 
the same reason that it is easier to 
balance a long pole than a short one. 
In the Landes, a marshy tract of 
country near Bordeaux, France, the 
shepherds make great use of stilts 
(C. T. T.). In this and other regions 
where necessity has compelled the 
use of stilts, various stilt-games are 
played. 

The illustration below, from an 
old manuscript, shows the use of 
stilts in ancient times. 




Ancient Stilts. 

STOCK EXCHANGE, THE, a game 

played by any number of persons, 
with a pack of cards. The players 
sit in a circle, and one of them, tak- 
ing the cards in his hand, gives them 



STOP 



68i 



SUGAR OF LEAD 



one by one to his left-hand neighbor, 
calling out the name of each card 
as he does so, three times in quick 
succession. His neighbor, as he re- 
ceives them, hands them to the 
next player, calling out their names 
in like manner. The noise and con- 
fusion increases with each card 
handed out, and is supposed to re- 
semble the sounds heard in the 
Stock Exchange, where the brokers 
are calling out the names of the 
stocks they wish to sell or buy. If 
the circle is not large enough for the 
whole pack to go around, the player 
at the right of the dealer holds the 
cards, as they reach him, instead of 
passing them. Thus the noise 
grows gradually less, and finally sub- 
sides when all the cards have gone 
around. Sometimes, when a Knave 
appears, instead of naming k the 
holder says H'm, H'm, H'm, thus 
imitating the undertone of conver- 
sation ; and when an Ace is passed, 
the one who passes it cries Oh ! Oh ! 
Oh! 

STOP. See Newmarket. 

STRING-BALL, a game played by 
any number of persons with a hard 
rubber ball, suspended by a string 
from the limb of a tree or from a 
stick projecting from a window. 
The string should be from lo to 15 
feet long, and the ball should hang 
about three or four feet above the 
ground. One of the players strikes 
the ball with his hand, so that it 
swings, and those toward whom it 
moves try to catch it before it swings 
back past its lowest position. Should 
any one succeed, the striker is out 
and another takes his place; if not, he 
scores one point and strikes again, 
keeping on till he is put out. The 
order in which the players are to 
strike, and the number of turns 
each is to have, is decided at the 
beginning of the game. 

Another method is for the striker 
to try to hit the ball so hard that 
the cord will be wound one or more 
times around the branch or stick to 
which it is fastened. Each has but 



one trial at a time, and scores as 
many points as the cord makes turns 
around the branch. The cord is 
unwound after each trial so that the 
ball hangs as at first. 

This is a German game, and its 
name is a translation of the German 
name Schnurball. 

STRING-STICKS, an arrangement 
of sticks and string shown in the 
first figure. The string appears to 




String-sticks. — Fig. i, 

pass directly through the top of the 
sticks, as it can be pulled back and 
forthby theends Aand B. A sharp 
knife can be passed down between 
the sticks at C, apparently cutting 
the string, yet it can be pulled back 
and forth as before. The second il- 
lustration shows the real arrange- 




String-sticks. — Fig. 2. 

ment of the string, which makes 
this possible. The string does not 
pass through EF at all, but down the 
sticks and through the hinge (D in 
Fig. i). 

SUGAR OF LEAD, Experiments 
with. Make a strong solution of 
sugar of lead, and add hydrochloric 
acid or a solution of common salt. 



SULPHUR 



682 



SULPHUR DIOXIDE 



A fine precipitate of chloride of 
lead will be formed. Boil the solu- 
tion and this will be dissolved, but 
on cooling it is deposited in beauti- 
ful crystals, sometimes called " The 
Silver Shower." 

2. Repeat the above experiment, 
adding iodide of potassium to the 
solution of sugar of lead instead of 
hydrochloric acid. The crystals of 
iodide of lead formed on cooling are 
bright yellow, and the experiment is 
hence often called " The Golden 
Shower." 

SULPHUR, Expenments with. Sul- 
phur is described in C. C. T. 

1. Place in a test-tube enough bits 
of stick sulphur, or flowers of sul- 
phur, to half fill it. Heat the sul- 
phur in an alcohol lamp flame and 
it will melt. At first it forms a 
light yellow liquid ; but if it be 
heated more it turns dark, and be- 
comes so thick that it will not run 
out even if the tube be held upside 
down. If it be heated still more, 
it becomes fluid again and finally 
boils, giving off a light yellow va- 
por. While it boils, pour half of it 
into a glass of cold water and set 
the rest away to cool. That which 
was poured into the water forms a 
dark mass like India-rubber, which 
does not resemble sulphur at all, 
and that which cools in the test 
tube forms long yellow crystals. 
The first is called amorphous sul- 
phur, from two Greek words mean- 
ing "without form." 

2. To dissolve sulphur. Sulphur 
will not dissolve in water or alcohol, 
but it will in carbon disulphide. If 
the solution be poured on a plate 
and dried, the sulphur will be de- 
posited in crystals ; but, as can be 
seen with a magnifying glass, these 
are not the same kind of crystals as 
those obtained by cooling in the 
first experiment, being shorter and 
blunter. The amorphous sulphur 
will not dissolve even in carbon 
disulphide. 

3. To bleach with sulphur. Light 
a small piece of sulphur, and hold 



over it some colored flowers in an 
inverted glass. The flowers will be 
turned white, either entirely or in 
spots. Dip the flowers in very 
weak sulphuric acid or ammonia, 
and the color will be partially re- 
stored. The bleaching is done by 
the gas called sulphur dioxide, which 
is made when sulphur is burned. 
More experiments with this gas are 
described in the article on it. 

4. Mix seven grains of powdered 
sulphur with four grains of fine iron 
filings, and heat the mixture in an 
ignition tube. They will combine 
to form sulphide of iron. 

SULPHUR DIOXIDE, Experiments 
with. Sulphur dioxide gas may be 
made by burning sulphur, as shown 
in Experiment 3 in the preceding 
article. It is hard to collect it when 
made thus, and it is also impure. 
A better way is to put two or three 
teaspoonfuls of small scraps of cop- 
per into a flask, cover them with 
strong sulphuric acid, and heat the 
mixture. The delivery-tube from 
the flask must lead to the bottom 
of a bottle where the gas will col- 
lect, as it is heavier than air. It 
will be perceived by the smell that 
the gas is the same as that produced 
by burning sulphur. The liquid re- 
maining in the flask is colored blue 
with BLUE VITRIOL. By passing 
the delivery-tube into a bottle of 
water, the gas will dissolve, forming 
sulphurous acid, which may be used 
in bleaching, like the gas. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

I . To turn sulphur dioxide gas to 
a liquid. This can be done by ap- 
plying cold or pressure, but the lat- 
ter method is not safe without spe- 
cial apparatus. The first method 
is easy if care be taken. The de- 
livery-tube first leads the gas into a 
bottle packed in ice, and it next 
passes through a drying bottle, and 
then through a U-tube packed in* 
pounded ice and salt. The gas willB 
condense into a heavy oily liquid at 
the bottom of the U-tube. If the 



SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN 68$ 



SULPHURIC ACID 



tube be one with a stop-cock at both 
ends, they may be turned, and the 
liquid can thus be kept any length 
of time. Otherwise it will evapo- 
rate again into the gas. The evap- 
oration of the liquid produces great 
cold, as will be seen in the following 
experiments. 

2 Put a little mercury in a watch- 
glass or butter plate, pour liquid 
sulphur dioxide over it, and blow a 
current of air across it with a bel- 
lows. The mercury will be frozen. 

3. Pour some liquid sulphur di- 
oxide on the bulb of an alcohol 
thermometer wrapped in cotton. 
It will sink very low. A mercury 
thermometer will not do so, because 
the mercury would be frozen. 

4. Pour a quantity of the liquid 
sulphur dioxide into ice-cold water. 
Some of it will sink to the bottom. 
Stir this with a glass rod and it 
will boil at once, while some of the 
water will freeze. 

SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN, 
Experimentswith. (Read the article 
Chemical Experiments.) Sul- 
phuretted hydrogen, also called 
hydrogen sulphide, is a gas com- 
posed of hydrogen and sulphur. 
It should be made out of doors or 
in an out-building, for it has a very 
bad odor, like that of rotten eggs. 
It can be made like hydrogen, 
using, instead of zinc, lumps of iron 
sulphide as large as the tip of the 
little finger. The gas can be col- 
lected over hot water, or led into a 
bottle of cold water, in which it will 
dissolve. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1. All the experiments given 
under HYDROGEN can be repeated 
with sulphuretted hydrogen. When 
burned in a jar it will deposit a thin 
crust of sulphur on the inside. 

2. Fill a bottle with chlorine and 
another with sulphuretted hydrogen 
and bring them mouth to mouth. 
Sulphur will be deposited. The 
same result will follow if chlorine 



water and sulphuretted hydrogen 
water be mixed. 

3. Hold a wet silver or copper 
coin in a stream of the gas or dip it 
in sulphuretted hydrogen water. 
The coin will be blackened. 

4. Make a drawing or write a sen- 
tence on a piece of paper with sugar 
of lead dissolved in water. It will 
be invisible when dry. Dip it in 
sulphuretted hydrogen water, and 
the writing or drawing will show 
plainly in black. The reason is, 
that while sugar of lead is white, 
sulphide of lead (which is formed 
when it touches sulphuretted hydro- 
gen) is black. 

SULPHURIC ACID, Experiments 
with. Sulphuric acid is described 
in C. C. T. (Read also the article 
Chemical Experiments.) i. Put 
a few teaspoon fuls of water into a 
glass, and on it slowly pour about 
twice as much sulphuric acid in a 
fine stream. Stir the liquid with a 
test-tube containing a little alcohol 
or ether. Enough heat will be de- 
veloped to boil the liquid in the 
tube. Even water will boil in the 
tube, but not so readily. 

2. Make a thick syrup by dissolv- 
ing sugar in hot water. Put a few 
teaspoonfuls into a glass and pour 
sulphuric acid in it slowly, at the 
same time stirring it with a glass 
rod. The acid will turn the syrup 
into a mass of black spongy char- 
coal, as shown in the figure. If the 




Experiment 2. 

syrup is not thick enough, the mass 
will be half liquid. 

3. Dip bits of wood into strong 
sulphuric acid. They will be 
charred as if by heat. 

4. Dilute some sulphuric acid 
with about half its volume of water, 
and when it has become cold, dip 
into a piece of unglazed paper, let- 



SULTAN 



684 



SUN-DIALS 



ting it stay about a quarter of a min- 
ute. Rinse the paper in water, then 
in very weak ammonia, and then in 
water again. The paper will be 
much tougher than before, being 
changed to a substance called vege- 
table parchment. The time it 
should remain in the acid varies 
with the kind of paper used, but by 
trying several times very tough 
parchment can be made. 

SULTAN, a solitaire game of 
CARDS, played with two full packs. 
One Ace of Hearts and the eight 
Kings are removed from the pack 
and arranged on the table as fol- 
lows : One King of Hearts (called 
the Sultan) is placed in the centre, 
with the Ace of Hearts just above 
him, and below him the other King 
of Hearts. On each side of the 
Ace are laid the Kings of Clubs, 
just below them the Kings of Dia- 
monds, and below these the Kings 
of Spades, representing respectively 
War, the Treasury, and Industry. 
The back is now shuffled, held back 
upward, and playing begins. The 
first four cards are laid in order on 
one side of the figure already formed, 
with their ends toward the figure, 
and the next four on the other side 
in like manner. These eight cards 
are called the Sultan's Divan. The 
piles of suits are now to be com- 
pleted in order, by placing on the 
Kings the Aces, Twos, Threes, and 
so on up to Queens, using cards 
from the pack, any card from the 
Divan, or the top card of the Stock, 
which consists of the cards that 
cannot be used, piled on one side. 
The Ace of Hearts is also built upon 
in like manner. When a place in 
the Divan is empty it must be filled 
at once, either by the next card 
played, or the top card of the Stock, 
as the player chooses. When the 
game is ended, it shows the Sultan 
surrounded by his eight Queens. 

SUN-DIALS. The use of sundials 
and the form of one kind are de- 
scribed in the article Clock in 
C. C. T. There are many other 



kinds, all of which can be con- 
structed with a little care. One of 
the simplest consists of a circle or 
disk of metal, having its circumfer- 
ence divided into twenty-four equal 
parts, numbered from one to twelva 
twice over, as in Fig. i. Zinc isi 




Fig:. I. 
the best material for all the dials, 
as it does not rust and is easily 
marked and cut. In the centre is 
fixed a straight pin called a style, 
which must be exactly perpendicu- 
lar to the disk. The accuracy of 
the dial depends on this, and on 
its being placed so that the style 
points in the same direction as the 
earth s axis. This may be brought 
about in two ways. In one, a little 
hole is made through the metal 
disk, close to the style, and then, 
on a clear night, the dial is so 
placed that by looking through this 
hole, the north star is brought into 
line with the style. In the otherll 
method a triangle is cut out of 
pasteboard (see Fig. 2) having th& 
A angle C just 
equal to the 
latitude of the 
place. This 
can be done 
by finding the 
latitude on a 
C Fig-. 2. B map, and then 

making the angle with the aid of a 




SUN-DIALS 



685 



SUN-DIALS 



piece of metal marked off in de- 
grees, called a protractor, which 
can be bought of any dealer in draw- 
ing materials. Fix this triangle, 
with the aid of a compass, so that 
the end B points due north and the 
base BC is horizontal. Then fix 
the dial so that the style points 
along the line AC, the free end be- 
ing toward A. The figure 12 must 
be exactly below the style. 

Globe-dial, A dial can be made 
of an ordinary school globe, mounted 
on an axis which points toward the 
north pole (see Fig. 3). The globe 




Fi?. 3. 
is divided into twenty-four parts by 
meridians of longitude, which are 
numbered from i to 12 twice over, 
one six o'clock meridian being ex- 
actly on top of the globe, and the 
other at the bottom. There is no 
style, the hour being pointed out by 
the line between the light and dark 
part of the globe. As this is rather 
blurred, the dial is not very exact. 

Trough-dial. This is formed of a 
serai-circular trough of tin or zinc 
closed at the end as shown in Fig, 4, 
Straight lines divide it lengthwise 
into twelve equal parts which are 
numbered from 6 A,M. to 6 P,M., the 
twelve o'clock line being at the 
bottom. Instead of a style a wire is 
stretched lengthwise- across the 



middle of the trough from end to 
end, whose shadow points out the 




Fig. 4. 

hours. The trough must be placed 
in a north and south direction. 

Horizontal Dial. This is more 
common than the others just de- 
scribed, but is harder to make be- 
cause the dial is not divided into 
equal parts. To make one exactly 
requires the use of mathematics, 
but one can be made roughly as 
follows : Fix a disk or square plate 
of zinc on a post, so that it will be 
perfectly level, and in the middle 
drive a pin for a style, inclined as 
before in the direction of the north 
star. The triangle in Fig, 2 may be 
cut out of zinc and soldered to the 
dial, its edge AC answering as a 
style. Watch the shadow of the 
style, and mark each hour on the 
edge of the dial where the shadow 
falls at that hour. Only the time 
used must be sun time — not true 
time. The difference between these 
two sorts of time will now be ex- 
plained. 

Correction. If the earth moved 
around the sun at a uniform speed, 
the sun dial would always indicate 
the true time, but it moves faster at 
some times than at others, so that 
a correction must usually be added 
to or subtracted from the hour it 
points out, and the same correction 
must be used in marking the hours 
on the dial, A table of these cor- 
rections (expressed in minutes) is 
given below. All corrections 
marked -f are to be added to the 
reading of the dial to get the true 
time, and all marked — are to 
be subtracted. In marking the 
dial, where it is necessary to get 
sun time from true time, the cor- 
rections marked — are added to the 



SUN-SPOTS 



686 



SWAY K A 



true time, and those marked + are 
subtra:ted. All the days of the 
month are not given, but the cor- 
rections for the omitted ones can 
easily be calculated. Thus, the cor- 
rection for Jan. 5 is -1- 5i, and that 
for Oct. 12. is — 13^. 







25 


— 2 


21 


— 7 


Jan. 


30I- 3 


24 


- 8 


I 
4 


+ 4 
+ 5 


May 


27 
30 


- 9 

— 10 


6 


+ 6 


I 


- 3 


Oct. 


8 


+ 7 


17 


- 4 




II 


+ 8 


28 - 3 


3 


— II 


?e 


+ 9 
+ 10 


June 


7 
10 


— 12 

— 13 


19 


+ II 


4 


— 2 


14 


- 14 


23 


+ 12 


10 


— I 


19 


- 15 


27 


+ 13 


19 


+ I 


27 


— 16 


31 


+ 14 


24 


+ 2 


Nov. 


3 


Feb. 
+ 14 


29 


+ 3 
July 


10 
17 


- 16 
-15 


19 


+ 14 


4 


+ 4 


21 


— 14 


26 


4- 13 


10 


+ 5 


25 


-13 


March 


19 


+ 6 


28 


— 12 




Aug. 


Dec. 


3 


+ 12 




4 


+ II 


I 


+ 6 


I 


— II 


12 


+ 10 


II 


+ 5 


2 


— 10 


15 


+ 9 


16 


+ 4 


6 


- 9 


19 


+ 8 


21 


+ 3 


8 


— 8 


22 


+ 7 


25 


+ 2 


10 


- 7 


25 


+ 6 


29 


+ I 


12 


- 6 


28 


+ 5 


Sept. 


14 
16 


- 5 

- 4 

- 3 


April 


41- I 


18 


I 


+ 4 


7 


— 2 


21 


— 2 


4 


+ 3 


10 


- 3 


23 


— I 


8 


+ 2 


13 


— 4 


27 


+ I 


12 


+ I 


16 


- 5 


29 


+ 2 


19 




18 


- 6 


31 


+ 3 


SUN-SPOTS, Observations on. 


he 


sun is 


des( 


:ribed 


in C 


C. T. 



The spots on it may be seen through 
an ordinary opera-glass, the eyes 
being protected from its rays as fol- 
lows : Procure two strips of window- 
glass one inch wide and two inches 
long, and smoke one of them over 
a lamp or candle flame till the sun 
can be seen through it without 
hurting the eyes. Fasten the 



pieces of glass together, smoked 
side inward, by elastic bands, keep- 
ing them apart by slips of paper 
pasted at the ends, so that the 
smoked side will not rub. The 
pieces of glass can now be fastened 
over the eye-pieces of the opera- 
glass by a large elastic band around 
the middle. The spots can now be 
seen easily. When a spot shaped 
so that it can be recognized is seen, 
it should be watched from day to 
day, and will be seen to change its 
place. The reason is that the sun 
is turning on its axis like the earth, 
carrying the spot around with it. 
The average number of sun-spots 
does not remain the same, but is 
greatest every eleven years. The 
last year when there was the largest 
number was 1881, and the next will 
therefore be in 1892. Until about 
that time there will be more and 
more of them, and then they will 
decrease in number till about 1897, 
when they will begin to increase 
again. 

SWAYKA, a game played by any 
number of persons with an iron pin 
eight or nine inches long, and any 
number of iron rings varying in di- 
ameter from two inches to one foot. 
The pin, which is called the Swayka 
(its name in Russian), is so sharp 
that it will stick upright when 
thrown either at the ground or a 
board floor. The rings are placed 
in any order on the ground, and the 
players try to throw the Swayka so 
that it will stick upright within one 
of them. Their object is so to 
place it in each one of the rings in 
any order. 

RULES. 

1. The players take turns, each- 
having only one throw in a turn. 

2. A player may throw first at 
whichever ring he chooses, but he 
must announce beforehand which 
one it is, and if he throws the Swayka 
into any other it counts as a miss. 

3. Whoever can place the Swayka 
in all the rings in regular order of 



SWEDISH WHIST 



687 



SWIMMING 



size, beginning with the smallest 
and ending with the largest, receives 
the name of King, has general con- 
trol of the game, acts as umpire, 
and has the right to order any one 
to pick up the Swayka for him. 
When he reaches the largest he 
must begin at the smallest again, 
otherwise he cannot remain King. 
He holds the title as long as he can 
throw successfully in that order. 
If two or more players earn the 
right to be King they must throw 
together, the other players omitting 
their turns till all but one have 
missed. 

4. No player may throw a second 
time at the same ring till he has 
placed the Swayka in all the other 
rings. 

5. When a player misses, all the 
rings he has thrown into count for 
nothing, and he must throw, at his 
next turn, into the next larger ring. 
If he miss that, he must take the 
next larger at his following turn, 
and so on till he is successful or 
misses the largest ring. 

6. Whoever misses the largest 
ring is out of the game, and is 
obliged to pick up the Swayka for 
his companions till some one else 
misses that ring and takes his place. 

7. The game may last as long as 
desired. If so agreed, he who has 
been King the greatest number of 
times during the play is victor. 

Swayka is a Russian game, and 
is said to be very popular in that 
countrv. 

SWEDISH WHIST. See Prefer- 
ence. 

SWIMMING, the art of propelling 
one's self through the water by the 
arms and legs. 

Learning to Swim. The learner 
should choose, if possible, a grad- 
ually sloping shore with gravelly 
or sandy bottom, where there is 
no current. If he is not used to 
the water, he must first accustom 
himself to being under it by ly- 
ing down on the bottom, where it 
is only one or two feet deep. He 



will thus, after practice, be able to 
enter the water without gasping, 
and will learn that it is easy to keep 
his body afloat by a very slight push 
of the hand against the bottom, as 
shown in Fig. i. He should try to 




Fig. I. 

open his eyes under water, and when 
he puts his head out he must re- 
member to breathe outward before 
inhaling, thus expelling the water 
from his nostrils. After he has ac- 
quired confidence, he should wade 
out to a depth of about four feet, 
and try to swim to shore, using the 
simple chest stroke, or swimming 
" dog-fashion," as explained below. 
At first he will probably splash 
about rather aimlessly with hands 
and feet; but as soon as he sees that 
he can keep himself afloat, he will 
be able to follow directions more 
exactly. When he sinks he can 
sustain himself by pushing with one 
hand against the bottom — but this 
should be done as seldom as pos- 
sible. When he can swim a few 
strokes without this aid, he should 
begin at a greater distance from 
shore, and so on, until he is perfect- 
ly at home in the water. This will 
probably be only after much patient 
practice, though some learners make 
faster progress than others. 

This is not the only way of learn- 
ing to swim. Some people advise 
the learner to jump at once into 
water over his depth, trusting to 
his instinct and to his natural strug- 
gles to get to shore; but this should 
never be tried unless some older 
person is near to rescue the sv/im- 
mer in case of need. Timid people 
should never try it at all. Another 



SWIMMING 



688 



SWIMMING 



method is for a teacher or compan- 
ion to support the learner, by plac- 




Fig. 2. 

ing a hand beneath him till he has 
learned to make the proper motions 



and is able to keep himself up. In 
another method a band around the 
learner's chest is fastened by a rope 
to the end of a pole held by an as- 
sistant (see Fig. 2), who thus gives 
the swimmer aid as long as he needs 
it. Some teachers say that the 
learner ought to practise his strokes 
lying across a chair, before he tries 
them in the water, but others con- 
sider this unnecessary. The various 
kinds of swimming strokes will now 
be described. 

Breast-stroke. This is the ordi- 
nary stroke and the one generally 
used by learners. Fig. 3 shows the 
position of starting as seen from 
above, and Fig. 4 the attitude as 
seen from one side. The hands are 
brought under the chin, fingers to- 
gether, and palms down and slight- 
ly hollowed. The arms are then 
pushed straight forward, keeping 
the hands together till they are at 




German Swimming School. 

full length. The hands are now j line with the shoulders, when the 
separated and brought obliquely hands are brought in edgewise till 
backward and downward (called | they are together just beneath the 
" striking out") till the arms are in | chin, as at first. Some swimmers 



SWIMMING 



689 



SWIMMING 



take a longer stroke than this, bring- 
ing the hands down as far as the 
hips. While the hands are making 




this stroke, the feet and legs make 
a corresponding one. The knees 
are bent so that they will be as far 



apart as possible, while the feet are 
together, and the legs are then 
kicked back and out so that the 
soles of the feet press flatly against 
the water. The legs must then be 
closed stiffly, like a pair of scissors, 
forcing the water out from between 
them, and so pushing the swimmer 
forward. When they are closed the 
knees must be opened again as at 
first. 

The arm and leg strokes must be 
made at the same time, the feet be- 
ing drawn up as the hands are ad- 
vanced, the kick being made quickly 
as the hands begin to strike out, and 
the legs being closed when the 
hands have about half finished the 
stroke. Fig. 4 shows the proper 
angle for the body to make with the 
water surface. The head should be 
kept back as far as possible, that it 
may be supported by the lungs. 
The breath should be in time with 




Fig. 4. 



the stroke, the lungs being empty 
when it is being made, and full when 
the swimmer is drawing in his limbs 
for a new one. The reason for this 
is that the body is lighter when the 
lungs are full of air, and there is 
greatest need of their sustaining 
power between strokes. 

Beginners are apt to place most 
reliance on the arm movement, pay- 
ing little attention to the legs; but 
the leg stroke is really as important 
as that of the arms, or even more im- 
portant, as some teachers think. The 
swimmer will be able to go much 
farther without tiring himself if he 



uses his legs properly than if he sim- 
ply kicks with them. 

Side-stroke. The swimmer lies 
on his side instead of his breast. 
Either side may be used, but most 
swimmers prefer the right, since the 
right arm can then be used to the 
greatest advantage. The head is 
turned so that the chin rests against 
the uppermost shoulder, and lies as 
deeply in the water as possible. 
The face may be kept above water, 
or it may be above only when the 
forward impulse raises it a little. 
The lower hand is advanced under 
water on a level with the head, and 



SWIMMING 



690 



SWIMMING 



then is brought downward at arm's 
length. It is returned by bending 
the elbow and wrist, so as to give as 
little resistance as possible. While 
this hand is being advanced, as just 
described, the upper hand is used 
like an oar, the fingers being bent 
at right angles to the arm. Thus 
the hands are used alternately, each 
doing its work in turn. At the 
same time the upper leg is kicked 
out in front of the body, and brought 
around like an oar, the foot being 
stretched out in a line with the leg, 
and the lower leg is stretched out 
beyond the back, and brought 
around to meet the other. Both 
legs are then drawn in for another 
stroke, as in the chest-stroke. The 
side stroke requires more practice 
than the chest-stroke, but the body 
offers less resistance to the water in 
this stroke than in any other. It is 
often used by skilled swimmers as a 
rest in going long distances. 

Overhand Side-stroke (Fig. 5). 
This is like the one just described, 
except that the uppermost arm is 




Fig. 5. 
advanced out of water instead of 
under it, as shown in the illustra- 
tion. 

Swimming Dog-fashion. The arms 
are moved alternately outward, 
downward, and then inward, with a 
pawing motion, but without leaving 
the water. The motion of the legs 
may be as in the chest-stroke, or 
they may be kicked backward alter- 
nately. This stroke is often used 
by beginners, and is the natural one 
for most people, though not the 
best for ordinary use. 

Swimming Turtle-fashion (Fig. 6). 
Like the last stroke, except that the 



arms are thrust forward alternately 
above water, the body turning from 
side to side. This stroke is swift, 




Fig. 6. 
but more tiresome than the chest- 
stroke. 

Swimming on the Back. There 
are several methods. In one, the 
swimmer lies on his back, keeping 
his face barely out of water. The 
legs are inclined downward and 
held together, the stroke being made 
entirely with the hands. The arms 
are kept closely at the swimmer's 
sides and he propels himself by a 
rapid twisting motion of the hands 
from the wrist, the back of the hand 
being uppermost to begin with, and 
the palm at the end of the stroke. 
The chest stroke may also be used 
in swimming on the back. The 
swimmer may advance head first or 
feet first, as he chooses, and he may 
use hands alone or feet alone in 
making his stroke. When the arms 
are not used they should be folded 
on the chest, or held straight along 
the side. 

There are many other methods of 
swimming, and every good swim- 
mer usually has a stroke differing 
a little from every other. When 
one has mastered the simple strokes, 
he can invent other methods to suit 
his fancy. Some of the styles used 
by skilled swimmers, besides those 
already mentioned, are : 

I. The corkscrew stroke, in which 
the body turns under water, appar- 
ently screwing its way forward. 
This is done by a patting motion of 
the soles of the feet, the swimmer 
steering with one hand, which is held 
straight forward. 



SWIMMING 



691 



SWIMMING 



2. Swimming with one hand or 
foot, or both feet, out of water. 
This is useful where a swimmer 
wishes to carry his clothes across a 
deep stream. 

3, Swimming with hands and feet 
bound, or with one hand holding 
one foot. 

Diving, entering deep water head- 
first by leaping. The water should 
be more than six feet deep, or the 
swimmer may injure himself by 
striking against the bottom. Va- 
rious attitudes in diving are shown 
in the accompanying illustrations, 
but that commonly preferred is the 




Diving Forward. 
one where the diver extends his 
hands above his head. Sometimes 
a spring-board is used to aid the 
leap. Before beginning to dive the 
swimmer should master the ordi- 
nary strokes, and should be able to 
keep his eyes open under water. 
He must leap so that he will enter 
the water head first, for if he strikes 
flat on his chest the shock is severe. 
When the dive is made properly 
there is no splash, the body enter- 



ing the water smoothly. When be- 
neath the water he may strike out, 
keeping under as long as possible, 
and rising at a distance from the 
place where he entered, or he may 
rise at once, aiding himself by a 




Diving Sideways. 

downward movement of the hands. 
The depth to which a diver goes be- 
pends on the angle at which he 
enters the water, and on his move- 
ments beneath it. Skilful divers 
often bring up stones from a depth 
of twelve or fifteen feet, while on 
the other hand they can dive without 
touching bottom when it is only six 
or eight feet below the surface. A 
very deep dive is often aided by 
carrying a stone in one hand. The 
learner may begin diving by stand- 
ing in water up to his waist and 
plunging into it head first. He 
should try diving from a moderate 
height before he ventures to leap 
from a high bank or from a spring- 
board. Some swimmers dive feet 
foremost : but this requires skill to 
keep upright, if the jump is from a 
high place; and if the swimmer 
strikes on his side or does not hold 
his feet together, he may be badly 



SWIMMING 



692 



SWIMMING 



injured. Jumping into the water 
from a low bank, however, is per- 
fectly safe, and requires no skill. 

When a swimmer dives frequently, 
he should fill his ears with oiled 
cotton. People who have large nos- 
trils are often obliged to stop them 
up in like manner, and boys, when 
diving, often hold the nose in one 
hand ; but this is awkward and can 
only be done when diving from a 
very low bank, or from a row-boat. 

Floating. The human body is a 
very little lighter than water, on an 
average, but the head is heavier 
than water. If left to itself, there- 
fore, the body tends to float, bnt 
with back upward, the head hang- 
ing down beneath the surface. To 
float on one's back, keeping the 
mouth and nostrils out of water, so 
as to breathe, requires skill and con- 
fidence. The lightest part of the 
body is the lungs, and the swimmer's 
effort should be to alter the posi- 
tion of the limbs and body above 
and below the lungs, so that there 
will be a perfect balance. One of 



and throws up his hands, with the 
result that he goes down, his body 
not being light enough to sustain 
his arms out of water. The learner 
should remember that his body will 
float of itself so long as it is nearly 
under water, and that there is no 
danger of his sinking unless he tries 
to raise head or limb. In assuming 
the floating position, all the move- 
ments must be made slowly and 
under water. The lightness of the 
body will be increased by keeping 
the lungs as full as possible. To 
one who is skilled in floating the 
sensation is delightful, and swirn- 
mers often rest themselves thus in 
still water. In rough water it is of 
course impossible. 

Treading Water. To tread water 
the swimmer assumes an upright 




Floating, 
the best floating positions is that 
where the swimmer extends his 
arms above his head, throws the 
head back, and draws up the legs 
under the thighs. The body is not 
horizontal, but inclines downward 
toward the legs, the back being 
slightly hollowed. The only parts 
of the body above water are the 
chin, mouth, and nose. A more 
difficult position is the horizontal, 
the body being held straight and 
stiff, the legs close together. The 
toes, chest, face, and fingers are just 
above the surface. It is also pos- 
sible to float perpendicularly. Con- 
fidence is more essential to floating 
than anything else. The beginner 
usually feels that he is going to sink, 




Treading Water, 
position, only the head' being above 
water, and moves his legs as though 
walking upstairs, pushing down- 
ward against the water with the 
soles of his feet. Very slight exer- 
tion is required to keep the head 



SWIMMING 



693 



SWIMMING 



above water, but the swimmer must 
not try to keep it too high, remem- 
bering that when more of the body 
is above the surface, it is harder 
work to sustain it. Another method 
is to move both feet together, as in 
the chest-stroke — but this causes the 
body to rise and fall with each ef- 
fort. In either method the arms 
may be held straight at the sides, 
or "akimbo," or folded across the 
chest. 

Swimming in Rough Water. The 
swinimer should learn his strokes 
in still water, but when he has mas- 
tered them he should practise them 
also in rough water. He should 
try to go through the waves rather 
than over them. In the surf it is 
necessary to look out for the under- 
tow, which is a strong current of 
water flowing outward from the 
shore underneath the waves which 
are rolling in. If the swimmer lets 
his legs drop too low, this current 
will strike them and pull him back. 
He should not, therefore, let them 



hang at an angle with the surface, 
as ordinarily, but should swim 
with his whole body as near as pos- 
sible on the top of the wave. The 
upper current will then help him 
get to shore. 

Cramp. Swimmers are sometimes 
attacked in the water by cramp, a 
contraction of the muscles of the 
arm or leg, making it impossible to 
use the affected limb. Many swim- 
mers have been drowned by an at- 
tack of this kind, yet there is no 
danger if one keep his presence of 
mind. The trouble can often be re- 
lieved by rubbing, changing posi- 
tion, or a powerful effort to 
straighten the cramped limb, but 
if not, the swimmer should float or 
paddle to the shore, or until aid 
arrives. The chief thing is not to 
loose courage, for the best swim- 
mer, if he do this, is no better off 
than one who does not know how to 
swim at all. 

Swimming Apparatus. Many de- 
vices have been invented to aid 




Swimming Propeller. 

swimmers (see illustration), but I before them while learning the use 
none are recommended for learn- of the legs. Life preservers or de 
ers, except that some teachers ad- vices to keep the^od7afloat are 
vise their pupils to push a plank I useful where it is necessary to keep 



SWIMMING 



694 



SWIMMING 



in the water a long time, or where a 
person who does not know how to 
swim is obliged to jump into the 
water ; but they are a hindrance 



rather than an aid to real swim- 
ming. Those provided in steam- 
boats and ships for use in case of 
accident are usually wide strips of 




Captain Boyton's Suit. 



cork or inflated rubber covered 
with canvas. Some are tied on 
close under the arms, and others 
are arranged to be put on like a 
waistcoat. Care must be taken that 
the preserver does not slip to the 



lower part of the body, for then the 
head will go down and the feet up. 
Other devices to aid swimmers 
consist of plates to be fastened to 
the hands and feet, but the most cel- 
ebrated invention of this kind is the 



SWIMMING 



695 



SWIMMING 



inflated India-rubber suit of Cap- 
tain Paul Boyton, shown in the 
illustration. By putting on this suit 
a man makes a boat of himself, and 
can paddle or sail, as he wishes, 
carrying provisions with him. In 
one of these suits Captain Boyton 
has performed many remarkable 
feats, such as crossing the English 
Channel on May 28, 1875, in twenty- 
four hours, descending the Danube, 
460 miles, in six days, in May, 1876, 
and floating from Cedar Creek, 
Montana, to St. Louis, Mo., 3580 
miles, which took him from Sep- 
tember 17 to November 20, 1881. 

General Advice. The swimmer 
should not stay too long in the 
water. Usually twenty minutes at 
a time is long enough. The head 
should be wet before going in, for 
as cold water drives the blood from 
the surface of the body as it touches 
it, there might be a rush of blood to 
the head if it were the last part of 
the body to enter the water. 

It is wrong to bathe just after a 
meal. At least two hours should be 
allowed to pass after eating before 
entering the water. 

It is a good plan for the swimmer 
to accustom himself to swim with 
his clothes on. This may be of 
great use in case of accident. He 
should also practise undressing, or 
at least removing his heavier gar- 
ments, while in the water. Where 
it is necessary to plunge into the 
water at once to save life, only the 
coat and shoes should be removed. 

Life-saving. It is often difficult 
to bring to shore a person who is 
drowning, for such people sometimes 
lose their presence of mind and 
grasp the rescuer so that he cannot 
swim. If the person to be saved 
has a clear head, he should be di- 
rected to place his hands lightly on 
the hips of the rescuer, who can 
then easily swim ashore with him ; 
but if the drowning man has lost 
his presence of mind, the rescuer 
should approach him from behind, 
if possible, and push him to shore. 



or even drag him by the hair, or by 
an arm or leg. If possible, his head 
should be supported, but this is not 
absolutely necessary. He should 
be brought to shore as quickly as 
he can be, either above or below 
water. In case he is insensible when 
brought to shore, or apparently 
drowned, the water must first be 
forced from his lungs, and he must 
then be made to breathe. Many 
ways of effecting this have been rec- 
ommended. In all cases there must 
be no delay, as to wait even a few 
seconds may cause the loss of life. 
The patient should not even be re- 
moved to shelter, as that takes time, 
but he must be treated in the open 
air. Efforts to make the blood cir- 
culate must not be made till the pa- 
tient begins to breathe. 

To remove water from the throat, 
place the rescued man on the ground 
face downward, with one arm under 
the forehead, when the fluid will 
drain away. Breathing may now 
begin. If not, it may be excited by 
smelling-salts, by tickling the throat 
with a feather, by rubbing the chest 
and face, or by dashing cold water 
on them. If this is not successful, 
the motions of breathing must be 
imitated. Lay the patient on his 
face, supporting the chest by a 
folded coat. Turn him gently on 
one side, and a little beyond, and 
then back again. As the body is 
turned back on the face, the back 
should be pressed firmly between 
the shoulder-blades. These move- 
ments must be repeated every four 
or five seconds. When the patient 
is on his chest, the air is forced 
from the lungs, and when he is 
turiied on his side the air enters 
again. While these efforts are be- 
ing made, the hands and feet should 
be dried, the body stripped and dry 
clothes or coverings put on, without 
interfering with the movements de- 
scribed. 

History. Men have been able to 
swim from the earliest times. The 
Israelites knew how, as we learR 



SWIMMING 



6g6 



SWIMMING 



from the Bible, and there are refer- 
ences to swimming on the Assyrian 
tablets in the British Museum. The 
ancient Greeks thought it so neces- 
sary that one of their proverbs, de- 
scribing an uneducated man, was, 
" He knows neither how to read and 
write, nor how to swim." Swimming 
was taught to the Greek youths, es- 
pecially the Spartans, as a part of 
their regular athletic training (see 
thehistory of Athletics). The Ro- 
man soldiers were trained to swim, 
and swimming-races formed part of 
the Roman athletic contests. Julius 
Caesar once saved his life by know- 
ing how to swim. The Romans 
built enormous bathing-houses, of 
which there were 850 in the city at 
one time, one of which had a swim- 
ming-tank measuring 200 by 100 
feet. The art has always been prac- 
tised more or less, but in the last 
century it was opposed in Europe by 
many teachers and physicians who 
thought that it injured the health, 
and people did not learn it as gener- 
ally as they do now. In the begin- 
ning of this century it came again 
into favor, and now almost every 
one thinks that both boys and girls 
should know how to swim. Swim- 
ming-schools are to be found in all 
countries, but the art is taught most 
carefully in France and Germany. 
In France the method of learning 
the stroke before entering the water 
is in favor. It is said that out of 
twenty-six military cadets taught in 
this way, who were made to enter 
the river Marne, nineteen swam at 
once without further instruction. 
In this country this method is not 
favored. A recent writer on the 
subject says : " Ten minutes' work 
in the water is worth ten hours on a 
chair." The first writer on swim- 
ming in this country was probably 
Benjamin Franklin, whose advice 
to learners is often quoted. It is 
much the same as that given above, 
except that he advocates plunging 
at once into water breast deep after 
a white stone or other object, for 



the purpose of teaching the swim- 
mer the buoyancy of his own body. 
Swimming-races, though not as 
common as other kinds, are fre- 
quently held, and skilled swimmers 
often attempt feats in the water, 
such as long distance swims, long 
swims under water, and the like. 
The records of some of these are 
given in the Appendix. It should 
be remembered that these are in- 
fluenced greatly by the direction of 
the current or tide, or the fact that 
some were performed in a tank 
where the swimmer had to turn fre- 
quently. 

RULES FOR SWIMMING RACES. 

The rules of the National Ama- 
teur Athletic Union for swimming- 
races are as follows : 

Sec. I. Oflicials shall consist of 
one referee, three Judges at the fin- 
ish, three Time-keepers, one Starter, 
one Clerk of the Course, with assist- 
ants, if necessary. 

Sec. 2. Duties and powers of these 
officials shall be the same as is pre- 
scribed for them in the foregoing 
rules (see Athletic Games). 

Sec. 3. In the 100 yards swim- 
ming-race, each competitor shall 
stand with one or both feet on the 
starting-line, and when the signal is 
given shall plunge. Stepping back, 
either before or after the signal, will 
not be allowed. 

Sec. 4. The half mile and one 
mile start shall be the same as the 
100 yards, except that competitors 
may start in the water (tread- water 
start) from an imaginary line. 

Sec. 5. A competitor shall keep 
a straight course, parallel with the 
courses of the other competitors, 
from his starting station to the op- 
posite point in the finish line. Com- 
petitors will be started ten feet apart, 
and each one is entitled to a straight 
lane of water, ten feet wide, from 
start to finish. Any contestant who, 
when out of his own water, shall 
touch another competitor, is liable 



I 



SWINGING 



697 



SWINGING 



to disqualification — subject to the 
discretion of the Referee. 

Sec. 6. Each competitor shall 
have finished the race when any 
part of his person reaches the finish 
line. 

SWINCINC. Swings are made 
usually of a single rope, fastened at 
both ends, two to six feet apart, to 
the limb of a tree or a cross-piece 
of timber. The rope must be of 
such a length that the loop hangs 
within three or four feet of the 
ground. In the loop is fastened a 
wooden seat, on which the person 
who swings sits while a companion 
pushes him forward. The push is 
repeated every time the swing re- 
turns to its original position, and it 
thus rises a little higher each time, 
till the pusher can run quite under 
the swing, giving it a parting push 
as it swings up out of his reach. 
The longer the swing is the pleas- 
anter the motion, for the person in 
a long swing moves more nearly in 
a straight line than in a short one, 
and the time of a swing is longer. 
A swing about thirteen feet long 
should go backward and forward 
in two seconds, one twenty-nine 
feet long in three seconds, and one 
fifty-two feet long in four seconds. 
The time is nearly the same, no 
matter whether the swing be sent 
high or low ; if it be sent high it 
moves faster, so that it goes over its 
path in about the same time. The 
person who sits in the swing may 
move himself by pulling the ropes 
back, leaning backward and stretch- 
ing out his feet every time the 
swing moves forward. It is better 
still to stand in the swing while ex- 
ecuting this movement. Two per- 
sons standing in a swing face to 
face and doing this alternately may 
make the swing rise very high. 
This is called " pumping " or " work- 
ing," Each must stoop down, lean 
backward, and push his feet for- 
ward while the swing moves in the 
direction he is facing. 

Sometimes the person sitting in 



the swing jumps from it, and con- 
tests may be held by two or more 
persons, in which each tries to jump 
farther than the others ; but such 
jumping is dangerous, and may re- 
sult in injury to one not accustomed 
to it. In thus jumping the forward 
impetus is given entirely by the 
swing, and the skill of the jumper 
is shown only in knowing when to 
jump. If he wait too long, until 
the swing is nearly at the end of its 
path, it moves so slowly that he will 
be given scarcely any forward move- 
ment ; and if he jump too soon, the 
swing will not be far enough ad- 
vanced. 

The simplest form of seat for a 
swing is a board with a V-shaped 
notch in each end, which is fitted 
into the rope, and kept in place by 
the weight of the swinger. In an- 
other form the rope is put through 
a hole in each end of the board be- 
fore fastening it at the top ; or if 
the swing is made of two ropes, 
each is passed through one of the 
holes of the seat and tied beneath. 
Seats are sometimes made with 
backs and arm-rests. Such a seat 
may be formed of an old chair by 
removing the legs and fastening the 
rope to the seat. Two holes should 
be bored on each side, through each 
pair of which a rope is passed, and 
the ends of each of these ropes are 
tied to one of the swing ropes. 

In pushing a rope-swing care 
must be taken that it is not given 
a motion to one side, or a twist. 
If it acquires either of these mo- 
tions, the best plan is to stop and 
begin again. To stop a swing the 
pusher must wait till it has reached 
the point nearest to him, and then, 
seizing the seat or ropes with both 
hands, run forward with it, holding 
back with all his strength. The 
body should be inclined backward, 
and the heels dug into the ground 
at every step. The farther apart 
the ropes of the swing are at the 
top, the size of the seat remaining 
the same, the less likely it will be 



SYNTHESIS 



698 



SYNTHESIS 



to move sidewise. When the ropes 
are very near together, it is almost 
as easy to move the swing sidewise 
as straight ahead ; but when they 
are far apart, the backward and for- 
ward motion is the easier, as will 
be seen by trial. When the ropes 
are farther apart and slope toward 
the seat, the swing is also less likely 
to twist. But, on the other hand, 
when the ropes are far apart it is 
harder to keep one's seat. A swing 
that will neither move sidewise 
nor twist can be made by fasten- 
ing the ends of the rope to 
trees 30 to 50 feet apart.. The 
motion of such a swing is delight- 
ful, but it requires great skill to sit 
in it. Swings that will not twist 
are made also entirely of wood. 
They are usually hung in a wooden 
framework, which may be set up 
anywhere. Some kinds are set in 
motion by the swinger, who presses 
with his feet on a board in front of 
the swing. 

SYNTHESIS, or SETTO, a game 
played by any number of persons 
with 64 cards, 25 of which contain 
each one root of a word ; 19, three 
prefixes (or beginnings of words) 
each; and 15, three suffixes (or 
ends of words) each. There are 
also five prize-cards, each with one 
suffix. Words can be formed by 
putting a prefix before a root or a 
suffix after it, or both. Thus, with 
the root act, the prefix trans and 
the suffix ion can be formed the 
words transact, action, and transac- 
tion. 

At the beginning of the game 
each draws a card, and he who gets 
the first prefix deals. There are 
several ways of playing. In the 
first method four cards are dealt to 
each player, and four are placed 
face upward on the table. When 
all have played their cards as de- 
scribed below, the dealer gives four 
more to each, and soon till all have 
been dealt, but no more are dealt to 
the table. The player at the deal- 
er's left begins the game by trying 



to make a word by combining cards 
on the table, using any of the pre- 
fixes and suffixes he pleases. If he 
can do so, he places the word in 
front of him, and it becomes his 
property. Whether he has been 
able to do so, or not, he then plays 
one of his own cards, and tries to 
combine it with some card or cards 
on the table in like manner to form 
a word. If he cannot, and has 
other cards in his hand which will 
form a word with the one he is 
playing, with or without any on the 
table, he may play, saying " I form," 
giving the word he intends to make, 
and piling together the cards that 
form part of it. He must take it 
as soon as possible, and can play on 
no other word before he does so. 
Any other player may take it by 
forming the announced word, but 
no other. If the player can neither 
take a word nor form, he must lay 
his card with the others on the ta- 
ble. The next player has the same 
choice, but instead of using his card 
to form a word with those in the 
middle of the table, he may add it, 
if possible, to the word the first 
player made, thus taking it away 
from him. The other players go 
on in like manner, each in his turn. 
When a word made by any one has 
remained uncaptured during one 
round, it cannot be taken after- 
ward. When all the cards have 
been played, he who has taken the 
largest number of cards scores 3 
points ; and every word of 4 sylla- 
bles scores i point, of 5 syllables 
2 points, and of 6 syllables 3 points. 
When a player takes all the cards 
from the middle of the table, he is 
said to have made a " sweep " as in 
Casino, and every sweep counts a 
point for him who makes it. In 
addition, the five prize-cards each 
count toward game the number of 
points marked on it. He who has 
most points wins the game. 

Another way of playing is to give 
six cards to each, and put none on 
the table. The players must not 



SYNTHESIS 



699 



SYRUP 



look at their cards. They play, in 
order, till some one can make a 
word with the cards on the table, 
when he takes it as before. Any 
player may retake it by putting on 
another syllable at any time during 
the game. But if a player can take 
more than one word in one turn, he 
may do so, and such words cannot 
then be retaken. 

A third method is to remove the 
root-cards. Twelve cards are placed 
on the table, face upward, and the 
players have no cards, but each, in 
playing, may use any root in the 
English language. 

In a fourth way of playing, the 
prizes are removed and four cards 
dealt to each. No one looks at 
his cards. The first prefix or suf- 
fix card played is called the Leader. 
A player may take all cards on the 
table any of whose syllables is the 
same as a syllable on the card he 
plays. The greatest number of cards 
like the Leader scores 3, every syl- 
lable like one on the Leader scores 
I, and the greatest number of cards 
taken scores 2. The game is 13 
points. 

These games may be varied, or 
others devised, at the pleasure of 
the players. The word Synthesis 
is from two Greek words meaning 
a putting together. 

Farrago. The same game as Syn- 
thesis, except that each card bears 
but one syllable. Farrago means a 
mixture. It was originally a Latin 
word, meaning a kind of mixed 
fodder for cattle. 

SYRINGE. The force-PUMP is 
really only a syringe arranged to 
throw a steady stream. Simpler 
ones can be made as follows. 

I. Cut off the top of a smooth 
round glass bottle so far below the 
neck that the remainder will be of 
the same size all the way down (see 
instructions for glass working under 
Chemical Experiments). Fit to 
it a piston like those described under 



Pump, without a valve. Now make 
a tiny hole in the side or bottom of 
the bottle, either by directing the 
tip of a BLOW-PIPE flame on the glass 
or by boring with a file moistened 
with turpentine. The smaller -the 
hole, the greater the force with 
which the water can be driven out 
by pushing in the piston. 

2. A syringe may be made also 
from a piece of any kind of wood 
that contains pith. The pith must 
first be punched out, and then one 
end of the pipe thus made must be 
plugged with a bit of wood hav- 
ing a small hole in the centre. 
The piston can be made as be. 
fore. 

SYRINX, or Pan-pipe, an ancient 
musical instrument. One can be 
made by a boy with an ear for 
music, of any wood that contains 
pith. Punch out the pith, and plug 
one end with a wooden stopper. 
By blowing across the open end, a 
rough musical sound can be made. 
By cutting different lengths and 
trying them, a perfect scale may be 
obtained. The pipes should now be 
fastened side by side to across strip 
so that all the open ends are in line, 
when a tune can be played on them 
with a little practice. 

SYRUP, Experiment with. Three- 
quarters fill a bottle with very 
thick syrup, and then, having corked 
it, turn it upside 
down. After most 
of the syrup has de- 
scended to what is 
now the bottom of 
the bottle, what re- 
mains will form 
into a curious 
shape resembling a 
water-spout, large 
at the top and ta- 
pering at the bot- 
tom. The taper- 
ing part twists about curiously till 
all the syrup has run down, which 
takes several minutes. 




Experiment with 
Syrup. 



TABLEAUX 



700 



TAG 



T 



TABLEAUX, or TABLEAUX 
VIVANTS (French for "Living 
Pictures "). A theatrical enter- 
tainment in which the performers 
neither move nor speak. The ef- 
fect depends entirely on the dress, 
attitude, expression and grouping, 
as in a picture. Unless an artist is 
stage manager, tableaux are best 
made by copying an actual paint- 
ing as nearly as possible in group- 
ing, costume and background ; or, if 
an engraving be copied, the colors 
may be arranged at pleasure. The 
chief thing to remember as regards 
colors is that the picture must 
neither be too sombre nor contain 
brilliant colors close together, 
whether on the figures or in the 
background. As it is very difficult 
for the performers to keep perfectly 
still, tableaux can be shown for 
only a few seconds at a time, and it 
is well to raise and lower the curtain 
several times. The great changes 
of scene necessary between the 
tableaux and the short time during 
which they can be shown often 
makes such exhibitions tiresome, 
and everything possible should be 
done to reduce the waits between 
the scenes. To this end no per- 
former should take part in two 
consecutive tableaux, and as soon 
as the curtain falls on one scene 
the actors in the next should be 
ready to take their places. If possi- 
ble, one background should be ar- 
ranged behind another, so that it is 
necessary only to take away the first 
to show the second. One method 
is to make three frames, represent- 
ing picture-frames, at the rear of the 
stage, either with or without sepa- 
rate curtains. Tableaux can be ar- 
ranged behind these during the ex- 
hibition of one on the stage. It is 
then necessary only to lower the 
curtain while the actors leave the 
stage, raise the background curtain 
which concealed the frames in the 



rear, and then raise the stage-cur- 
tain again, disclosing the new tab- 
leau. If the frames have separate 
curtains they may be raised and low- 
ered alternately, one tableau being 
prepared while another is exhibited. 
Some of the frames may be made 
so as to show only the head and 
shoulders, in which case it is merely 
necessary for the actors to stand 
behind them. The background, in 
the case of small frames, should be 
black or very dark cloth. The il- 
lusion is heightened by having fine 
black gauze stretched between the 
stage and the audience. Instead 
of an ordinary curtain several cur- 
tains of white gauze may be let 
down, one byone, and then raised 
in the same way ; the effect being 
to cause the picture to fade away 
gradually. This is especially effec- 
tive when some slight change in 
the position of the actors is all that 
is necessary between two tableaux. 
One of the frames at the rear may 
be used to show a sort of panorama, 
a line of figures passing slowly be- 
hind it, each stopping for a few 
seconds at the proper place. The 
figures may represent historical or 
mythological characters ; and a lec- 
turer may describe them, pointing 
to each with a wand. In all tab- 
leaux, since the figures are seen on 
one side only, no care need be taken 
of that part of the costume turned 
away from the spectators. The 
faces should be colored or made up 
in the same way as for theatricals. 
TAG. A game played by any 
number of persons, one of whom 
tries to touch or " tag " any of the 
others he can. If he succeeds, the 
one tagged must take his place. 
No player can be tagged when 
touching the "goal," or "bye," 
which is any object agreed upon, 
such as a tree, fence, or stone. 
Sometimes, instead of some partic- 
ular object, anything made of a 



TAG 



701 



TAKE CARE 



given material is considered a 
" bye " — such as anything of stone, 
iron, or wood. The game is then 
called " Stone Tag," " Iron Tag," 
or " Wood Tag," as the case may 
be. The first tagger is generally 
selected at the opening of the game 

by COUNTING OUT. 

Cross Tag. There is no goal 
in this form of the game, but any 
player who is chased can be relieved 
by any other player running be- 
tween him and the one trying to 
tag him. The latter must then run 
after the player who ran between, 
till he in turn is relieved. When 
any one is tagged, he must take the 
pursuer's place as before. 

Tree Tag. Each player chooses 
a tree as his goal, and cannot be 
captured while touching it except 
by some other player's going around 
it three times. When any player is 
touched by another, or captured at 
his tree, the tree of the one who 
captures him becomes his goal. 
The game ends when all the play- 
ers are at one tree. 

Squat Tag. When a player 
who is pursued is tired, he is al- 
lowed to stoop or squat close to 
the ground, the pursuer not being 
allowed to touch him while in this 
position. The number of squats 
allowed varies from two to eleven. 

King's Land. A kind of Tag 
played by any number of persons, 
one of whom, representing the 
king, stands within boundaries 
agreed upon at the beginning of 
the game. The other players can 
be touched by him only when they 
venture inside the boundary ; and 
when they do so they call out, 
"I'm on king's land; king can't 
see !" or similar words. By running 
in and out again on all sides they 
strive to confuse the king and 
divert his attention from one to 
the other. 

In Connecticut the forbidden 
land is sometimes called Van Die- 
men's Land, in New York Dixie's 
Land, and in Philadelphia Golden 



Pavement. The name for it in 
Devonshire, England, is Judge 
Jeffrey's Land, from the cruel 
judge of that name who lived in 
the reign of James II. 

This game is sometimes called 
Rook's Castle, and the old English 
name for it was Tom Tiddler's 
Ground. The German boys, when 
they play it, say : 

" King, I'm in your land ; 
I'll steal your gold and silver sand ! " 

In France, the king is called the 
Crow, and French children playing 
this game, say, " I am in your 
castle. Crow, and I shall always be 
there." 

A similar game, though not a 
game of Tag, is King's Castle. 

Several kinds of Tag are played 
in France. In one, called Chat 
Perchi (Cat on a Perch), a player 
cannot be caught when his feet 
do not touch the ground ; as, for 
instance, when he is on a bench 
or clinging to a tree. Chat Coupi 
(Cut Cat) is our Cross Tag. In a 
kind called Mere Garuche (Mother 
Garuche ; probably from gare, 
meaning " take care ! ") the players, 
called Children, as they are caught 
must hold the hands of the first 
pursuer, and thus all must pursue 
together. Any pursuer may seize 
and detain whomever he can ; but 
the original pursuer. Mother Ga- 
ruche, must touch him before he is 
regarded as caught. 

Gorilla. A kind of Tag in 
which the pursuer is called the 
Gorilla. The other players howl 
and make any kind of noise, but 
the Gorilla keeps perfectly quiet. 
As soon as he touches any player 
he begins to howl, while the 
touched player, becoming Gorilla, 
stops howling. The players know 
who is Gorilla by his silence, and 
can thus avoid him. 

TAKE CARE. A game played by 
any number of persons in several 
ways. In one of the most com- 
mon, flour is packed tightly into a 
bowl, which is then turned over 



TALKING MACHINES. 



702 



TEA-KETTLE 



and removed, leaving the flour in a 
mound. On top of this is placed a 
small coin. The players in turn 
then remove each a part of the 
flour with a knife, and whoever lets 
the coin fall must pick it from the 
flour with his teeth. Sometimes 
each one says " take care " as he 
cuts off his portion of the flour, 
and the game thus receives its 
name. 

There are many substitutes for 
the flour and coin. One of the 
best is a card-house of two cards 
on a pile made of the rest of the 
pack loosely thrown together. 
Each player removes one card, and 
he who allows the card-house to 
fall must pay a forfeit. The game 
may be played out of doors with a 
little flag stuck in a pail of sand, 
from which each player removes a 
little on the end of a stick. 

TALKING MACHINES. A ma- 
chine to say the word " Mamma " 
can be made as follows: Take a 
toy trumpet, and holding the small 
end in the mouth place the two 
hands over the funnel. By blow- 
ing through the trumpet and open- 
ing and shutting one hand the 
syllable " Ma " can be produced 
quite plainly. By repeating this 
the word " Mamma " can be spoken. 
A very good imitation of the 
human voice can be made also by 
stretching two india-rubber bands 
across the end of an 
empty spool (see 
illustration). The 
edges of the bands 
should be close to- 
gether without 
overlapping. On 
blowing through 
the other end of the 
spool the bands vi- 

T,,,.. „c^^ , brate like the hu- 
1 alkincf Spool. , , , 

man vocal chords, 

and make a sound something like 

the voice, which changes with the 

force of the breath. 

TASTE, Experiments on. i. To 

find which of the company has 




the most delicate sense of taste, 
dissolve a little sugar in water so 
as to make a slightly sweet solu- 
tion. Pour half of this into a glass 
and replace it with pure water. 
Put half the diluted liquid into a 
second glass, replace it with pure 
water, and so on till the liquid can- 
not be distinguished from ordinary 
water. The liquid must not be too 
strong to begin with, or too many 
dilutions will be required. Care 
should be taken to keep the glass- 
es in proper order, as, if they 
should be mixed, it would spoil the 
experiment. Now place on the 
table the glass containing the 
strongest solution, and one of pure 
water, and let the company enter 
one at a time, blindfolded. Give 
each to drink several times from 
the two glasses, in any order you 
please, asking him after each taste 
whether he had pure or sweet- 
ened water. Care should be taken 
to have glasses alike, and filled to 
the same height. Those who tell 
incorrectly are considered " out." 
Those who make no mistake take 
part in a similar trial in which the 
next weaker solution is used. This 
goes on till only one is left who 
can taste the sugar-water, who is 
declared to have the most delicate 
taste. 

The experiment may be tried 
over again, using first salt and 
then vinegar, instead of sugar. It 
will often be found that he who has 
the most delicate taste for sugar 
cannot detect acids as easily as 
some one else. 

2. Prepare three glasses of water, 
dissolving a little quinine in one, 
salt in the second, and leaving the 
third pure. After holding some 
of the bitter or salt water in the 
mouth for a few seconds, swallow 
some of the pure water, and it will 
taste sweet. 

TEA-KETTLE. A game played 
by any number of persons, one of 
whom leaves the room while the 
others agree upon a word with sev- 



TEETOTUM 



703 



TELEGRAPHS 



eral different meanings, or upon 
two or more words pronounced 
alike. The player who went out 
now returns and asks each in turn 
a question. The word or words 
agreed on must be introduced sev- 
eral times in the answer, but instead 
thereof the word "tea-kettle" 
must be substituted. If the word 
is compounded with another or 
with a prefix or suffix the word 
" tea-kettle " must be similarly com- 
pounded. Thus, suppose rain, 
rein, reign, to be the selected 
words. The first question may 
be, " How do you do.^ " to which 
the answer is returned : " Not very 
well, for I was out yesterday in the 
biggest tea-kettle of Queen Victo- 
ria's tea-kettle." The next may be 
asked, "Do you enjoy riding.^" 
" That depends on the tea-kettles, 
and also on whether it is tea-ket- 
tle-ing or not." The player from 
whose answer the word is guessed 
becomes questioner in turn, leaving 
the room while another word is de- 
cided on. 

TEETOTUM. See Tops. 

TELEGRAPHS. The electric tel- 
egraph is described in C. C. T. un- 
der this head. A simple one on 
Morse's system may be made as 
follows : To telegraph between two 
stations requires two sounders, two 
keys, a battery and a line of wire. 

Sounder. Make a small electro- 
magnet (see Magnets) about two 




Fig. I. 

inches long. Fasten it on its side 
on a strip of board by tacking strips 
of cloth or leather over it, and from 
a piece of bent wire over it suspend 
the armature by threads so that it 



will hang as close as possible to 
the poles without touching them. 
(See Fig. i.) When a current passes 
through the magnet wire the arma- 



t:r 




Fig. 2. 



IT 



ture will be attracted and will make 
a clicking sound. Put in two brass 
screws behind the armature, so that 
it will touch them as it hangs, and 
then attach it by pieces of elastic 
to another screw at a distance of 
two or three inches, so that the 
elastic will pull it back against 
the screws when the current is off, 
thus making another click. The 
elastic must not be so strong as to 
prevent the magnet's drawing the 
armature to itself. The mode of 
holding back the armature is shown 
on a larger scale in Fig. 2. 

Key. Procure two strips of brass, 
one two inches long and the other 




Fig. 3. 

four. Punch a hole in one end of 
each and screw them to the same 
board with the sounder, at right 
angles to each other, the free end 
of the long piece just lying across 
the middle of the short one. Bend 
the long piece upward a little, near 
the screw, so that in its natural po- 
sition it will not touch the short 
piece. (See Fig. 3.) By pressing 
the end of the long piece down, 
contact can be made between the 
two, and if they are to be left in con- 



TELEGRAPHS 



704 



.TELEGRAPHS 



tact the long piece can be caught 
unde: the free end of the short one 
by turning it aside on the screw as 
a pivot. (See Fig. 4.) The wires 




Fig. 4. 

are attached to the strips by being 
wound once around the screws, 
just before screwing them down 
tight. 

Battery. The best battery to 
use is a Gravity (see Electric 
Batteries), but any other will do 
except the Leclanche and similar 
cells, which weaken very fast when 
the current is passing. In a tele- 
graph the current has to pass all 
the time, for if the circuit were 
broken at one station it would be 
impossible to signal from the other 
when a message was to be sent. 
The best place for the battery is in 
a box under the table on which the 
instruments stand. 

Line Wire. The size of the wire 
between the stations depends 
somewhat on distance. In tele- 
graphing from one room to anoth- 
er in the same house, small insula- 
ted wire may be used, which may 
be, secured along the edge of the 
floor, where it will not be seen, by 
means of double-pointed carpet 
tacks. If the line is to be out- 



doors ordinary telegraph wire 
should be used, which is fastened 
to trees or posts by insulators, so 
that the current may not be drawn 
away. Glass insulators may be 
bought of a dealer in telegraph sup- 
plies, but simple ones can be made 
of rubber tubing cut into pieces 
about an inch long. A nail is driven 
through the tubing lengthwise into 
a tree, and the wire is wound once 
or twice around it. 

Ground Connection. Where the 
two stations are in the same house, 
the circuit consists of wire both 
ways, but where the line passes 
outdoors the current passes one 
way through the wire, and back 
through the ground. Where there 
are gas pipes, connection with the 
ground can be made by simply 
winding one end of the wire tightly 
around one where it is exposed. 
Where there are no gas pipes a wire 
must be carried to the ground, 
where the end is attached to a cop- 
per plate about a foot square and 
buried deep enough to be con- 
stantly in moist ground. 

Connections. The different in- 
struments may be connected in any 
order desired, but the following 
directions should be observed by 
those who wish exact instructions. 
Connect one wire of the battery 
with the ground wire, and the oth- 
er with one end of the wire around 
the electro-magnet of the sounder. 
The other magnet wire is connect- 
ed with one of the brass strips of 




a 



Fig. 5.— B. Battery. GG. Ground plates. KK. Keys. L. Line. - l_ 

PPP. Poles. SS, Sounders. <* 



the key, and the other strip with 
the line wire, as shown in Fig. 
5. At the other station the same 
connections are made, except that 
there is no battery, so that one of 



the magnet wires is connected 
directly to the ground wire. If 
there are to be one or more stations 
between the end ones, each must 
have its key and sounder. The 



TELEGRAPHS 



705 



TELEGRAPHS 



wire is " grounded "only at the end 
stations. The connections are best 
made by brass binding screws, 
which can be bought of a dealer in 
telegraph supplies ; but they can be 
made almost as well by winding the 
ends of the wires tightly around 
each other, and pounding them 
close together with a hammer. 
The better the connections the 
better the telegraph will work. 

Telegraphing. The alphabet used 
is the Morse, described in C. C. T. 
This consists of a combination of 
dots and dashes. To make a dot, 
the key is merely tapped down 
with the finger, so that contact is 
made for an instant only. To make 
a dash it is held down a little long- 
er. The operator at the other end 
must read the message by sound. 
He can hear the click made by 
the armature striking the magnet 
when the key is pressed down, and 
the click made by its hitting the 
screws behind it when the key is 
raised and the elastic pulls it back. 
If the interval between these two 
clicks is short, he knows a dot 
has been made ; if a little long- 
er, a dash. With a little prac- 
tice it will be easy to read thus, 
even when messages are sent 
very swiftly. To practice read- 
ing it is not necessary to have 
a telegraph instrument — any- 
thing which will make two 
clicks in the same manner 
will do; for instance, a stick 
moved backward and forward 
between two fence palings. 

The keys must be kept press- 
ed down all the time at all sta- 
tions, except when a message 
is being sent. A signal or call, 
consisting of any arrangement 
of dots and dashes, must be 
agreed on, to be given before a 
message ; and no message should 
be sent till the signal has been 
given and answered, showing that 
some one is at the other station to 
receive it. The answer may con- 
sist of a repetition of the signal or 



some other combination of dots 
and dashes. If there are more 
than two stations, each must have 
a different call, for all the sounders 
on the line click when a message is 
sent. 

Wheatstone Telegraph. In this 
telegraph the receiving instrument 
consists of a galvanometer, and the 
key is replaced by a commutator, 
or arrangement for reversing the 
current. 

Galvanometer. The instrument 
described in the article under this 
head can be used, but a pin must 
be stuck in the dial card just on 
each side of the needle, so that it 
may move only a small fraction of 
an inch, otherwise time would be 
lost in waiting for it to stop swing- 
ing. When the current flows one 
way the needle turns to the right, 
and when it is reversed, to the left. 
The Morse alphabet may be used, 
one direction meaning a dot and 
the other a dash. 

Commutator. A simple commu- 
tator, or current reverser, can be 




Fig. 6. 

made as follows : Fasten two 
strips of brass C and D (see Fig. 6) 
to a block of wood by screws at C 
and D, and at the other end fasten 
two cross strips, A E and B F, the 
former passing below and the latter 
above the two first strips. Bend 



k 



TELEGRAPHS 



706 



TELEGRAPHS 



the strips C and D upward so that 
when at rest they will press against 
B F. Join the line wires to C and 
Z>and the battery wires to A and B. 
Then, by pressing down the strip £>, 
the current travels in the direction 
of the arrows marked i, and, if the 
strip C be depressed, in the other 
direction. There must be a battery 
at each end of the line ; but, as will 
be seen by observing the way the 
commutator makes connections, 
only the battery at the signalling 
station furnishes current to the 
wire. 

Electro-Chemical Telegraph. Dis- 
solve some ferrocyanide of potas- 
sium in water, and soak unglazed 
paper in the solution. Connect 
the paper with the negative pole 
of an ELECTRIC BATTERY, and con- 
nect the positive pole with a steel 
nail. Write with the nail on the 
paper, and a blue mark will be 
produced. This is because the 
chemical on the paper is decom- 
posed by the electricity, forming 
Prussian blue. Now let one person, 
with the paper and nail, remain in 
one room and the wire which con- 
nects with either pass through 
another room, through a key, to 
make and break the circuit. The 
person with the nail draws it across 
the paper so as to make a straight 
line, while another telegraphs with 
the key, using Morse's alphabet. 
The dots and dashes will appear in 
blue on the paper, since whenever 
the key is down the current passes 
and the Prussian blue is formed, 
but when the key is up the nail 
makes no mark at all. 

Flash Telegraph. The simplest 
way to telegraph by flashes of 
light is to place a common kero- 
sene lamp in a soap box, cutting 
a hole in the top to admit the 
chimney, and boring several holes 
in the bottom to admit air. At 
the end is a hole about two inches 
in diameter, covered by a shut- 
ter made of a flat piece of wood 
screwed loosely to the box by one 



corner, so that it can swing down 
over the hole. Each telegrapher has 
a box arranged in this way, and the 
signals are sent by opening and 
shutting the shutters. The best 
way is to use the Morse alphabet, 
opening the shutter for only an 
instant to represent a dot, and 
longer for a dash. This telegraph 
can be used as far as the light of a 
kerosene lamp can be seen. To 
distinguish the light from that of 
other lamps near it the hole may 
be covered with colored glass. If 
the apparatus is to be used in the 
open air some kind of glass, either 
clear or colored, must be put over 
the hole to prevent the wind from 
putting out the lamp. 

Heliograph, or Sun Telegraph. 
The flash telegraph just described 
can be used only for short distances, 
but the sun's rays, reflected by a 
mirror, can be seen twenty or thirty 
miles, and sometimes even farther. 
The sending and receiving stations 
are usually on the tops of high hills. 
To be sure that the ray is sent in 
just the right direction, the mirror 
must first be made steady and yet 
free to turn. 1 1 may be supported on 
a tripod or gimbals, such as a com- 
pass is hung on, but a simpler way 
is for a boy to hold it firmly in his 
lap as he sits on the ground. For 
long distances a large mirror 
several feet square should be used. 
Scratch away a bit of the silvering 
as large as a pin-head from the 
back and then, looking through 
the hole thus made toward the 
place where the signal is sent, bring 
some small object into the line of 
sight. The object must be steady 
and not large enough to obstruct 
the beam. The best thing is a bit 
of wire supported on another 
tripod, or, more simply, nailed 
against a tree so that it projects to 
one side. Now, all the boy with 
the mirror has to do is to see that 
he keeps it steady and throws his 
beam of light on the wire, for this 
is in line with the distant point 



TELEGRAPHS 



707 



TELEPHONE 



where the signal is to be sent. 
The light can be cut off for a great- 
er or less time by holding a piece 
of cloth, a board, or a coat in front 
of the mirror, and thus the Morse 
alphabet can be used as before. 

Other Uses of the Morse Alphabet. 
This alphabet can also be adapted 
to hundreds of other systems of 
telegraphy where electricity is not 
used. Wherever two kinds of sig- 
nals can be sent from one point to 
another where they are observed 
by any of the senses, one signal can 
be used as a dot and the other as a 
dash, and hence they can be com- 
bined to form letters. The follow- 
ing examples show how the signals 
can be received through any of the 
five senses. 

Hearing. Two persons may com- 
municate with each other by long 
and short whistles or by raps on a 
table. 

Sight. Besides the flash tele- 
graph described above, motions of 
the hand or of a flag to the right and 
left may represent dots and dashes, 
or, by night, lanterns of two differ- 
ent colors may be used, one for 
dots, the other for dashes. In a 
crowded room two persons may 
thus communicate by motions of 
the head or finger, unnoticed by 
the rest of the company. 

Touch. Taps with the finger or 
light scratches with a pin may be 
used in the same way. 

Smell. A person blindfolded and 
having his ears stopped may have 
a message sent him by means of 
two odors, for instance by holding 
a rose and a violet near his nostrils. 

Taste. Two substances may be 
touched to the tongue in like man- 
ner, or an ordinary electric-tele- 
graph message may be received by 
means of the galvanic taste, 
the end of one wire being placed 
on the upper surface of the tongue 
and the other beneath it, and the 
electro-magnet being dispensed 
with. This requires some practice, 
but has been done successfully. 




TELEPHONE. The electric tele- 
phone is described in C. C. T., un- 
der this heading. An acoustic or 
non-electric telephone which works 
well for short distances can be 
made as follows : Procure two 
pieces of smooth pine board six- 
teen inches long by thirteen wide, 
and three-eighths of an inch thick. 
Cut in each a hole nine inches in 
diameter, and bevel the edges of 
the holes on one side of 
the board (see Fig. i). 
To the ends of each 
board, on the side not 
bevelled, nail strips of 
pine three inches wide, 
one-half inch thick, and 
thirteen inches long, so that the 
side view will be as in Fig. 2. 

Now buy a calfskin drum-head 
(which can be obtained of a dealer 
in musical instruments), and 
cut out of it two round pieces 
large enough to be tacked 
over the holes in the boards 
just prepared. The skin 
which is placed on the bev- 
elled side of the hole should 
not be stretched tightly over it, 
but only enough to smooth it. The 
tacks must be put in close together, 
and about half an inch from the 
edge of the skin. The skin is now 
stretched by hanging a weight to 
it. In an old-fashioned 

©copper cent bore two 
holes large enough to ad- 
mit number 15 copper 

Fie 3 ^^^^ ^'^^' 3)- Pass a 
piece two or three feet 
long through one hole and back 
through the other, twist the ends 
together (Fig. 4) and then 
pass them through a hole 
exactly in the centre of the 
skin, from the tacked side. 
Place the board on the 
edges of two tables (Fig. 5), 
so that the wire will be be- 
tween them, and hang to it about 
thirty pounds. Wet the skin on 
both sides with a moistened sponge, 
and it will stretch, forming a con- 



Fig. 2. 



T 



Fig. 4. 



TELEPHONE 



708 



TELEPHONE 



cave surface (Fig. 6). After two or 
three hours, when it is dry, remove 
the weight, and the skin will keep 
this shape. This arrangement is 




T 



Fig. 6. 



Fig. 5. 

called the " disk." It may be bor- 
dered with leather, as shown in Fig. 
7. Now bore a hole in the wall of 
the house where the 
telephone wire is to 
pass through it, and 
screw the disk to the 
wall so that the hole in 
the middle will be ex- 
actly opposite that in 
the wall (see Fig. 8). For the " line 
wire" from one disk to the other 
(which is fastened in like manner 
at the other end of the 
line) number 15 copper 
wire is the best. One end 
of the wire is passed 
through the hole in the 
wall and that in the disk, 
from the outside, through 
a copper cent, or large button, as 
described above (Fig. 4), then out 
again, and secured by twisting 
around the main wire. The wire 




must not touch the sides of the hole 
through which it passes, nor must 
it touch a tree or wall between the 
two stations. If it must pass around 
a corner it must be 
kept from touching 
by means of little 
loops of cord called 
insulators. The best 
insulators are made 
of pieces of cord 
four inches long and 
three-sixteenths of 
an inch in thick- 
ness. The ends are 
brought together 
secured by winding 
As 



Fig. 8. 



(Fig. 9) and 

with fine copper wire (Fig. 10). 
many of these insu- 
lators as are needed 
are strung on the 
wire before it is put 
up (Fig. II), and the 
wire can be kept 
Fig 9 away from any ob- ^.^ 
stacle by tying one 
to a tree or pole (Fig. 12). The 
wire should never be bent at a right 
angle, but two insu- 
lators may be used, as 
in Fig. 13, where the 
wire ad is seen carried 
around a corner. 

The wire attached 
to the disk at the far- 
ther end should be on- 
ly a few feet long, and 
the main wire should 
be tightened before 
the two pieces are connected. 



/frn" 



Fig. 



The 



\ / 




/ 




K 


Fig. I.. 




Y 



tightening can be done by a pulley 
screwed to the outside wall of the 
house at the farther station. When 
the line is as tight as possible, one 



person should hold it while another 
fastens to it the short wire from 
the other disk by making a " tele- 
graph splice," shown in Fig. 14. 



TELEPHONE 



709 



TENNIS 



The tighter the wire the better 
the telephone will work. If it still 
sags it may be tightened by tying 
it by insulators to the limbs of 



trees above it, thus making 
it higher in the middle 
than at the ends. In speak- 
ing, the mouth should be 
held directly in front of 
the button on the disk, 
about six inches from it. 




Fig. 14. 

Lovers' Telegraph. A simple 
acoustic telephone made of tin box- 
es, paper and string. Remove the 
top and bottom from two baking- 
powder boxes, and over one end 
of each tie tightly a piece of parch- 
ment paper (see Sulphuric Acid, 
experiment 4). Through a hole 
in the middle of each paper pass 
one end of a piece of waxed 
cord, and prevent it from pulling 
through by knotting it. The cord 
thus connects the two boxes ; and 
if a person holding one speak into 
it, he can be heard by one who holds 
the other box to his ear. The cord 
between the boxes must not touch 
anything. If the cord is too long, 
its weight will break the parch- 
ment paper, but if the heads of 



TENNIS. A game played with a 
ball and a bat strung with gut, 
called a racket. There are two 
kinds — Court Tennis, or Tennis 
proper, and Lawn Tennis. The 
latter is more common and simpler, 



Lovers' Telegraph. 

the boxes are made of drum-head 
skin it can be made much longer. 




Rackets. 



be described 




and will therefore 
first. 

Lawn Tennis is played by two, 
three, or four persons, on a piece of 
ground called a court, of the shape 
and size shown in the diagrams. 
The balls are of hollow rub- 
ber covered with cloth ; the 
rackets, or racquets, are 
strung with cord or gut, as 
seen in the illustration. 

The courts may be on 
smooth turf or hard bare 
ground, or the game may be 
played indoors on a bare 
wooden or cemented floor 
The lines are marked out- 
doors with whitewash, powdered 
marble dust, high grass or white 



TENNIS 



710 



TENNIS 



tape, and indoors with chalk or 
paint. At a and B, in the dia- 
grams, are two posts, between 



which a net is strung across the 
court. The smaller rectangles into 
which the lines divide the court 







A, ] 


Pole. 












{^ 








Side 


Line. 








i 














:? 












V 






u 




• 


1 

»4 


c 






c 


! 


0) 


1 


4; 




8 




1 




^^""" 




Line. 









B, Pole. 
SINGLE COURT (FOR TWO PLAYERS). 
Dimensions : Length, 78 feet ; Width, 27 feet; from Net to Service Lines, 21 fctt. 

(Height of net, centre 3 feet, sides, 3% feet). 

A, Pole. 

m 







Side 


Line. 








Service 


Side Line. 




1 


1 


1 


i 

2 




^ 




8 

1 


1 


1 




S 




Service 


1 








Side 


Line. 







m 

B, Pole. 

DOUBLE COURT (FOR TWO, THREE, OR FOUR PLAYERS). 

Dimensions : Length, 78 feet ; Width, 36 feet ; Net to Service Line, 21 feet ; Service Side 

Line to Side Line, 4% feet. (Height of net, center 3 feet, sides sH feet.) 



are also called courts. The illus- I ting the side lines and ladies' fig- 
tration given below represents a ures, it will represent a two-handed 
four-handed game ; but, by omit- | game as well. 



TENNIS 



711 



TENNIS 



The two-handed game will be 
described first. The players decide 
by lot who shall have the first turn, 
and on which side of the net each 
shall play. Usually one throws a 
racket into the air and the other 
calls out "rough" or "smooth." 
Each racket has a rough and smooth 
side, and, if the one that calls has 
named correctly the side that falls 
uppermost, he may take choice of 
turns or choice of courts as he 
pleases. Otherwise his opponent 
has the same privilege. If the win- 
ner of the toss elect to choose which 
turn he will take, his opponent has 
choice of courts, and vice versa. 
Each player now goes to his own 
side of the net, and the one who has 
obtained the first serve standing be- 
hind the rear line of his court (called 
" base line ") at the right, as shown 
in the figure (see Rule 6 below), 
strikes the ball with his racket over 
the net and into the court next the 
net on his left. This is called " serv- 
ing." If the ball fails to go over the 
net or strikes in the wrong court it is 
said to be a " fault" and the server 
must try again. If his second service 
is also a fault it is called " doubles," 
and his opponent scores a point. 
If the ball touch the net, but go over 
it, it does not count as a service, 
but is called a "let," and played 
over again. While the player is 
serving, his opponent, who is called 
the " striker-out," stands where he 
pleases. When a fault is made he 
cries out " Fault." When he gets 
a good ball he must strike it, after 
it has bounded once, so that it will 
pass over the net into any of the 
courts on the opposite side. This 
is called "returning" the service. 
After the return, the ball may be 
struck either on the first bound or 
before it has bounded. If the lat- 
ter, it is said to be " volleyed." The 
players strike the ball from one to 
the other across the net in this way 
till one of them fails, either by 
missing the ball entirely, or by strik- 
ing it into the net, or by sending it 



beyond the boundary of the entire 
court. His opponent then scores 
a point. After the service a ball is 
good even if it strikes the net in 
going over. When two faults 
have been made, or either player 
does not return the ball properly, 
there must be another service by 
the same player as before, but this 
time from the left of his service 
line into the court next the net on 
his right, his opponent changing 
position also so as to receive the 
service. The same player serves 
each time till the game is ended, 
first from one rear court and then 
from the other. His opponent serves 
in the second game, and they alter- 
nate thus as long as they play ; but 
a player must always serve from 
the right at the beginning of a 
game, no matter which court he 
served from last. 

The method of scoring in Lawn 
Tennis is peculiar. When a player 
has no points his score is called 
" Love," and when neither has a 
point the score is " Love-All." The 
first point a player scores is called 
" Fifteen," the second " Thirty," 
the third " Forty," and the fourth 
" Game," except as noted below. 
The state of the score is described 
by calling out together the points 
of the players, that of the server 
first. Thus " Forty-Love " means 
that the server has forty to his op- 
ponent's nothing, and " Fifteen- 
Forty" that he has fifteen to his 
opponent's forty. " Thirty-All " 
means that each has thirty. The 
one whose score reaches the 
" Game " point first, wins. But 
whenever the score is " Forty-All " 
it is called " Deuce," and then the 
next point is not "Game," but 
"Advantage" (usually called " 'Van- 
tage"). If the player winning 
'Vantage gains the next point, he 
scores Game, otherwise the score 
is brought down to Deuce again. 
Hence, when the score is once 
Deuce, the game often lasts a long 
time with evenly-matched players. 



TENNIS 



712 



TENNIS 



When the server has 'Vantage, 
the score is called 'Vantage In; 
when his opponent has it, 'Vantage 
Out. When a player has won six 
games he has won a " set," no mat- 
ter whether his opponent has won 
five games or none at all ; so an or- 
dinary set may include from six to 



eleven games. Where the players are 
evenly matched it is often agreed 
that " 'Vantage sets " shall be 
played. In this case no player wins 
till he is two games ahead of his 
opponent, and a set may therefore 

consist of any number of games 

over eleven (see Rule 23). 




Double Lawn Tennis. 



In reporting the score of a set 
the number of games won by each 
player is given, separated by a dash. 
The score of a series of sets is rep- 
resented by several such combina- 
tions, separated by commas; and 
in each the first number is the 
score of the winner of the whole se- 
ries. Thus the abbreviated score 
" Jones beat Smith 6-0, 4-6, 6-5," 



means, that in the first set, Jones 
won six games to Smith's none, in 
the second, four to Smith's six, and 
in the third, six to Smith's five, 
thus winning two out of three sets. 
During the game each player 
tries to make his opponent fail, 
sometimes by striking the balls into 
an unexpected part of the court or 
first on one side of the court and 



TENNIS 



713 



TENNIS 



then on the other, so as to tire him 
out in running forward and back- 




^<«sX\l 



Fig. I. 



ward to return them. Sometimes 
the balls are so struck that they 
will bound in an unexpected direc- 




Fig. 2. 

tion. This is done by "cutting," as 
will be explained below. Some of 



the different modes of striking the 
ball, in service and return, are shown 
in the figures. Figs. 1-3 and 6 
represent methods of service, and 
Figs. 7-ID return strokes. Practice 
and judgment are required to 
choose the proper one. Some tennis 
players stand close to the net after 
they have served, and volley all the 
balls the more difficult way ; others 
prefer to stand at the service line and 
take most of them on the bound. 




To cut the ball is to strike it so 
that it will spin in the air, by hold- 
ing the racket not squarely but a 
little sidewise. If it be made to 
spin, as shown by the curved arrow 
in Fig. 4, while moving from left to 
right in the direction of the large 
arrows, the spin will tend to make 
the ball roll forward along the 
ground, so it will bound forward 
much closer to the ground than 
might be expected. In Fig. 5 the 
spin tends to make the ball roll 
backward along the ground, so it 
will bound not so close to the 
ground as it otherwise would ; it 



I 



TENNIS 



1H 



TENNIS 



may bound straight up, or even 
backward a little. By giving the 



m 
^ 



> 



Fig. 4. 



Fig. 5. 



ball a spin in other directions it 
can be made to bound in various 
ways. With practice it is possible 
to tell from the way a ball is struck 
just what kind of a cut it has been 
given, and so what kind of a bound 




*S4J/i^tll'^^ 



Fig. 6. 

to expect ; so, skillful players gener- 
ally use the cuts only in connection 
with very swift strokes. A stroke 
that is sometimes used close to the 
net is made by loosening the hold 
on the racket just as it hits the ball. 
The ball thus bounds very little 
from the racket, and simply drops 
over the net, very close to it. In 
playing, it is often necessary to 
strike the ball while running, and 
good players learn to vary the force 
of their strokes according rs they 
run with the ball or against it. The 



various ways in which the racket 
must be held, according as the bail 




Fig. 7. 

is high or low, to the right or left, 
can best be learned by practice. 




Fig. 8. 

Some players learn to use the racket 
with either hand. 



TENNIS 



715 



TENNIS 



In serving, the different methods 
of striking a ball can be made more 
effective than in returning ; for in 
serving the player's own time can 
be taken, and he can throw his ball 
into the air to strike it as he wishes ; 
but in returning there must be no 
delay and the ball must be taken as 




it comes, often with a spin or in an 
awkward place. It is therefore of 
great importance to learn to serve 
well. 

Three and Four-Handed Lawn 
Tennis. The game is played by one 
person against two, or by two on a 
side. The court is widened for the 
play after the service, but the ser- 
vice courts remain the same size, as 
shown in the figure already given. 

In the three-handed game the 
single player serves every alternate 
game. In the four-handed game, 
the order of serving and receiving is 
agreed on at the beginning of the 
set, and continues the same till the 
end, but partners must serve alter- 
nately. (See Rules 31-34, below.) 
After the service all the players 
take part in the game, one on each 
side usually playing close to the net. 



and the other in the rear, or one 
playing in left and the other in right 
hand courts, called " playing sides." 

RULES OF THE GAME.^ 

CAs adopted by the National Lazvn Tennis 

Association.^ 

The Court, i. The Court is 78 
feet long and 27 feet wide. It is 
divided across the middle by a net, 
the ends of which are attached to 
two posts, standing 3 feet outside of 
the court on either side. The height 
of the net is 3 feet 6 inches at the 
posts, and 3 feet in the middle. At 
each end of the court, parallel with 
the net, and 39 feet from it, are 
drawn the base lines, the ends of 
which are connected by the side 
lines. Halfway between the side 
lines, and parallel with them, is 
drawn the half court line, dividing 
the space on each side of the net 
into two equal parts, the right and 
left courts. On each side of the net, 
at a distance of 21 feet from it, and 




parallel with it, are drawn the ser- 
vice lines. 

The Balls. 2. The Balls shall 
measure not less than 2|| inches, 
nor more than 2| inches in diamete*- ; 
and shall weigh not less than i|| 
ounces, nor more than 2 ounces. 

The Game. 3. The choice of 



TENNIS 



716 



TENNIS 




Court Tennis Court. 



sides, and the right to 
serve in the first game, 
shall be decided by toss ; 
provided that, if the win- 
ner of the toss choose the 
right to serve, the other 
player shall have choice of 
sides, and vice versa, or 
the zviiijier of the toss 
may insist upoti a choice 
by his opponent. If one 
player choose the court, 
the other may elect not to 
serve. 

4. The players shall 
stand on opposite sides of 
the net ; the player who 
first delivers the ball shall 
be called the server, and 
the other the striker- 
out. 

5. At the end of the 
first game the striker-out 
shall become server, and 
the server shall become 
striker-out ; and so on 
alternately in all the sub- 
sequent games of the set, 
or series of sets. 

6. The server shall 
serve with one foot on 
the ground immediately 
behind the base line ; the 
other foot may be any- 
where except touching the 
base line or the ground 
within the court. He 
shall deliver the service 
from the right to the left 
courts, alternately ; be- 
ginning from the right. 

7. The ball served 
must drop between the 
service line, half-court 
line, and side line of the 
court, diagonally opposite 
to that from which it was 
served. 

8. It is a fault if the 
server fail to strike the 
ball, or if the ball served 
drop in the net, or be- 
yond the service line, 
or out of court, or in the 



TENNIS 



717 



TENNIS 



except as pro- 



wrong court ; or if the server do 
not stand as directed by law 6. 

9. A fault cannot be taken. 

10. After a fault the server shall 
serve again from the same court 
from which he served that fault, 
unless it was a fault because he 
served from the wrong court. 

1 1. A fault cannot be claimed after 
the next service is delivered. 

12. The server shall not serve till 
the striker-out is ready. If the latter 
attempt to return the service, he shall 
be deemed ready. 

13. A service or fault delivered 
when the striker-out is not ready 
counts for nothing. 

14. The service shall not be vol- 
leyed, that is, taken before it has 
touched the ground. 

15. A ball is in play on leaving 
the server's racket 
vided for in law 8. 

16. It is a good return, although 
the ball touch the net ; but a service, 
otherwise good, which touches the 
net shall count for nothing. 

17. The server wins a stroke if 
the striker-out volley the service, 
or if he fail to return the service 
or the ball in play ; or if he re- 
turn the service or the ball in 
play so that it drops outside of 
his opponent's court ; or if he 
otherwise lose a stroke as provided 
by law 20. 

18. The striker-out wins a stroke 
if the server serve two consecutive 
faults ; or if he fail to return the ball 
in play ; or if he return the ball 
in play so that it drops outside 
of his opponent's court ; or if he 
otherwise lose a stroke as provided 
by law 20. 

19. A ball falling on a line is 
regarded as falling in the court 
bounded by that line. 

20. Either player loses a stroke if 
the ball touch him, or anything that 
he wears or carries, except his racket 
in the act of striking ; or if he touch 
the ball with his racket more than 
once ; or if he touch the net or any 
of its supports while the ball is in 



play; or if he volley the ball before 
it has passed the net. 

21. In case a player is obstructed 
by any accident, not within his con- 
trol, the ball shall be considered 
a " let." But where a permanent 
fixture of the court is the cause of 
the accident, the point shall be 
counted. The benches and chairs 
placed around the court shall be 
considered permanent fixtures. If, 
however, a ball in play strike a 
permanent fixture of the court 
(other than the net or posts) 
before it touches the ground, the 
point is lost ; if after it has touched 
the ground, the point shall be 
counted. 

22. On either player winning his 
first stroke, the score is called 15 for 
that player ; on either player winning 
his second stroke the score is called 
30 for that player ; on either player 
winning his tiiird stroke, the score 
is called 40 for that player; and the 
fourth stroke won by either player is 
scored game for that player, except 
as below : If both players have won 
three strokes, the score is called 
deuce; and the next stroke won by 
either player is scored advantage 
for that player. If the same player 
win the next stroke, he wins the 
game ; if he lose the next stroke, the 
score returns to deuce and so on 
until one player wins the two strokes 
immediately following the score of 
deuce, when game is scored for that 
player. 

23. The player who first wins six 
games wins the set; except as below : 
If both players win five games, the 
score is called game all; and the 
next game won by either player is 
scored advantage game for that 
player. If the same player win the 
next game, he wins the set ; if he 
lose the next game, the score returns 
to games all ; and so on, until either 
player wins the two games immedi- 
ately following the score of games 
all, when he wins the set. But 
the committee having charge of any 
tournament may in their discretion 



TENNIS 



718 



TENNIS 



modify this rule by the omission 
of advantage sets. 

24. The players shall change sides 
at the end of every set ; but the um- 
pire, on appeal from either player 
before the toss for choice, sliall 
direct the players to change sides at 
the end of the first, third, fifth, and 
every succeeding alternate game of 
each set ; but if the appeal be made 
after the toss for choice, the umpire 
may only direct the players to change 
sides at the end of the first, third, 
fifth, and every succeeding alternate 
game of the odd, or deciding, set. 
If the players change courts in the 
alternate games throughout the 
match as above, they shall play in 
the first game of each set after the 
first in the courts in which they 
respectively did not play in the first 
game of the set immediately pre- 
ceding. 

25. When a series of sets is played, 
the player who served in the last 
game of one set shall be striker-out 
in the first game of the next. 

26. In all contests the play shall 
be continuous from the first service 
till the match be concluded ; pro- 
vided, however, that between all 
sets after the second set either 
player is entitled to a rest, which 
shall not exceed seven minutes ; and 
provided, further, that in case of an 
unavoidable accident, not within the 
control of the contestants, a cessa- 
tion of play which shall not exceed 
two minutes may be allowed between 
points : but this proviso shall be 
strictly construed, and the privilege 
never granted for the purpose of 
allowing a player to recover his 
strength or wind. The umpire in 
his discretion may at any time post- 
pone the match on account of dark- 
ness or condition of the ground 
or weather. In any case of post- 
ponement, the previous score shall 
hold good. Where the play has 
ceased for more than an hour, the 
player who at the cessation thereof 
was in the court first chosen shall 
have the choice of courts on the re- 



commencement of play. He shall 
stay in the court he chooses for 
the remainder of the set. The last 
two sentences of this rule do not ap- 
ply when the players change every al- 
ternate game as provided by rule 24. 

27. If a player serve out of his 
turn, the umpire, as soon as the mis- 
take is discovered, shall direct the 
player to serve who ought to have 
served. But all strokes scored be- 
fore such discovery shall be counted. 
If a game shall have been completed 
before such discovery, then the ser- 
vice in the next alternate game shall 
be delivered by the player who did 
not serve out of his turn, and so on 
in regular rotation. 

28. There shall be a referee for 
every tournament, who shall have 
general charge of the matches. 
There shall be an umpire for each 
match and as many linesmen as the 
players desire. The umpire may 
act as linesman also. The umpire 
shall have general charge of the 
match and shall decide upon and 
call lets and also decide whether the 
player took the ball on the first 
or second bounce. The umpire 
shall also decide any question of in- 
terpretation or construction of the 
rules that may arise. The decision 
of the umpire upon any question 
of fact, or where a discretion is al- 
lowed to him under these rules, 
shall be final. Any player, however, 
may protest against any intrepreta- 
tion or construction of the rules 
by the umpire, and appeal to the 
referee. The decision of the ref- 
eree upon such appeal should be 
final. 

The court shall be divided be- 
tween the linesmen, and it shall be 
their only duty to decide each for his 
share of the court where the ball 
touched the ground, except, how- 
ever, the linesmen for the base line, 
who shall also call foot faults. The 
linesman's decision shall be final.. 
If a linesman is unable to give] 
a decision, because he did not see, 
or is uncertain of the fact, the um- 



TENNIS 



719 



TENNIS 



pire shall decide or direct the stroke 
to be played again. 

THREE-HANDED AND FOUR-HAND- 
ED GAMES. 

29. The above laws shall apply to 
the three-handed and four-handed 
games, except as below : 

30. For the three-handed and four- 
handed games the court shall be 36 
feet in width ; \\ feet inside the 
side lines, and parallel with them, 
are drawn the surface side lines. 
The service lines are not drawn be- 
yond the point at which they meet 
the service side lines, as shown in the 
diagram. 

31. In the three-handed game, the 
single player shall serve in every 
alternate game. 

32. In the four-handed game, the 
pair who have the right to serve 
in the first game shall decide which 
partner shall do so ; and the op- 
posing pair shall decide in like man- 
ner for the second game. The 
partner of the player who served in 
the first game shall serve in the 
third, and the partner of the player 
who served in the second game shall 
serve in the fourth, and the same 
order shall be maintained in all the 
subsequent games of the set. 

33. At the beginning of the next 
set, either partner of the pair which 
struck out in the last game of the 
last set may serve ; and the same 
privilege is given to their opponents 
in second game of the new set. 

34. The players shall take the 
service alternately throughout the 
game ; a player cannot receive a 
service delivered to his partner ; and 
the order of service and striking out 
once established shall not be altered 
nor shall the striker-out change 
courts to receive the service, till the 
end of the set. 

35. It is a fault if the ball served 
do not drop between the service line, 
half-court line, and service side line 
of the court, diagonally opposite to 
that from which it was served. 

36. It is a fault if the ball served 
do not drop as provided in law 35, 



or if it touch the server's partner or 
anything he wears or carries. 

Court Tennis. Tennis played in- 
doors in a court or room, a plan of 
which is given. The court nearly 
fills an entire building, which is 
lighted from the roof. The playing 
space is 96 by 32 feet, and is sur- 
rounded on three sides by a corridor 
{a, a, a) about 6 feet wide, called the 
Penthouse, with a sloping roof about 
7 feet high. The part of the Pent- 
house at the rear of the court is 
called the Dedans, and is occupied 
by spectators. It is separated from 
the court by an open grating, c c, 
while the rest of the Penthouse is 
closed, except for spaces at b b, 
through which the court is entered, 
and for six small square windows — 
three in each court. The floor of the 
court is of smooth asphalt, and the 
walls are covered with cement and 
painted black to the height of 18 
feet. Across the middle of the 
court is stretched a net ; the space 
on one side of it is called the Service 
side, that on the other the Hazard 
side. On that wall of the Hazard 
court at d there is a projection like 
a chi;nney, called the Tambour, and 
in the Penthouse near it, at^, there 
is a square opening called the Grille. 
Part of the courts is divided into 
spaces called Chases, as shown in 
the figure, which are numbered on 
the wall from i to 6. The server 
stands in the Service court and 
serves the ball on the wall over the 
Penthouse at g. The ball must 
strike on the Penthouse roof, and 
then roll off into the receiving court. 
The player in the Hazard court 
strikes it on the bound where he 
likes, so long as it first strikes the 
ground on the opposite side of the 
net. Thus, he may strike it against 
the nearest wall so that it bounds 
back across the net. The scoring is 
as in Lawn Tennis, except that the 
server may win a point by sending 
the ball into a " winning opening" — 
that is, the Grille, or the window in 
the Penthouse nearest the end wall. 



TENNIS 



720 



TENNIS 



If a player fail to strike the ball 
before the second bound, then, ex- 
cept on the hazard side beyond the 
service line, a " chase " is said to be 
made. Note is taken of the cross 
line at which the ball bounded ; but 
if only one chase is made it does 
not affect the score till one of the 
players scores forty, when they 
change sides and " play for the 
chase." The player who allowed 
the chase to be made tries to re- 
turn the ball nearer to the end wall 
than the point at which it was 
marked, in such a way that it will 
bound a second time. As often as 
his opponent returns the ball he 
tries again until he either succeeds 
or misses. If he succeed, he is 
said to " win the chase " and scores 
the strike ; if not, it is given to his 
adversary. The ball need not be 
returned if it fall " worse " than 
the marked chase — that is, nearer 
the net on either side — in which 
case the chase is lost without 
farther play. Whenever two chases 
are marked, the players change 
sides and play for them at once. 
In playing for chases, as in other 
play, he who sends the ball into 
a "winning opening" gains the 
stroke. 

History. Tennis is said by some 
to be derived from one of the 
Roman ball games introduced into 
Gaul by Roman soldiers. It was 
much played in Europe in the 
Middle Ages, at first by kings and 
nobles, but it soon became popular 
with the common-people. It was 
introduced into England early in 
the 13th century. From being an 
open-air sport it came to be played 
in closed courts, probably at first 
the court of a castle or monastery, 
whence the irregular shape of the 
present court had its origin. In early 
times the ball was struck with the 
hand, and the French still call the 
game Jeu de Paume (the Palm 
Game), Afterward the hand was 
provided with a glove, as is still done 
in the Basque country. On the glove 



strings were then stretched, and then 
the raclcet was invented. At one time 
it was not uncommon for one player 
to use his hand, while his opponent 
had a racket. The outdoor form, 
which was the earlier, as has been 
said, continued to be played in va- 
rious ways, but the present variety, 
as played here and in England, was 
introduced in England about 1874. 
It is claimed that it was invented 
by Major Walter Wingfield, of the 
the British army, who attempted 
unsuccessfully to take out a patent 
for it in that year. His court was 
divided on one side into two squares, 
while on the other the server stood 
in a diamond-shaped space. 

Lawn Tennis soon became popu- 
lar, and generally took the place of 
Croquet, which preceded it. In 
1881 a National Lawn Tennis Asso- 
ciation was formed by the chief 
clubs in this country, which has 
since given a tournament every 
summer, usually at Newport. 

The origin of the word Tennis is 
not certainly known. Some writers 
say it is from the French tenez ! 
(look out !) which they suppose to 
have been the exclamation of early J 
players when the ball was served. \ 
Other suggest that it is from the 
Latin icEnia (a band), for the mark 
or line over which the balls are 
served. The word was first printed 
in English in Gower's " Ballade to 
King Henry IV." (1561), where it is 
spelled " Tennes " and accented on 
the last syllable ; but there were 
many other ways of spelling it, such 
as Tenise and Teneys. The word 
racket (French raquette) is said by 
some to be from the Latin retis (net), 
by others from the Dutch rackeii (to 
stretch), and by others from the 
Low Latin racha (the wrist), from 
the old manner of hitting the balls 
with the hand or wrist. The French 
outdoor tennis is called Longue 
Paume (Long Tennis), and is played 
over a low stretched cord instead of 
a net. The indoor game is called 
Courte Pau7ne (Short Tennis). 



TENNIS 



721 



THAUMATROPE 



Tennis lost its populaiity in France 
during- the Revolution, because it 
was played so much by the nobility. 

The peculiar method of scoring 
in Tennis had its origin thus : In 
France the " chases " were num- 
bered up to fourteen ; so when the 
first stroke was won the marker 
called out " Fifteen," for a lower 
number would mean that the ball 
had made a second bound at the 
corresponding chase. A stroke thus 
came to be called Un Quinze (a 
Fifteen), so that two strokes natu- 
rally scored thirty, and three strokes 
forty-five. The " five " was subse- 
quently omitted from the last num- 
ber. The term Deuce is from the 
French a deux (equal). 

When the doors of the National 
Assembly were closed by the King 
of France just before the Revolu- 
tion, the members met on June 20, 
1789, in a Tennis court in Versailles, 
and swore that France should have 
a constitution. This oath is known 
in history as le serment du Jeu de 
Paiime (the Tennis oath). 

Badminton. A kind of Lawn 
Tennis in which shuttlecocks (see 
Battledore) are used instead of 
balls. It may be played in a parlor, 
or in the open air, by two, four, six, 
or even more players, divided into 
two opposing sides. The court may 
be of various sizes, but the best is 
28 feet long by 20 broad, the service 
line being 10 feet from the base line. 
The net, which is only a foot deep, 
is suspended ^yi feet above the 
ground. The rackets used are the 
same as in Lawn Tennis. The 
shuttlecocks are usually loaded with 
lead or rubber, and are sometimes 
made so that they may be tightened 
by interlaced strings. The game 
is played like Lawn Tennis, except 
that, as shuttlecocks cannot bound, 
they must always be " volleyed," 
and when one falls to the ground it 
counts against the player missing it. 
Badminton is named from the 
country-seat of the Duke of Beau- 
fort, in England. 



TENT PEGGING. See MUMBLE- 
the-Peg. 

THAUMATROPE. A toy consist- 
ing of a square or a disk of paste- 
board having pictures on both sides. 
The disk has strings, by which it 
can be twirled so rapidly that the 
eye can see the pictures on both sides 
at once. This is possible because 
the image of anything seen remains 
in the eye about one-eighth of a sec- 
ond, and as it does not take so long 
as that for the disk to turn around, 
the images of both sides are in the 
eye at the same time. Parts of a 
figure may be represented on one 
side of the disk and the rest on the 
other in such a way that when the 
disk is twirled the figure is seen 
complete. Thus, the man in the 
illustration will appear to be riding 
the horse. 

Drawing Thaumatrope Figures. 
The simplest figures to draw are 
those whose parts do not have to 
fit together very exactly. For in- 
stance, a cage may be drawn on 
one side and a bird on the other, 
and when the disk is twirled the 
bird will appear in the cage, but its 
position does not matter much. The 
figure on the opposite side of the 
disk from the spectator must be up- 
side down, so that when it turns 
over to his own side it will be up- 
right. In the case of parts of figures 
which must fit together exactly more 
care is required, as for instance when 
some of a man's limbs are drawn on 
one side of the disk and the rest on 
the other. The required figure should 
be selected from a book, or drawn 
entire on a sheet of paper, and then 
the parts to be drawn on each side 
of the disk must be traced on separ- 
ate pieces of tracing paper. 

Two straight lines, A B and C 
D, must be drawn across the picture, 
and their traces lightly penciled 
across both the partial drawings. 
One of the partial drawings is now 
pasted on one side of a piece of 
pasteboard and pinholes are pricked 
through it at A, B, C, and D, or 



THAUMATROPE 



722 



THREE-FACED PICTURES 



points near them on the lines ; the 
other partial drawing must be pasted 
on the other side ot the pasteboard 
upside down, but so that the lines 
A B and C D join the pinholes made 
from the other side. Thus the two 



^- ^^ 




Thaumatropes. 

partial pictures will exactly corre- 
spond in position. The pasteboard 
is now cut into any convenient shape 
— a disk is best, but not necessary — 
and the figures may be painted or 
details added to suit the maker. It 
is best to put only outlines on the 
tracing paper, so that the work will 



not be wasted if a mistake is made 
in pasting. The middle strings 
must be fastened at the ends of the 
line A B, and the others, if there are 
more than one, at equal distances 
above and below, so that the card 
will twirl about this line; 
otherwise the figures will 
not blend correctly. It 
does not matter how the 
lines A B and C D are 
drawn in the first place so 
long as they cross, but 
their position must be 
traced exactly on the par- 
tial drawings. 

Many comical effects can 
be produced by the Thau- 
matrope. A man may be 
drawn on one side and a 
bottle on the other so that 
the man will appear to be 
drinking when the disk is 
twirled. In the same way 
can be shown a house, and the same 
house in flames ; a sleeping man, 
and the same man attacked by rats, 
and countless other designs. If the 
axis on which the card twirls is 
changed a little, the position of the 
figures changes. This can be ef- 
fected by using two strings only on 



^ 



BA 



^ 


\, 







BA 



l> 



i 



B 



Drawing Thaumatrope Figures. 



each side, and having one of these 
on one side made of stiff elastic. 
When the string is pulled, the 
axis of the card will change, and 
with it the relation of the fig- 
ures. Thus, in the case of the man 
drinking, the hand may appear 



slightly raised at first, and, on 
tightening the string, may be visibly 
lifted to the mouth. 

THEATRICALS. See Private 
Theatricals. 

THREE-FACED PICTURES. Pic- 
tures which will appear differently. 



THIRTY-ONE 



723 



THREAD THE NEEDLE 



according as they are viewed from 
the right, the left, or directly in 
front. They can be made as fol- 
lows : Select any three pictures of 




Fig. I. 

exactly the same size, on paper of 
the same thickness. Cut them in- 
to vertical strips about one-third of 
an inch wide, numbering the strips 
in each case so that their relative 
places may be remembered. Then 
paste the strips on to thin paper; 
first the three strips numbered one, 
then those numbered two, and so 
on. The result will be a confused 
picture as wide as all the three orig- 
inal pictures together and of the 




Fig. 2. 

same height as one of them. (See 
Fig. I, where the three kinds of 
strips are lettered a, b, and c, re- 
spectively). This is then folded up 
like an accordion or fan (Fig. 2), 
every third strip, c, remaining flat. 



while the others are pushed to- 
gether. The latter are now pasted 
firmly to one another, so that the 
picture seems to be divided verti- 
cally by fences or partitions of pa- 
per. The whole may now be 
mounted on pasteboard and will 
show one or the other of the three 
pictures, according to the point 
from which it is viewed. 

THIRTY-ONE. A game of cards 
played with a full pack, by any 
number of persons not exceeding 
sixteen. Three cards are dealt 
to each, and three more are placed, 
face upward, in the middle of the 
table. Each player, in turn, ex- 
changes one of his cards for one in 
the spare hand, until some one is 
ready to show his hand, or stops 
changing. The highest hand is one 
containing cards all of the same suit, 
the sum of whose pips is 31 (reck- 
oning Ace as II, and face cards as 
10 each). Next in rank are three 
cards of a kind (three Kings being 
highest and three Aces lowest), and 
after that, in order, hands all of 
the same suit, the sum of whose 
pips is less than 31. When any one 
has 31 he shows his hand at once, 
and wins the game. When any one 
cannot better his hand by exchang- 
ing, and still has not 31, he an- 
nounces the fact, and then the oth- 
ers, in turn, can each exchange once 
more, after which all show their 
hands, and the highest wins. 

Another way of playing is to keep 
the score with counters, each player 
being given two or three at the be- 
ginning. He who has the lowest 
hand puts one in the centre of the 
table, and the game goes on till only 
one has any counters left. That one 
is then declared the winner. 

THREAD THE NEEDLE. A game 
played by any number of persons, 
who join hands to form a line. The 
player at one end, whom we will 
call A, and the one at the other 
end, whom we will call B, begin the 
game by a dialogue in verse as fol- 
lows : 



THREE ELEMENTS 



724 



THREE LIVES 



A. " How many miles to Babylon ? " 

B. " Threescore miles and ten." 

A. " Can I get there by candle-light ? " 

B. " Oh yes, and back again." 

A. " Then open the gates as high as the sky. 
And let King George and his train pass 
by." 

B and the player next him then 
lift their joined hands as high as 
possible, and A, with the others 
behind him, pass under. This is 
then repeated, B becoming the in- 
quirer and threading the needle in 
his turn. 

History. The game is an old one, 
and the verse is said in many differ- 
ent ways, one variation of the last 
two lines being : 

*' Then open the gates without more ado, 
And let the King and his men pass through." 

The verse is sometimes used also 
in a game like Peelaway, when it 
ends : 

" Yes, if your legs are long as light, 
But take care of the old gray witch by the 
hillside." 

Threading Grandmother's Needle. 
A form of the game in which the 
dialogue is between the two on one 
end and the others. It is as follows : 

" Grandmother's eyes are grown so dim 

Her needle she can't fill." 
" Our eyes are very bright and good ; 

Thread it for her we will." 

THREE ELEMENTS, THE; or, 
FISH, FLESH, AND FOWL. A 

game played by any number of 
persons, who sit in a circle. One of 
them, who is chosen in any way the 
company pleases, stands in the 
middle, holding in his hand a hand- 
kerchief or soft ball. This he 
throws suddenly at any one of the 
players, crying out one of the three 
words Earth, Air, or Water, and 
then counting ten. If the player 
whom the ball strikes cannot speak 
the name of some creature that 
lives on or in the element named, 
before the other has finished count- 
ing, he must pay a forfeit and take 
the place of the one in the middle 
of the circle. Otherwise the play- 
er in the middle of the circle must 
throw the ball at some one else. 



Sometimes the words Fish, Flesh, 
and Fowl are used, instead of the 
names of the elements. If desired, 
the forfeits may be omitted^ 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. The name of the element may 
be spoken as soon as the ball is 
thrown, but the counting may not 
begin till it strikes the player. 

2. In counting, every word must 
be pronounced clearly. 

3. In case of doubt as to whether 
the name of the creature has been 
spoken before the counting is fin- 
ished, a majority of the players 
shall decide. 

4. All birds shall be considered 
to live in the air. 

5. Amphibious animals may be 
regarded as living either in water or 
on the earth. 

THREE KINGDOMS, THE. See 
Twenty Questions. 

THREE LIVES. A word game 
played by any number of persons. 
The first player thinks of a word 
and gives its first letter. The sec- 
ond thinks of one beginning with 
that letter and gives the second let- 
ter. The third thinks of one be- 
ginning with these two letters and 
gives the third. This goes on till 
some one is unable to think of a 
word beginning with all the letters 
given, or till some one's letter fin- 
ishes a word of four or more letters. 
In either of these cases the player 
is said to " lose a life," and the one 
next in order begins a new word. 
When any one has lost three lives 
he drops out of the game, and the 
victor is he who remains in at the 
last. Thus, suppose the first player 
thinks of " House," and says " H." 
The second thinks of "Happy" 
and says " A." The third thinks of 
"Harness" and says " R." The 
fourth thinks of " Harpy," but can- 
not say " P " because that com- 
pletes the word " Harp," so he 
thinks of " Harlem " and says " L." 
The fifth is unable to think of any 
word beginning with " Harl," and 



THREE THINGS 



725 



TIDDLEDY WINKS 



so loses a life. When only two or 
three are left in the game it be- 
comes more exciting, each one try- 
ing to give the word such a turn 
that the next will either not be able 
to go on with it, or will be forced 
to complete it. When a player 
cannot go on, and has thus lost a 
life, he may require from any one 
before him to tell what his word 
was ; otherwise a player might 
merely add a letter without think- 
ing of any word at all. 

THREE THINGS. A game played 
by any number of persons sitting 
in a row or circle. The one who 
begins gives to his left-hand neigh- 
bor the names of three things be- 
ginning with the same letter, which 
the latter must then connect in 
some way, and then give three 
other things to the next in the line. 
When any one is unable to connect 
the names he receives he must pay 
a forfeit, and the names are passed 
along to the next player. Thus, 
the first player gives out " Hen, 
Ham, and Heaviness." The second 
says: "The hen tried to eat the 
ham, and found that heaviness in 
the crop resulted. I give Door, 
Dinner, and Duty." The third says: 
" I opened the door to go in to 
dinner, when I had to go back to 
fulfill a forgotten duty," and so on. 

THROW THE HANDKERCHIEF. 
A game played by any number of 
persons, who sit in a circle. One 
stands in the centre and begins the 
game by throwing a handkerchief 
at some one in the circle, who at 
once throws it at some one else, 
and so on. If the one in the centre 
can touch a player who is holding 
the handkerchief, or can catch it 
when thrown by any player, such 
player must take his place. A large 
towel is often used instead of a 
handkerchief. It should not be 
tied in a knot, but allowed to 
spread out when thrown, as this in- 
creases the difficulty of throwing, 
and the fun of the game. 

THROWING LIGHT. A guessing 



game played by any number of per- 
sons. Two of the players privately 
agree on some object, and then 
converse about it without nammg 
it, trying to mystify the rest of the 
company. This is called " Throw- 
ing light " on the object chosen. 
As soon as one of the others thinks 
he has guessed it, he joins in the 
conversation, and aids in throwing 
light. If one of the original play- 
ers thinks, from what he says, that 
the guess is not correct, he says " I 
challenge you," and the guess must 
be whispered in his ear. If it is in- 
correct, the guesser must sit with 
a handkerchief over his face till he 
is able to " throw light " correctly. 
The game goes on thus till only one 
of the players is left in the dark. 
It is allowable to choose two words 
of the same sound but different 
meanings, as in how do you like 
IT ? and use either meaning at 
pleasure, so as to make "throwing 
light" more difficult. 

THUSSAYSTHE GRAND MUFTI. 
See Grand Mufti. 

TIDDLEDY WINKS. A game 
played by any number of persons, 
singly or as partners, on a table 
covered with a thick cloth. Each 
player is provided with a set of six 
small counters and one large one, 
all of the same color, the different 
players having different colored 
sets. A little basket or cup, gen- 
erally of ivory or celluloid, is placed 
in the centre of the table, and each 
player ranges his small counters in 
front of him in a line about eight 
inches from it. The object of the 
game is to snap each of the smaller 
counters, by pressing on its edge 
with the larger one, so as to make 
it jump into the basket, and he 
wins who first gets all his counters 
in. The players take turns, but he 
who is successful in snapping a 
counter into the basket has the 
privilege of playing until he fails. 
After a player has played out all 
his counters from the starting line, 
he can play, when his turn comes. 



TIN, EXPERIMENTS 



726 



TIP 



any of his counters wherever it 
may lie ; but he is not allowed to 
touch any of his adversary's coun- 
ters, and if any of his own be cov- 
ered, and no other be available, 
he must wait until his adversary 
has uncovered one before he can 
play. A player may not intention- 
ally cover any of his opponents' 
counters. If a counter fall off the 
table, it must be replaced one inch 
from the edge where it fell off. 
Partners sit opposite each other, 
and may play each other's counters 
after they have left the starting 
line. 

Variations. The game may be 
played with several variations by 
marking, around the basket on the 
cloth with French chalk, a ring 
about four inches in diameter. 

1. Any counter falling within 
this ring is to be considered dead, 
the winner being he who gets most 
counters into the basket. 

2. Any counter falling within the 
ring must be returned to its place 
in the starting line, and played out 
by the player at his next turn. 

3. If a counter fall within the 
ring, the next or any other player 
during that round, is at liberty, if 
he choose, to play it (instead of 
his own) to any part of the table he 
may consider best for himself. If 
it be not played thus, the player to 
whom it belongs can play with it 
at his next turn in the usual way. 

4. Mark on the cloth any figure, 
such as a circle, a square, etc., and 
divide it into numbered segm.ents 
or parts. Several games may be 
played with these, the counters 
scoring according to the number of 
the part they fall in. 

Tiddledy Winks may be played 
also as a progressive game, on 
any number of tables. 

TIERCE. See Fox and Geese, 
II. 

TIN, Experiments with. Tin is 
described in C. C. T. i. Take an 
ordinary piece of tin-plate and 
hold it over the flame of an alcohol 



lamp till the tin begins to melt; 
then thrust it into cold water. This 
will harden it. Rub the surface 
first with a piece of paper wet with 
a mixture of weak nitric and hydro- 
chloric acids, and then with one 
wet with caustic soda dissolved in 
water. The surface of the tin will 
then be seen to be formed of crys- 
tals like frost on a window-pane. 

2. Place some metallic tin (not 
tin-plate) on a playing card and 
hold it over the flame of a spirit 
lamp. The tin can be thus melted 
without burning the card (see illus- 
tration). The reason is that the 






Melting Tin on a Card. 

metal conducts heat so well that it 
leads the heat away from the card 
before the latter has time to burn. 
TIP. A game played by any num- 
ber of persons. Apile of favors is 
placed on a table, consisting of par- 
cels of candy or any desired articles, 
and each takes his turn at selecting 
from them. Before doing so, the 
player turns his head while some 
one touches any one of the articles. 
This is called the Tip, and the 
player may select and keep any fa- 
vor he pleases till he touches the 
Tip, when the turn passes to the 
next. As all know what the Tip is 
except the one selecting, his choice 
affords much amusement to the 
company. 



TIP CAT 



727 



TIT-TAT-TO 



This game is popular in Germa- 
ny, and is appropriate for children's 
parties. 

TIP-CAT. See Cat. 

TISSUE PAPER, Experiment with. 
Make a cylinder of tissue paper four 
or five inches high and two or three 
inches in diameter, and, standing 
it upright on a table, set it on fire 
from above. It will turn to cinder 
as it burns, and the cylinder will 
bend inward above to form a sort 
of dome, which the hot air under- 
neath, when it has been nearly con- 
sumed, will carry up into the air 
five or six feet. This experiment 
often has to be tried several times 
before it succeeds, but when it does 
it is very striking. The mass of 
light cinder really forms a small 
hot-air balloon, like those described 
under Fourth of July. 

TIT-TAT-TO, or NOUGHTS AND 
CROSSES. A game played by two 
persons on a slate, or with pencil 
and paper. A figure is first marked 
on the slate, or paper, like the one 
in Fig. I, but without the numbers, 
which are here only for conven- 
ience of reference. The players 
take turns in putting marks in the 




Fig. 



-Tit-tat~to. 



places numbered in the illustra- 
tion, and each tries to get three of 
his own marks in a row, and to pre- 
vent his opponent from doing so. 
One player usually chooses an x 
for his mark and the other an o. 
The following game should be 
played out on paper. The num- 
bers refer to the first illustration. 



The x's 

ranged as 
have won. 



X 

o 

X 

o 

X 

o 

X 

o 

and 



I 

5 
2 

3 

7 
4 
8 
6 
o's 



are now are 
and the o's 



in Fig. 2 

The winner points to 
his row of three and says, " Tit, tat, 
to ; three in a row." In the above 



X X o 

000 

X X 



Fig. 2.— Tit-tat-to. 

game the player who chose x for 
his mark made a mistake in his last 
play. If he had put his mark on 6 
instead of on 8, he would have pre- 
vented his opponent from making 
a row. The game is so simple that 
with two skillful players it always 
ends in a draw ; that is, neither gets 
a row of three. 

Tit-tat-to resembles nine men's 
MORRIS, and they may be derived 
from the same game. The ancient 
Romans played a game somewhat 

like it, as we learn 

from a passage in 
Ovir! s " Art of 
Lct^e." In Ireland 
the game is called 
Tip Top Castle. 
The game of GO 
bang also seems to 
be a form of it. 
In Germany the 
game is called Muhle7ispiel (The 
Mill Game), and played with peb- 
bles or grains of corn on a diagram 
like Fig. 3. 



Fig. 



3. — Muhlen- 
spiel. 



TlVOLl 



728 



TOBOGGANING 



The pebbles can be placed on 
any of the nine places where lines 
meet, and whoever first gets three 
in a row says " Trip, trap, troll ; 
meme iniihle ist voll " (Trip, trap, 
troll ; my mill is full). Nine men's 
MORRIS is called by the Germans 
Doppehniikle (Double-Mill). 

TlVOLl. See Bagatelle. 

TOAD, THE. A solitaire game 
of CARDS, played with two packs. 
The first thirteen cards are placed, 
as they appear, in one pile, called 



the Toad. The rest of the pack is 
arranged in five piles, in any order 
the player wishes. As the Aces ap- 
pear they are placed in a row, and 
on them families are built upward, 
without following suit. The top 
card of any of the piles may be 
used for this purpose. The player 
will try, of course, to arrange the 
piles in the best order for building, 
in the cases where it is allowed. 
Success depends on the order in 
which the cards fall in the Toad. 




Toboggan. 



TOBOGGANING. Coasting on 
toboggans, or sleds without run- 




Manner of holding Toboggan. 

ners. Toboggans are made of 
tough elastic wood from one-eighth 



to one-quarter of an inch thick, 
and vary in length from four to 
eight feet, and in breadth from 
sixteen to twenty-four inches. 
Across the upper side ribs or cleats 
of wood are fastened to give them 
strength, and along the side are 
hand-rails, to which the coasters 
may cling, and to which cushions 
are often strapped. The front is 
bent backward in a curve to form 
a sort of dashboard. The slides 
on which toboggans are used are 
either natural or artificial. In this 
country the latter are most com- 
mon. Natural slides are apt to be 
uneven, and contain little mounds, 
called in Canada cahots, which 
make the toboggan leap into the 
air and cause accidents. The ar- 
tificial slides are frameworks of 
timber supporting a slideway of 
boards which is covered with snow 
and ice. The highest point may 
be forty or fifty feet above the 
ground. These slides are often 
built on the side of a hill, where 
part of the descent is natural. 
There are also double slides, con- 
sisting of two slides side by side, 
but with the incline in opposite 
directions, so that after descending 
one the coaster has only to ascend 



TOBOGGANING 



729 



TOBOGGANING 



a flight of steps to be at the top of 
the other sHde. At the top of the 
sHde is a starting platform, and 
leading from this are chutes, or 
flat-bottomed troughs, in which 
the toboggan runs. There may be 
several of these, each from four to 
six feet wide, with raised side- 
boards to keep the toboggan on 
the chute. Below the chutes is 
generally a natural slide with a 
very slight inclination, and some- 
times hay is placed at the bottom, 
to stop the toboggans. On one 
side of the slides is a flight of steps, 
and by its side a dragway on which 
the toboggans are drawn up. 

The plan shows how such a slide 
is built. The chutes are packed 
with snow, or sometimes with a 
mixture of snow and sawdust 
mixed with water and allowed to 
freeze. If the packing is done 
properly, the surface should be 
perfectly smooth, and the tobog- 
gans will attain great speed — often 
as great as a mile a minute. The 
makers of one kind of toboggan 
have advertised that with their 
toboggan a speed of three miles 
per minute may be reached. Yet, 
on properly built slides toboggans 
are safer than ordinary sleds, 
for they cannot leave the chute ; 
and as they have no runners and 
are close to the ground, they rare- 
ly upset. 

Steering. The toboggan is guid- 
ed either by short sticks of wood 
in the hands or with the foot. 
The right foot is generally used, and 
the steerer kneels or lies on his 
side. The principle is the same as 
that by which a sled is steered. 
By touching the ground with the 
bit of wood or the foot on one side, 
that side is made to go slower and 
the toboggan turns in that direc- 
tion. A toboggan is easier to steer 
than a sled. On some slides steer- 
ing with bits of wood is forbidden, 
as it tears up the surface. 

The toboggans made in Canada 
are commonly of one piece of 



wood, with a smooth flat bottom. 
Toboggans are made in the United 
States of slats rounded on the bot- 
tom, so that each is a sort of low 




Plan of Slide. 



runner. Some toboggans are shod 
with steel. The rail at the side is 
often made to yield to the motion 
of the toboggan, so that it bends 
easily. The screws that fasten it 
should not appear on the bottom, 



TOBOGGANING 



730 



TOOTHPICK BOMB 



for if they project they increase the 
friction and tear the ice on the 
slide; and if they are sunk into 
the wood, the snow collects in the 
holes and roughens the bottom. 

Toboggan Yachts. Snow yachts 
have been built and sailed on the 
prairies of the great West. They 
are shaped and rigged like ice- 
boats, but have toboggans instead 
of runners, the rear, or steering to- 
boggan, being only six inches wide. 
One of these toboggan boats is 
thirty-two feet long and fourteen 
feet beam, has a mast twenty feet 
high and a boom twenty-two feet 
long. She is sloop-rigged, and is 
said to have made forty miles an 
hour. Snow yachts cannot sail 
close to the wind. (See Sailing.) 
When they wish to " go about," 
they do so by " wearing." 

Water Toboggan. A toboggan 
used by bathers. The slide is cov- 
ered with little rollers, over which 
the toboggan glides easily, and it 
ends in the water. The coasters, 
clad in bathing suits, shoot down 
the slide with great velocity and 
over the surface of the water for 
many rods. When the force of the 
toboggan is spent, it is allowed to 
sink, and the coaster swims to the 
shore. The toboggan is recovered 
by a string attached to it. One of 
these slides is at Fort Hamilton, 
on New York Bay. 

Histofy. The word toboggan is 
a corruption of the Indian odabag- 
gan. Toboggans were used by the 
northern Indians, before the dis- 
covery of this continent, for the 
transportation of game, furs, and 
other goods. They were drawn 
either by dogs or by men, and were 
well adapted for travelling on the 
deep snow. They were originally 
fastened together entirely with 
deer-thongs, but now metal rivets 
or screws are used. 

During the French and Indian 
wars and in the Revolution tobog- 
gans were used for transporting 
military stores and equipments in 



northern campaigns. About 1835 
British officers in Montreal intro- 
duced tobogganing as a sport by 
coasting down Mount Royal. The 
sport grew quickly in popularity, 
and the artificial slide, which had 
long been in use in Russia, was 




Russian Slide. 

soon introduced. In this country, 
tobogganing was first practised in 
northern New England near the 
Canadian boundary, but within a 
few years it has been popular in 
other regions. In 1884 a large 
slide was erected in Saratoga, New 
York ; and since then others have 
been built in various parts of the 
United States. At the "winter 
carnivals" in St. Paul, Minnesota, 
Burlington, Vermont, and other 
cities — in imitation of the one held 
annually in Montreal, Canada — to- 
bogganing is one of the favorite 
sports, and there are parades of the 
members of toboggan clubs, clad 
in gayly-colored uniforms. 

TOM TIDDLER'S QROUND. See 
Tag. 

TOOTHPICK BOMB. A toy 
made by interlacing four wooden 
toothpicks. Place three in the 
form of a triangle, so that the end 
of each rests on that of the next. 
Now push them together as far as 
possible, and lock them by weaving 
in a fourth under one pick, over 
the next, and under the third. This 
can be done after a few trials. Lay 



TOPS 



731 



TOPS 



the bomb on a plate, with one end 
projecting over the edge, and light 
that end with a match. When the 
end has burned down to the place 
where two picks cross, they will be 
released and their spring will throw 
all the toothpicks into the air. 

TOPS. See the article in C. C. T. 
String Tops. The string is wound 
sometimes around the body of 
the top, which is grooved for the 
purpose, or around an upright peg 
at the upper end. The former 
kind is spun by being thrown on 
the ground, while the end of the 
string, ending in a loop or button, 
is retained in the hand. The cuts 
show the way of holding in Eng- 
land and this country. As the top 




English Manner of Holding Top. 

moves through the air the string 
unwinds, giving it a whirling mo- 
tion which keeps up after it has 
struck the ground. Other tops 
have generally a handle by which 
the top is held in one hand while 
the string is pulled by the other. 
The handle is loose enough to allow 
the top to whirl as the string un- 
winds, and is either withdrawn 
when the top is set going or re- 
mains on the top as it spins. Some 




American Manner of Holding Top. 

tops can be set going in the air and 
then placed on the floor. 

Whip Tops are set in motion by 
twirling with the fingers, and then 



the whirling is increased and kept 
up by whipping the top with a 
piece of cord, usually fastened to a 
whip handle. This requires some 




Whip Top. 

skill. An eel-skin is said to make 
the best whip, as it is soft and clings 
to the top when it strikes it. 

Spring Tops have a handle or 
cap, fitted over the upper end, 
which is held in one hand while the 
top is turned round by the other. 
This winds up a spring in the han- 
dle, which, when the top is placed 
on the floor, is set loose, and, un- 
winding, spins the top, when the 
handle is then pulled off. Spring 
tops are apt to get out of order, 
and are not much used. 

Teetotums. Little tops called 
teetotums are spun by twirling 
them with the fingers. They have 
usually from four to eight flat sides 
or edges, on each of which is a letter 
or number. Teetotums are used 
in playing several games, to deter- 
mine the moves, each player twirl- 
ing the teetotum in turn and play- 
ing according to the letter or num- 
ber that is uppermost after the top 
has fallen on its side. 

Humming Tops are made hollow, 
with a hole in one side, past which 
the air rushes as they spin, making 
the air within vibrate and causinga 
humming sound. (C. C. T.) Some 
humming tops are fitted with one or 
more reeds, or vibrating tongues of 
metal, like those that make the 
sounds in a parlor organ, and they 
thus give a district musical note. 



TOPS 



732 



TOPS 



sometimes a whole chord. They 
are sometimes arranged so that 
the note changes as they spin fast- 
er or slower. 

A humming top may be made 
from an ordinary cylindrical bak- 
ing-powder or spice box. Make a 
hole exactly in the middle of cover 
and bottom, and push a lead pencil 
through the box, the point pro- 
jecting about half an inch. Lift 
the cover slightly and with a strong 
pair of scissors cut a slit in the box 
about two inches long and one- 
eighth of an inch wide. Replace 




Humming Top. 

the cover, and the top is complete. 
If the lid does not fit tight it 
should be fastened on with glue. 
It is spun by means of a handle 
made of a piece of lath three or 
four inches long with a hole in one 
end large enough to admit the 
lead pencil freely. The string is 
wound on the pencil above the box, 
the hole in the handle is placed 
over the pencil, the end of the 
string is brought up through the 
hole, and the string is then pulled 
with one hand while the handle is 
held in the other. These tops are 
often made by boys in France. 

Color Tops or Chameleon Tops. 
Tops bearing a fiat disk or plate 
painted in various colors. When 
the top is spun, these colors appear 
blended or mixed together. A 
loose circle of paper or leather, 
with part cut away, is placed on 




Color Top. 

the disk, and may be pushed I 
around so as to expose different ' 
colors. When the top is spinning, 




Design for Color Top 



if this piece be touched, it will 
move, and the exposed colors will 
be different, so that the top will 
color. Rings 



seem to change its 



TOPS 



733 



TOPS 



of colored paper and various de- 
signs like those shown in the illus- 
tration can also be dropped on the 
disk and made to overlap in vari- 




Appearance of the Spinning Wires. 

ous ways, which also changes the 
color of the spinning top. Color 
tops usually have a hole in the top 
of the stem, into which bits of wire 
of various shapes can be put. When 
the top is spinning, these wires 
whirl round so rapidly that they 
look like glass vessels or dishes. 
They are best seen against a black 
background. Color tops are usu- 
ally spun in little glazed saucers, 
so that they keep their motion for 
a long time. 
If a disk with rows of holes in it 



be placed on a spinning color top, 
the central hole being larger than 
the handle of the top, it will 
gyrate on being touched, and the 
holes will appear like a delicate 
lace-pattern, changing with each 
touch. If shining steel buttons 
be glued to the top of the disk, the 
appearance on spinning will be still 
more beautiful. 

French Top. A case in which are 
packed a number of small tops 
shaped something like saucers. 
The case and its contents are set 
spinning in the usual way, and 




French Top. 

then, holding it by a loose handle, 
the spinner shakes the case, and 
the tops within fall out one by one 
and continue to spin on the floor 




Dutch Rackets. 



Dutch Rackets. A game played 
with a top and a racket, D (see 
illustration), about the size of that 
used in Lawn Tennis, which, in- 



stead of being strung, is made 
entirely of wood, one side being 
slightly hollowed and the other 
fitted with little cups, each of which 



TOPS 



734 



TOPS 



is marked with a different number. 
The top B is spun on the hollowed 
side of the racket by the string C, 
pulled through the standard A, 
and the player then tosses it into 
the air, turns the racket over, and 
catches the top in the cups in suc- 
cession, till it falls to the ground or 
stops spinning, scoring each time 
the number marked in the cup in 
which he catches it. The screw 
E is for tightening the racket. 

Flying Top. A toy consisting of 
a stick to which are fastened three 



leased it untwists, turning the flyer, 
which propels the Fly-Fly through 
the air. (Figs. 1-3.) The height to 
which it will rise depends on the 
size of the vanes and the elasticity 
of the india-rubber band. Fig. 2 is 
worked by pressing down and pull- 







Flying Top. 

vanes with oblique surfaces. The 
string is wound around the stick 
or spindle, which is then placed in 
a stand. The end of the string is 
passed through a hole in the side of 
the stand, and being pulled causes 
the top to turn rapidly around. 
When it has attained sufficient 
speed it rises high in the air, from 
the action of the vanes, which work 
in the same way as the screw pro- 
peller of a steamer. 

Fly-Fly. A form of flying top in 
which the force is derived from 
a twisted rubber band. The flyer or 
cap holding the vanes turns freely 
on the spindle, and a thick piece 
of india-rubber is fastened to the 
flyer at one end, and at the other 
to the spindle. If the spindle be 
held firmly in one hand and the 
flyer turned with the other, the 
rubber will be twisted, and when re- 




Fly-Fly.— Fig-. I. 

ing up the beam A A, which is guard- 
ed by a slot in one of the uprights. 
Magnetic Top. Atop consisting 
of a flat disk of iron pierced in the 
middle by an axle, pointed at one 
end. When it is spun like any oth- 
er top and a magnet is presented to 
it, the top avoids the magnet, be- 
ing repelled instead of attracted, 
though it is of iron. When the 
top is still, however, or spinning 
very slowly, it is attracted, like any 
other piece of iron. The reason 
is that when the top spins fast the 
magnet induces electric currents in 



TOPS 



735 



TOPS 



the iron disk, which really becomes 
a small dynamo-machine. The ef- 
fect of these currents is to repel the 
magnet, and their action is strong- 
er than its attraction for the iron, 
unless it is spinning slowly. With 



a copper top the repulsion is even 
greater ; but the tops are made of 
iron because it seems stranger that 
a metal which is usually attracted 
by a magnet should ever be re- 
pelled. 




Fly-Fly. 

Travelling Top. A top which 
rolls instead of spinning. A simple 
one can be made thus : Cut out a 
flat circular piece of wood or tin 
about three inches in diameter and 
make in the edge two notches ex- 
actly opposite each other. Tie to- 
gether the ends of a piece of strong 



-Fig. 3. 

twine about three or four feet long 

and pass it around the legs just 
above the knees. Twist the string 
by means of a stick thrust be- 
tween the strings. When it is 
twisted, remove the stick and put 
the disk in its place, the string 
holding it by the notches on its 



TOPS 



736 



TOURMALINE 



edge. Now release the disk and 
force the cord to untwist swiftly by 
pulling the knees apart. The string 
will make the disk revolve with it 
till it has untwisted. 

How Tops Spin. When not in 
motion, a top cannot be made to 
stand on its point, but when it is 
spinning it does so easily. The 
reason is that every part of the top 
is then moving around with great 
force, and when the top tips a little 
to one side, so that the part on 
that side tends to fall toward the 
ground, that part of the top is 
whirled around quickly to the other 
side and another part takes its 
place. The falling motion is there- 
fore turned to one side, and instead 
of tipping over the top merely gy- 
rates; that is, the stem moves 
around in a circle. This is hardly no- 
ticeable when the top is spinning 
very fast, but as the rubbing of the 
point against the floor stops it grad- 
ually, it gyrates more and more, and 
finally touches the ground. But 
tops which gyrate or " wabble " 
when they begin to spin, usually 
become quiet in a few seconds, and 
remain so as long as they are spin- 
ning fast. They are then said to 
" sleep." The motion of a top has 
been studied by many learned men, 
and requires mathematics to ex- 
plain it completely. The earth 
spins in its course like a great top, 
and it also gyrates like one, but 
very slowly, the North Pole taking 
more than 25,000 years to describe 
one of its circles. 

The Romans called the top bux- 
um, the name of the box tree, be- 
cause they used that kind of wood 
in making it. It is alluded to by 
the Latin poets as a children's toy, 
and has been a favorite with all 
nations, 

TOURMALINE, Experiments with. 
Slices of the mineral called tour- 
maline can be bought of an opti- 
cian. If one slice be held in the 
left hand and another in the right, 
and if the latter be slowly turned 



around, while the experimenter 
looks through them at the sky, it 
will be found that there is one 
position where it is impossible to 




Fig. I. 

see through them. (See Fig. i.) 
Looking through them at a card 
pierced with a hole and placed be- 
tween the experimenter and the 
light, he will find that as he turns 
one tourmaline quite around, the 
hole will disappear and reappear 
again twice. While they are in 
the position where the hole cannot 
be seen, let some one hold a very 
thin piece of mica between them. 
The hole will at once become vis- 
ible, and if the tourmaline near- 
est the eye be turned, beautiful 
colors will be seen, changing one 
into another. The light, after it 
has passed through the first tour- 
maline, is said to be polarized. 
Most reflected light is also partial- 
ly polarized, as may be seen by 
looking through one tourmaline 
at the light reflected from glass, 
polished furniture, water, or even 
from the sky. When the tourma- 
line is turned, the light will grow 
brighter and dimmer by turns, 
though it will not disappear entire- 
ly. If a piece of mica be held be- 
tween, as before, the same colors 
will be seen. An arrangement for 
polarizing light by reflection may 
be made by laying on a board a 
piece of glass painted black on the 
under side, and supporting on one 
side of it the tourmaline, mounted 
in a cork which fits in a hole in an 
upright bit of wood. The hole 
must be bored diagonally, so that 
the cork makes an angle of about 
5 5 degrees with the flat glass. This 
particular angle is the best, but it is 
not necessary to be exact. Place 



TRADES 



737 



TRAP BALL 




Fig. 2. 



the arrangement in front of a 
window where the light from the 
sky can be reflected from the black 
glass and then observed through 
the tourmaline. The latter can be 
turned by turning the 
cork in the hole. On do- 
ing so, it will be seen that 
the light reflected from 
the black glass is well po- 
larized. Examine a num- 
ber of transparent objects 
by placing them just be 
low the tourmaline, and 
it will be seen that some 
show colors and some do 
not. Crystals of different sub- 
stances deposited on glass should 
be tried, also pieces of glass. In- 
stead of a tourmaline, an arrange- 
ment of crystals called a Nicol 
prism may be used. This is still 
better, as it allows more light to 
pass. It can be bought of any 
dealer in scientific apparatus. 

Glass shows the prettiest colors 
and figures when it is in a state of 
strain from uneven cooling. To 
prepare it, take pieces a quarter of 
an inch thick and about an inch or 
an inch and a half square, and 
heat them red hot on a piece of 
slate in a coal fire, or over a Bun- 
sen burner. Let them cool on a 
piece of cold iron. They will not 
break if they have been heated 
enough. Instead of the tourma- 
line or Nicol prism, the following 
arrangement may be employed. 
(See Fig. 2.) Bore a hole length- 
wise through a cork about an inch 
and a half long, and then cut it in 
two diagonally, making an angle 
of about 34 degrees with the axis, 
as shown in the picture. Glue to 
the diagonal surface of the lower 
half of the cork six plates of very 
thin glass, separating them by tis- 
sue paper glued at their edges. 
Then glue on the upper half of the 
cork, so that the round hole in it 
seems continuous with that in the 
lower half. Two of these arrange- 
ments may be used instead of the 



two tourmalines, or one may be 
used with the apparatus for polar- 
izing by reflection. 

Objects can be made of thin 
sheets of mica, which show beauti- 
ful colors when examined by polar- 
ized light. Among these are a 
piece bent into a half cylinder, 
held in place by strips of gummed 
paper ; two such half cylinders, 
crossed ; a cone, made by cutting a 
small sector out of a mica circle 
and then bringing the edges to- 
gether; a wheel, each of whose 
spokes is twisted a little, and bars 
of mica crossed in various ways. 

TRADES. A game in which each 
of the players pretends, in dumb 
show, to work at some trade — the 
shoemaker sewing a shoe, the 
carpenter hammering or sawing, 
etc. One of the company is chosen 
as leader, and whenever he drops 
his trade for that of another player, 
that player must take up the one 
that the leader has just left, while 
all the others stop their motions. 
Whenever the leader resumes his 
original trade, the others begin to 
work at theirs, as at first. Any one 
who makes a mistake must pay a 
forfeit. 

TRAP BALL. A game played by 
any number of persons with a trap, 
bat, and ball. The trap is made of 
wood, of the size and shape of a low 
shoe, having in it a spoon-shaped 
lever, arranged as shown in the il- 
lustration. The ball is like a small 




Trap and Ball. 

base ball, and the bat like a short 
cricket bat, to be used with one 
hand. The players divide into two 
parties, one of which takes position 
in the field, while those on the 
other, one by one, take turns at 
the bat. The batter places the ball 
in the trap, and by striking the free 



TRAP BALL 



738 



TRAPPING 



end of the lever with his bat sends 
the ball into the air. He then tries 
to hit it as far as he can. If he 
miss his stroke, or strike the ball 
beyond the side boundaries, or if 
a fielder catch the ball before it 
touches the ground, he is out, and 
the next player takes the bat. Oth- 
erwise, the fielder who stops the ball 
bowls it at the trap, and if he hits 
it, or the ball stop within a bat's- 
length of it, the striker is out. If 
not, the striker estimates the dis- 
tance of the ball from the trap 
in bat-lengths, and calls it out. If 
it be within the actual distance, he 
scores toward game the number of 
bat-lengths called; but if it be more 
than the real distance, he is out. 
When a player is out, he takes no 
further part in the game till all his 
side are out, when the sides change 
places. Those who do not go out 
continue to strike and score, in or- 
der, till all are out. When each 



side has finished its turn at the bat, 
the game is at an end, and the side 
with the largest score wins. 

Sometimes, instead of the trap, 
a piece of wood called a Splent is 
used. A little hole is made in the 
ground with the bat, the splent is 
placed with one end in the hole, 
and the ball is put on that end. 
When the end of the splent outside 
of the hole is struck with the bat, 
the ball rises, as from the trap. 

Trap ball is a very old game. 




Old English Trap Ball. 

The illustration, from an ancient 
English manuscript, shows a form 
of it. 



■'"-""":,!ii^.,,..>Hii>iiBiii 




rie.3,. 

Figure Four Trap. 



TRAPPING. Catching animals 
or birds by means of traps or snares. 
It is not considered honorable to 
trap wild game that is usually killed 
by sportsmen with the gun, but 
troublesome and dangerous ani- 
mals are properly caught in this 
way, as well as fur-bearing creat- 
ures, like the mink or beaver. The 
best traps are the common steel 
traps, to be bought at hardware 
stores, and which are made of sev- 
eral sizes. An easily made trap is 



the Figure Four, so called from 
its shape. It consists of a heavy 
stone or log supported by three 
notched sticks placed as shown in 
the picture. The separate pieces 
are shown in Figs, i, 2 and 3, and 
the completed trap in Fig. 4. The 
animal trying to remove the bait 
from the end of the pointed stick 
brings the stone down upon him, 
and is crushed to death. When a 
log is used, a row of stakes is driven 
into the ground on each side of it, 



TRAVELLER 



739 



TRUSSING GAME 



and it falls between them. For 
catching animals alive, there are 
various forms of traps made of 
wire or wood. The simplest is a 
contrivance having a swinging door 
which will open only inward. The 
animal pushes up the door to get 
at the bait, and is unable to push 
his way out again. 

A trap for small burrowing ani- 
mals, called the Jug-trap, is made 
by burying a jug or other earthen- 
ware vessel, having a hole knocked 
out of the upper part. A passage 
is made from the surface to the 
hole, and the animal entering it 
falls into the jug and is caught. 

TRAVELLER, THE. A game 
played by any number of persons, 
one of whom represents a traveller. 
The others are numbered, and each 
receives several counters, or bits of 
paper, bearing his number. The 
traveller then asks them, in order, 
for any information he chooses 
about the places to which he is 
going. As soon as he is given some 
that is correct he takes a counter 
from whoever gives it, and asks the 
next player a different question. 
After a specified time, or number 
of rounds, the traveller examines 
the counters in his possession, and 
the player who gave him most in- 
formation becomes traveller in his 
turn. 

TRIC-TRAC. See Backgammon. 

TRICYCLING. See Cycling. 

TRIPLET. A game of cards 
played by three persons with a full 
pack and any number of counters, 
which are divided equally. The 
dealer — the player who cuts the low- 
est card (ace being high) — gives 
two cards to each. Each looks at 
his cards, and places in the centre 
of the table a number of counters 
agreed on beforehand. One more 
card is then given to each by the 
dealer, who turns the next card as 
trump. Any player may now de- 
clare that he wishes to win " by 
hand," whereupon all must show 
their hands, and the highest wins. 



The three kinds of hands in or- 
der from the highest to the low- 
est are as follows : 

1. A Triplet — three cards of a 
kind. If there are two triplets, 
the highest wins, but one contain- 
ing a " special card," or a face card 
of trumps, beats any other. The 
" special cards " are the Three of 
Trumps, Spades, and Hearts. 

2. A Tierce — any three cards in 
regular order, regardless of suit. 
If there are two, the highest wins, 
and one containing a special card, 
or face card of trumps, always wins. 

3. Three of a suit, according to 
the total number of pips — a special 
card counting 13, an ace 12, and a 
court card 11. If one of two other- 
wise equal hands contains a face 
card of trumps, it beats the other. 

If any one wins by hand there is 
no playing. If no one declares 
that he wishes to do so play begins, 
the eldest hand leading. Suit is 
not followed. In play, only face 
cards of the trump suit rank as 
trumps. No card can be taken by 
one of the same color unless the 
latter be a trump. Any card of a 
common suit, or any plain card of 
the trump suit, may be taken by a 
higher card of opposite color; but 
any card may be taken by a trump 
face card, and this by a special 
card. The Threes of Clubs and 
Diamonds, when not trumps, are 
the lowest cards in their respective 
suits. To win in play, a player 
must take two out of the three 
tricks. If no one does this, the 
same dealer deals again from the 
stock without shuffling anew. He 
who wins takes all the counters in 
the middle of the table ; but if no 
one wins, they remain and accumu- 
late. 

TRUSSING GAME, THE. A 
game played by two persons, each 
of whom tries to overturn the oth- 
er, after both have been tied or 
" trussed," as follows : The player 
seats himself on the floor; his 
hands, placed palm to palm, are 



TRUTH 



740 



TUG OF WAR 



bound together at the wrist with a 
handkerchief, and his legs are tied 
in like manner above the ankles. 
The knees are then drawn up, the 
arms placed over them, and a stick 
about four feet long pushed over 
one arm, under both knees, and 
out again over the other arm. 
The player can now move no part 
of his limbs except his toes. If he 
is overturned the ends of the stick 
prevent his falling on his side, but 
he cannot right himself without 
aid. Two players, " trussed " in 
this way, are placed opposite each 
other in the middle of the room, 
their toes just touching. The ob- 
ject of each is to tip his opponent 
over by means of his toes, and he 
who first does this is the winner. 
If either of the players falls over, 
he must be placed in position 
again by the spectators. 

It is related that an English 
gentleman, having captured some 
thieves in his house at night, with 
his servants' aid, " trussed " them 
thus, to secure them until morning, 
and tipped them over on one side, 
with such success that the robbers 
were not able to move from the 
place where they were left. 

This game is called also " Chick- 
en Fight." or "Cock Fight." 

TRUTH. A game played by any 
number of persons, with two packs 
of cards. The first pack is dealt, one 
card at a time, to the players ; the 
second is placed face downward, in 
front of one chosen as leader of the 
game. The leader begins by asking 
a personal question beginning with 
" who," as " Who is the prettiest in 
the room ? " or " Who will be mar- 
ried first ? " at the same time turn- 
ing over the top card of the second 
pack. The one of the players who 
has the same card in the first pack 
is supposed to be the one referred 
to in the question. He must hold 
up the card matching the one 
turned, as soon as he sees it, and 
then give it to the leader, who lays 
the two cards aside. The player who 



had the matching card next asks a 
question, the leader turning up at 
the same time another card ; and 
so the game goes on till the cards 
have all been used. The inquiries 
may be complimentary or other- 
wise. 

TUG OF WAR. A sport in which 
any number of persons, divided in- 
to two parties or "teams," pull a 
rope in opposite directions. The 
tug may be pulled in two ways : in 
the first, there is no limit of time, 
but the teams pull until one has 
pulled the other over a given line ; 
in the second, the pulling is for a 
certain number of minutes, and at 
the end of that time the team wins 
on whose side the middle of the 
rope is. In both methods the mid- 
dle of the rope is marked, usually 
by tying a piece of colored cloth 
around it, and a person acting as 
judge or referee holds it exactly 
over the line as he gives the signal 
to begin pulling. In the first meth- 
od, instead of requiring one team 
to be pulled over the line, two 
points in the rope are sometimes 
marked, at equal distances from 
the middle point, and the team 
that first pulls the opposite one of 
these across the line is the winner. 

The second method is often used 
indoors, where the tug is pulled 
" from cleats ; " that is, where each 
player has a wooden cleat or strip, 
nailed on the floor, to brace his feet 
against while he is pulling. 

Four men make a team, and the 
one furthest from the cleat is called 
the "anchor," the one nearest the 
cleat being No. i. 

The rules of the National Ama- 
teur Athletic Association for tugs 
of war are as follows : 

Tugs of war shall be pulled on 
cleats made of wood ; same to be at 
least four inches thick, six inches 
high, and twenty-two inches long, 
and at least six feet six inches apart. 
The distance from the clamp in the 
centre to the first cleat on eithei' 
side shall be not less than six feet. 



TUG OF WAR 



741 



TUNING FORKS 



The cleats shall be set on edge 
and bolted to the board. 

The rope shall be a manila, three 
stranded rope, not less than four 
and a half nor more than five inch- 
es in circumference. There shall 
be a clamp equi-distant from the 
first cleat on either side, which shall 
be sufficient to hold the rope in 
position until released. 

This clamp shall not make any 
appreciable kink in the rope. Any 
position may be assumed before 
the pistol is fired. No mechanical 
device shall be used for holding the 
rope. No belt other than one to 
protect the body shall be used. 
The flanges to hold the rope in 
place shall not be constructed so 
as to bind on the rope in any posi- 
tion that the anchor may assume. 
Leather shields and gloves may 
be used, and adhesive substances 
may be put on the same. The belt 
shall not weigh more than twenty 
pounds. Competitors shall not use 
weights in unlimited pulls, but in 
pulls limited to specified weights, 
competitors may use weights, pro- 
viding the total weight of the team, 
including weights, does not exceed 
the limit. 

The standard time limit for each 
pull shall be five minutes, and a rest 
of not less than ten m inutes shall be 
allowed each competitor between 
trial pulls. A shorter or longer 
time limit may be agreed upon for 
other than championship contests. 

When tugs of war are limited 
to teams of a given weight, com- 
petitors shall be weighed beforv 
competing. They shall be weighed 
as they pull ; i.e., including cloth- 
ing, shoes, belt, etc. 

The weighing-in shall be done 
immediately before the pull. 

No knot of any kind shall be tied 
in the rope, and the rope shall not 
be passed more than once around 
the body of the anchor. 

In no case shall any man pull on 
more than one team in a contest, 
and no substitute shall be allowed 



to pull on any team that has pulled 
a trial. 

In case a team gains three feet 
from its opponents, it shall be 
awarded the pull. 

Immediately before the pull the 
captains of the opposing teams 
shall draw their numbers. If there 
are only two teams, two out of three 
pulls shall decide. With three 
teams — i and 2 pull, the loser pulls 
3, and the winners pull the final. 
With four teams — i and 2, 3 and 4; 
the winners pull the final. With 
more than four teams, have a pre- 
liminary round of as many contests 
as the total number of contestants 
exceeds 4, 8, 16 or 32, and drop the 
losers. This leaves in 4, 8, 16 or 
32 contestants, and the game then 
proceeds regularly with no byes or 
uneven contests. There shall be 
no byes. If there is a second prize 
it shall be competed for by all 
teams beaten by the winning team 
only. 

I n case of a tie both teams shall be 
credited with a win, and new num^ 
bers shall be drawn. 

No pull shall be awarded by less 
than half an inch. 

The individual tug of war shall 
also be governed by the team rules, 
and the contestants must pull from 
the first cleat from the clamp. 

History. The tug of war had its 
origin in a boys' game sometimes 
called in England " French and 
English," and in this country 
" English and Americans," in 
which two parties pulled one 
against the other at the ends of a 
rope. Since it has been reduced to 
a systematic sport it has found a 
place in the programmes of most 
athletic meetings. (See Athlet- 
ics.) 

TUNING FORKS, Experiments 
with. The tuning fork is a two- 
pronged instrument used by mu- 
sicians to tune their instruments 
by, since it gives a pure, true note. 
Two of these forks will be needed, 
giving notes about a half a tone 



TUNING FORKS 



742 



tUNING FORKS 



apart. They may be bought at a 
music store. 

A tuning fork may be sounded 
by rapping it on the edge of a ta- 
ble, by pressing the prongs togeth- 
er with the teeth and then sudden- 
ly releasing them, or by striking it 
with a stick. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

Sound a tuning fork, and while 
it is vibrating touch the end to a 
bare table. This sound will be 
greatly increased. This is because 
the table vibrates in sympathy with 
the fork, so that there is a larger 
sounding surface. 

2. Sound the fork and hold it in 
succession close to the mouths of 
bottles and jars of various sizes, 
pouring in water while the fork is 
vibrating. When the volume of 
air in the jar is just large enough, 
it will vibrate in sympathy with the 
fork, giving out a loud sound. 

3. Turn the fork around slowly 
while it is over the jar. The sound 
will rise and fall in loudness, being 
almost nothing when the corners 
of the prongs are toward the jar. 
Hold the fork up to the ear, turn- 
ing it in like manner, and the same 
result will follow. This is because 
in this position the sound-waves 
from the inside of the prongs 
interfere with those from the out- 
side. 

4. Make a cardboard or paper 
roll, just large enough to go over 
one prong of the fork, and while it 
is in the position where it makes 
least noise, either in front of the 
ear or over the jar, slip the roll over 
one prong. The sound will at once 
increase, owing to the fact that the 
waves from one prong are cut off 
and cannot interfere with those 
from the other. 

4. Make a wooden box about six 
inches long, four inches wide, and 
two inches thick, open at the ends. 
This is called a resonance box, 
and makes the fork sound louder, 
just as a table does ; but it is more 
convenient, because it can be car- 



ried about in the hand. Sound a 
fork, touch it to a resonance box, 
and walk slowly toward the wall 
with the fork. The note given will 
be now louder, now fainter. This 
is caused by the interference of the 
sound reflected from the wall with 
that proceeding directly from the 
fork. 

5. Hold two forks tuned to the 
same note on resonance boxes sev- 
eral feet apart. They can be tuned 
together by sticking bits of wax on 
the prongs of the one which gives 
the highest note. The wax will 
load the prong, making it move 
more slowly and give a lower note. 
Sound one of the forks, and after 
a few seconds stop it. The other 
one will be found vibrating slightly. 
Its note can often be heard by 
placing the ear to the opening in 
the resonance box. If this does 
not succeed, the vibration can be 
detected by holding against one of 
the prongs a bit of glass as large 
as a pea, fastened to a thread by 
means of sealing-wax. This is a 
case of "sympathetic vibration," 
other examples of which are given 
under Violin. The experiment 
will not succeed unless the forks 
be tuned to the same note. 

6. Load one of the forks with 
wax so that it is almost, but not 
quite, in tune with the other. Sound 
them both at once, and " beats " 
will be heard, just as in Experiment 
5, under Violin. 

7. Sound a fork and dip the 
prongs into a basin of still water. 
The vibration will cause curious 
ripples. 

8. Gum a piece of tin-foil or a 
bristle to one prong of a fork ; set 
the fork vibrating, and then draw 
it over a piece of smoked glass. 
The vibration of the fork will make 
the bristle draw a wavy line on the 
glass. 

9. Touch one end of a long rod 
or pole to a resonance box, and 
touch a vibrating tuning fork to 
the other end. The rod will con- 



TUNING FORKS 



743 



TUNING FORKS 



duct the sound, which will come 
apparently from the box. 

lo. Sing the same note as that 
given by a tuning fork. Stop, and, 
holding the mouth in exactly the 
same position, hold the vibrating 
fork close in front of it. The 
mouth will act like the jar in Ex- 
periment 2, increasing the sound. 
If the mouth be fixed as if to sing 
any other note, the result will not 
be the same — the sound being in- 
creased very little, or not at all. 



11. Bore a hole in a block of 
wood about an inch and a half 
square and fit in it the stem of the 
tuning fork. Place a tumbler of 
water on a resonance box, and 
after sounding the fork, dip the 
block in the water. The sound will 
be conducted through the water to 
the box, which will strengthen it 
just as if the fork had been placed 
directly on the box. 

12. Place a piece of window glass 
three inches square over the mouth 




of a glass tumbler, seeing that it 
touches the rim all around. Slide 
the glass slowly to one side, hold- 
ing a vibrating tuning fork to the 
opening. When it reaches the 
right size, the air in the tumbler 
will give out a loud sound, in 
answer to the fork. (See A, in 
Fig. I.) 

13. Take apiece of thin paper, 
and, having wet it, paste it over the 
mouth of the tumbler. When it is 
dry, cut away part at one end so as 
to make a hole bounded by the 
edge of the tumbler and a straight 
line. Make this hole small at first, 
but cut away more and more of 
the paper till the air within an- 
swers the tuning fork as before. 
Sprinkle a little sand on the paper 
and. sing the note given by the 



fork. The sand will dance up and 
down. (See B, in Fig. i.) 

14. Tilt the tumbler by placing a 
book under one side (see B, in il- 
lustration), so that the sand almost 
runs down the paper by its own 
weight. If the proper note be now 
sung in any part of the room the 
sand will begin to move down the 
paper, but it will not move for any 
other note. If the gamut be sung, 
for instance, the sand will keep 
still till its own note is reached, 
when it will move at once. 

15. Dip the mouth of a tumbler, 
five or six inches deep, into a soap 
solution (see Soap Bubbles), and 
then slide the glass plate through 
the soap water under the mouth. 
Take tumbler and glass out of the 
water and stand them on the table. 



TUNING FORKS 



744 



tURK^ AND RUSSIANS 



Slide off the glass while sound- 
ing the fork as in Experiment 12. 
There will be a soap film over the 
opening thus made, which, as soon 
as the air in the tumbler responds 
to the fork, will be covered with 
curious wrinkles. To see these to 
advantage, the light of the sky 
must be reflected from the film. 

16. Tune two wide - mouthed 
bottles or glasses of equal size, by 
slipping pieces of glass over their 







Fig 2 

mouths, as in Experiment 12, so 
that each will strengthen the vibra- 
tion of the tuning fork. Stand one 
upright and lay the other on its 
side on a pile of books so that the 
mouths of the bottles just touch. 
The bottle on the books is kept 
from rolling off by bits of wax, and 
the glass over its mouth is held in 
place in the same way. Vibrate 
the fork and hold it horizontally 
between the mouths of the bottles. 
A position will be found where 
almost no sound at all is heard. 
This is because the sound from one 



bottle interferes with that from the 
other. If a piece of paper be 
slipped between the fork and the 
mouth of either bottle the sound 
will at once be heard again (Fig. 2). 

1 7. Suspend a light piece of card- 
board by a string near a vibrating 
tuning fork ; it will be attracted. 
Hold a candle flame near the fork ; 
it will be repelled. This is because 
the sound-waves in air attract 
bodies heavier than air, and repel 
those which are lighter. 

18. Tie a silk thread six inches 
long to one prong of a tuning fork, 
and to the other end of the thread 
fasten a button or other object of 
slight weight. Vibrate the fork, 
holding it horizontally, and the 
thread will also vibrate, dividing up 
into segments, between which are 
points of no motion, or " nodes." 
(See Violin, Experiment 2.) The 
number of segments seen when the 
fork is held with prongs side by 
side is double that when one prong 
is over the other. The number of 
segments is also greater when the 
weight on the thread is less. 

TURKS AND RUSSIANS. A game 
played by two persons with slate 
and pencil. About a quarter of 
the slate is marked off by a line at 
each end, and in each of the com- 
partments so marked off are made 
a number of dots about the size 
of a pin-head, those at one end 
representing Turks and the others 
Russians. The number of Turks 
and Russians may be large or small, 
as agreed on, but must be equal. 
At one end of each compartment 
is a small square which serves as 
a battery. Each player, in turn, 
places the point of his pencil in his 
own battery, and then draws a line 
quickly in the direction of his ene- 
my's men. The line must have no 
angles in it, but may be straight or 
curved. Those dots through which 
the line passes are considered dead 
men, and he who first kills all of 
the enemy's men is the winner. 
Sometimes the players are required 



TWELFTH DAY 



745 



TWENTY QUESTIONS 



to shut their eyes or turn away 
their heads, when drawing their 
lines. 

TWELFTH DAY. The sixth day 
of January ; so called because it is 
the twelfth day after Christmas. 
It is also the feast of the Epiphany, 
on which is celebrated the visit of 
the three Magi, or Wise Men, to the 
infant Christ. In ancient times 
Twelfth Night was celebrated with 
great merriment and many games, 
and Twelfth Night parties are occa- 
sionally given now. As the wise 
men who visited Christ are said by 
tradition to have been three kings, 
one of the chief amusements of 
Twelfth Night is the choosing of a 
King and Queen by means of col- 
ored beans baked in cakes, whence 
it is sometimes called the " Bean 
King festival." One cake is cut 
into pieces and given to the boys 
and the other to the girls, and 
the boy and girl who find the 
beans in their pieces become King 
and Queen. Cards having written 
on them various titles, such as 
Prime Minister, First Lady in Wait- 
ing, etc., are now placed in two 
bags, the boys' titles in one bag 
and the girls' titles in the other. 
Enough blank cards are mixed 
with them to make the whole num- 
ber equal that of the guests. Each 
guest now draws a card and as- 
sumes the title, if any, written on it. 
The hostess may provide appropri- 
ate costumes for the King, Queen, 
and Courtiers. The evening is 
usually spent in playing games. 
Among the amusements of Twelfth 
Night in ancient England were the 
blowing up or burning of paste- 
board castles. A pastry stag, out 
of which flowed blood made of 
claret, was sometimes served on the 
table, and the guests pelted each 
other with eggshells filled with 
rose-water. Shakespeare's play of 
this name was so called because 
written for a Twelfth Night party. 
TWENTY QUESTIONS. A game 
played by any number of persons. 



divided into two opposing parties, 
one of which tries to find out, by 
twenty questions and one or more 
guesses, a subject chosen by the 
other. 

Captains. Inorder to avoid con- 
fusion, questions are asked and 
answered only by the captains or 
leaders of the two parties ; but be- 
fore each question there is a con- 
sultation of all the players on the 
side that is to ask it, and the best 
answer is decided on by the other 
side in the same way. 

Umpire. An umpire is generally 
chosen beforehand, to decide dis- 
puted points, and to avoid dispute 
he may take down in writing each 
question and answer as it is spoken. 

Time Limit. In order to avoid 
taking too much time, it is usual to 
require a question or answer to be 
given within a certain time after 
the preceding answer or question. 
This time limit (usually three or 
four minutes) is agreed upon at the 
beginning of the game. 

Guessing. When the questioning 
side have asked their twenty ques- 
tions, or as many as they wish, they 
proceed, through their captain, to 
guess the subject. Sometimes only 
one guess is allowed, sometimes two 
or three, as agreed on before the 
game. If more than one is permit- 
ted, all but the last may be asked 
during the questioning. Thus, if 
there are to be three guesses, the 
questioners may ask ten questions, 
then make a guess ; then six more, 
then make another guess, and so 
on. But if the last guess is wrong, 
wherever it may be made, the guess- 
ers lose the game. The subject 
must be guessed exactly as it is 
chosen. For instance, if it is " Mr. 
B.'s left eye," and the guess be "One 
of Mr. B.'s eyes," the answer must 
be " No." But if the question be 
asked, " Is it one of Mr. B.'s eyes? " 
the answer is " Yes." Then, if 
more than one guess is allowed, the 
right and left eyes can be guessed 
in succession. If not, " Is it his 



TWENTY QUESTIONS 



746 



TWENTY QUESTIONS 



right eye ? " should be asked ; and 
when the answer " No " is given, 
the guess " Mr. B.'s left eye " will of 
course be made. But if the party 
have asked their twentieth ques- 
tion, and have but one guess, they 
must take their chances of hitting 
it correctly. 

GENERAL ADVICE. 

Subject. In choosing a subject 
it should be remembered that those 
that appear difficult are often 



easy to guess. If the questioners 
are skillful, and not likely to over- 
look anything, the difficulty de- 
pends simply on the number of sep- 
arate things that must be found out 
in order to know the subject defi- 
nitely. This kind of difficulty is pos- 
sessed by a subject like " The sec- 
ond pane of glass from the upper 
left hand corner of the upper sash, 
in the third window from the east- 
ern front corner of the second 



^^ 


--'—-. 


^ x^^^ 


~~^\. % 


^ / 


\ ■^ 


/<^ 


-\-\\ 


V \ 


f 1 Thou 


\ \ r 


\ \ Thi 


. -J--y-|- 


/. / 


\ ^- ^-^, 


.^// 


\ \^ " 


y / 


'^ 


-^ 



Question Diagram. 



Story of the New York City Hall. 
Here, after finding out that the 
subject is " A pane of glass," at 
least seven more questions are re- 
quired to locate it, since questions 
like " In what part of the City Hall 
is it } " are barred out, the answer 
being a part of the subject. By 
making the subject complex 
enough, it can thus be made im- 
possible to guess it even in twenty 
questions ; but subjects of this kind 
do not add to the interest of the 
game, and they should be restricted 
by rule. 

Another kind of difficulty is pos- 



sessed by subjects which are either 
far away or immaterial, like the 
" Garden of Eden," or " Courage." 
A beginner might be quite unable 
to guess either of these, but each 
consists of but one thing, and eith- 
er may be guessed in a comparative- 
ly few questions. The best subjects 
are those that combine these two 
kinds of difficulty, as " The petal of 
a rose on the east side of the Garden 
of Eden," or "The Courage of Israel 
Putnam in entering the wolf's den." 
Subjects may also be adapted to 
the questioners. If they are not 
well acquainted with history, an 



TWENTY QUESTIONS 



747 



TWENTY QUESTIONS 



historical subject may be chosen, 
and so on. 

Questions. In playing the game 
the questions should be asked ac- 
cording to some system, and the 
same system should be followed 
throughout. If one idea is followed 
out for two or three questions, and 
then abandoned and another taken 
up, twenty questions may easily be 
asked without getting much infor- 
mation. The more general ques- 
tions should be asked at the be- 
ginning, the object being to divide 
the field of conjecture. This may 
be made evident by a diagram 
(shown on the previous page) sup- 
posed to contain all the things in 
the world. These are divided by 
the vertical black line into Real 
and Imaginary, and these again by 
the horizontal dotted line into 
Thoughts and Things. The space 
within the inner circle is supposed 
to be the Past, that between the 
two circles the Present, and that 
outside the Future. So if the ques- 
tion be asked, " Is it real or imag- 
inary ? " and the answer be " Real," 
everything in the right or imag- 
inary side is left out of considera- 
tion. If the questioner next finds 
out that it exists now, he may con- 
fine himself to the space inside the 
inner circle, and so on. The dia- 
gram can be made much more elab- 
orate, or divided according to a 
different plan. The one given will 
serve as an illustration, and the 
reader can amuse himself by trying 
to construct others. 

One system of questioning that 
may be followed with a real object 
is to locate it exactly, which may 
often be done by a few skillful 
questions. The object, though 
real, may be one of a class, as "a 
shoe," in which case it cannot be 
located, but the nearest or most 
prominent one of the class may be 
inquired about. Or, instead of 
locating the object, its form, size 
and color may be found out exact- 
ly, or its use may be investigated ; 



but whatever line of questions is 
begun should be continued. In 
some cases, however, a skillful 
player will see, after one or two 
questions, that the kind of queries 
he is making will be of no use, and 
he then often prefers to change his 
tactics, even at a loss. For in- 
stance, if the first few questions as 
to form, color, and size show that 
the object is one whose appearance 
is totally unfamiliar, so that a full 
description would not help the 
questioner, that kind of questions 
should be abandoned. If the ob- 
ject is real but not now existing, it 
is a good plan to find out whether 
it is of historical interest. 

If the first question shows that 
the subject is imaginary, it should 
at once be asked whether it is 
mentioned in a book ; and if so, 
where. Most imaginary subjects 
can be reached thus. If the object 
is immaterial, it may be ascertained 
first whether it is an event, a 
thought, a quality, a sound, etc. 
Such subjects are generally hard to 
guess, but experience will suggest 
various lines of questioning that 
may be followed. As material ob- 
jects are easiest to guess, a quality 
of character, or a thought is often 
best connected with some person. 
The question may be asked, " Name 
some person who possessed this 
quality of character in a high de- 
gree." " On what occasion did he 
show it?" etc. Often while the 
questioner is following out his 
plan, an answer will give him a 
hint of some " short-cut" to the 
desired end. In general, the 
questioner should not be afraid 
to ask questions in the begin- 
ning, but should never ask par- 
ticular questions before general 
ones. Usually he can cut off a large 
part of the field of possibility left 
him, at each stroke, and this should 
be his general object. He should 
never alter his plan of attack ex- 
cept for some special reason. If a 
particular question be asked first, 



TWENTY QUESTIONS 



748 



TWENTY QUESTIONS 



it is often wasted. For instance, 
suppose the subject be " The sound 
of Patrick Henry's voice in the 
Virginia House of Burgesses," the 
question, " What is its shape ? " 
would be useless, and would not 
have been asked had the questioner 
first found out that the subject was 
immaterial. Beginners often waste 
many questions in this and similar 
ways. 

When the questioners are al- 
lowed more than one guess, one or 
two may be made in the midst of 
the game to test a theory; but 
when only one is allowed it should 
not be made until the guessers are 
sure they are right, unless all their 
questions have been asked. When 
the questioners think they know 
the subject, they had better test 
their knowledge by a particular 
question rather than by a guess; 
but this should never be done un- 
less there is very good reason, for 
if the suspicion is unfounded, a 
question has been wasted. 

Answers. The answering side 
should be careful to tell everything 
the question calls for, but no more. 
For instance, if the subject be 
" The blue Union of the American 
Flag," and the question is asked, 
" What is its color }" The answer 
" Blue " would not be correct. 
" Blue and white " would be the 
proper answer. " Blue with white 
spots " would tell also the arrange- 
ment of the colors, which is more 
than the question called for. 

The following classified examples 
of subjects may be valuable to the 
beginner in showing him how they 
can be varied, and also in indicat- 
ing the best order of questioning : 

MATERIAL REAL SUBJECTS. 

General. — A book ; a man ; a ring. 
Particular. — The blue book on the 

table ; Mr. S.; Mrs. B.'s ring, 
Complex. — The third book from the 

left on the upper shelf of alcove 

202 in the Blank library, etc. 
Historical. — Martin Luther's Bible ; 

Charles II.; the ring with which 



Prince Albert wedded Queen 
Victoria. 

MATERIAL IMAGINARY SUBJECTS. 

Particular. — The book Mr. L. 

dreamed about the other night. 
Mythological. — The Sibyl's book ; 

the Cyclops ; the ring of the 

Nibelungs. 
Fictitious. — Arthur Pendennis ; 

Aladdin's ring. 
Historical. — The book Job wished 

his enemy to write. 

IMMATERIAL REAL SUBJECTS. 

General. — Courage ; a sound ; a 
thought; an event. 

Particular. — Mr. B.'s courage ; the 
ticking of the clock; Mr. B.'s 
thought about this subject ; the 
party yesterday. 

Complex. — The first note Madame 
X. sang to day, in her- first solo 
at the opera. 

Historical. — Gen. Custer's courage 
at the Big Horn; the cheers that 
greeted Sheridan on his ride 
from Winchester ; the thoughts 
of Napoleon after Waterloo; 
the signing of the Declaration 
of Independence. 

IMMATERIAL IMAGINARY SUB- 
•JECTS. 

Particular. — The courage I 

thought he had. 
Mythological. — The sound of Vul- 
can's hammer; the beauty of 
Venus ; a council of the gods. 
Fictitious. — " The sound of ham- 
mers, blow on blow," in Long- 
fellow's " Building of the Ship; " 
the shipwreck, in Shakespeare's 
" Tempest." 
It is often difficult to classify a 
subject ; for instance, some might 
call a dream real but immaterial, 
and others might consider it im- 
aginary. 

The first of the two sample games 
which follow is from the short 
treatise on Twenty Questions by 
" Hotspur," and was played in 
Lenox, Mass., in 1880. It was un- 
derstood at the beginning that the 
subject was Biblical. The second 
game is of historical interest, the 



TWENTY QUESTIONS 



749 



TWENTY QUESTIONS 



questioner being George Canning, 
English statesman. The two games 
show also the advance that has 
been made in questioning since 
Canning's time. It will be noticed 
that most of the questions in this 
second game are alternative ; that 
is, contain the word " or ; " and 
each question systematically cuts 
the field of possibility left open by 
the last. 

Game I. 

1. Is this subject mentioned in 
the Old, or in the New Testament ? 
— The New. 

2. In what book ? — Acts. 

3. With whom is it most inti- 
mately connected.? — One of the 
Apostles. 

4. What was his name ? — St. 
Paul. 

5. Material or immaterial .> — 
Material. 

6. What are its component 
parts ? — Vegetable matter. 

7. What is its shape ? — An elon- 
gated oval. 

8. What is its size ? — About 
three-eighths of an inch in length, 
by about one-sixteenth of an inch 
in breadth and thickness. 

9. What is its color ? — Yellowish. 

10. What is its use.? — A means 
of preserving life. 

11. In what way.? — Various 
ways. 

12. On the especial occasion you 
have in mind, in what way.? — By 
being thrown away. 

13. Whose life was it the means 
of preserving.? — The lives of St. 
Paul and his companions. 

14. Who threw it away.? — St. 
Paul and his companions. 

15. Where were they when they 
threw it away.?— On the Mediter- 
ranean. 

16. From what did it preserve 
their lives .? — From death. 

17. Death in what form .? — Death 
by drowning. 

Correctly guessed. " A grain of 
wheat of the cargo of the ship 
which carried St. Paul to Malta." 



Came 11. 

1. Does it belong to the animal, 
or the vegetable kingdom .?— To the 
vegetable. 

2. Is it manufactured or unman- 
ufactured .?— Manufactured. 

3. Is it a solid, or liquid.? — A 
solid. 

4. Is it a thing entire in itself, or 
in parts .? — In parts. 

5. Is it for private use, or public.^ 
—Public. 

6. Does it exist in England, or 
out of it.? — In England. 

7- Is it single, or are there oth- 
ers of the same kind .?— Single. 

8. Is it historical, or only exis- 
tent at present .?— Both. 

9. For ornament, or use ? — Both. 

10. Has it any connection with 
the person of the king.? — No. 

11. Is it carried, or does it support 
itself.?— The former. 

1 2. Does it pass by succession .? — 
[Not answered, on account of un- 
certainty; but, by agreement, the 
question was counted one in the 
game.] 

13. Was it used at the corona- 
tion .? — Yes. 

14. In the Hall, or Abbey?— 
Probably in both ; certainly in the 
Abbey. 

15. Does it belong specially to 
the coronation, or is it used at o'ther 
times.? — It is used at other times. 

16. Is it exclusively of a vegetable 
nature, or is it not in some parts a 
compound of a vegetable and min- 
eral .? — Exclusively of a vegetable 
nature. 

17. What is its shape .? [Objected 
to as too particular, though it 
would now be considered perfectly 
proper. It was withdrawn, and not 
counted.] 

17. Is it decorated, or simple.? 
[Objected to, but the objection not 
sustained.] — Simple. 

18. Is it used at the ordinary cer- 
emonial of the House of Commons 
or House of Lords.? — No. 

19. Is it ever used by either 
House ? — No. 



TWENTY QUESTIONS 



750 



TWENTY QUESTIONS 



20. Is it generally stationary, or 
movable ? — Movable. 

Guessed correctly by Mr. Can- 
ning. "The wand of the Lord 
High Steward." (The Lord High 
Steward of England was in ancient 
times the first officer of state in the 
English court, but now, as at the 
time of this game, there is no reg- 
ular holder of the office. A tem- 
porary Lord High Steward is ap- 
pointed to take part in coronations 
and the trials of peers. He has a 
wooden wand of office, which he 
breaks when his duties are over.) 

Variations. Several variations 
are sometimes made in the game. 
One player may select a subject and 
allow the others to question him, 
either through a captain or in rota- 
tion. 

When two parties play one 
against the other, the captains may 
be dispensed with, and the ques- 
tions and answers given by the 
players in order. 

The game may be played for 
points, in which case each side 
questions during a given number 
of games, and answers during the 
same number, the players on the 
sides remaining the same. The 
number of questions asked in each 
game is scored to the askers, wheth- 
er the subject be guessed or not, 
and the side having the less num- 
ber of points wins. In this way 
of scoring, to guess the subject in 
twenty questions counts no more 
than to fail altogether. This may 
be remedied by agreeing that a 
failure to guess shall count more 
than twenty against the askers. It 
may be agreed that the answerers 
shall be limited in their choice of a 
subject, the others undertaking to 
guess it in less than twenty ques- 
tions. Thus the subject maybe an 
event in American History, and ten 
questions maybe allowed. 

When the game is played by 
young children, more than twenty 
questions may be allowed, or the 
number may not be limited at all. 



Learners may begin with a large 
number of questions, and gradually 
diminish it as they become more 
expert. Skilled players think that 
it is possible, if the questions are 
asked properly, to guess any subject 
in twenty questions, and that most 
subjects can be found out in from 
fifteen to eighteen. 

The Tliree Kingdoms, or Animal, 
Vegetable, and Mineral. A kmd of 
Twenty Questions in which the first 
question is " To which of the 
three kingdoms does it belong } " 
or "Is it Animal, Vegetable, or 
Mineral.?" It was formerly con- 
sidered that everything in nature 
belongs to the Animal kingdom, 
the Vegetable kingdom, or the 
Mineral kingdom; but there are 
many things hard to classify thus, 
and as subjects are now taken that 
are not material — such as thoughts, 
words, or ideas — it is rarely asked. 
In the old game of Animal, Vege- 
table, and Mineral the number of 
questions was often unlimited, 
while the answers were required to 
be merely " Yes " and " No," as in 
Clumps. 

rules of the game. 

1 . The umpire is elected by ma- 
jority vote before the game. There 
is no appeal from his decisions. 

2. The captains, if any, shall be 
chosen by vote of each side. 

3. The parties shall determine by 
lot which shall question first, and 
afterwards they shall do so alter- 
nately. 

4. The umpire shall take down in 
writing the subject and each ques- 
tion and answer. 

5. The subject must have, or 
must have had, an actual existence 
either in fact, fiction, or imagina- 
tion. It may be material or imma- 
terial. 

[This rule bars subjects like " The 
sound of a hammer that was not 
heard at the building of Solomon's 
temple," which we are told was 
once actually chosen.] 

6. Any question may be asked 



TWENTY QUESTIONS 



75^ 



TWIRL THE PLATTER 



whose answer is not part of the sub- 
ject. For instance, if the subject 
be " A button on Mr, Smith's coat," 
and the guessing party have found 
that it is a button on some one's 
coat, it is not allowable to ask " On 
whose coat is it ? " The question 
" With what person is it most near- 
ly connected ? " is often objected to 
for a like reason. The legality of 
this question and others in doubt 
must be decided by the umpire. 

7. It is not allowable to ask two 
or more questions at once; thus, 
" What is its shape and size ? " 
must count as two questions. 

8. If there are captains, they 
must in all cases give the questions 
and answers, and no attention 
need be paid to a question put by 
any other player. 

9. If there are no captains, the 
questions are put and answered by 
the players in regular order, and no 
question asked out of that order 
need be heeded. 

10. If it is impossible to answer a 
question exactly, as correct an an- 
swer as possible must be given, and 
at the same time its defects must be 
pointed out. Thus, if " Napoleon's 
little finger-nail " be the subject, 
and the question be " What was its 
size ? " although of course the ex- 
act answer cannot be given, the 
answer should be " Probably about 
one-third of an inch in diameter; 
we do not know exactly." [The 
simple answer, " We do not know," 
though literally true, is not allow- 
able in such a case, but sometimes 
no other can be given ; in which case 
the umpire should permit it.] 

1 1. A vague question may be an- 
swered vaguely. Thus, " Where is 
it situated?" "In the United 
States." The question in this case 
should be, " In what city or town is 
it ? " 

12. An answer made by a player 
not a captain, or out of regular or- 
der is not counted as an answer, but 
the questioners may use whatever 
information they gain from it. But 



the answering side may endorse it 
if they please, and then it is treated 
as their regular answer. 

13. When the players ask and 
answer in order, any one may de- 
cline to take his turn, and must 
then wait until the next round. 

14. After each question or an- 
swer is written down by the um- 
pire he shall call " Time," and the 
following answer or question must 
then be given within the time- 
limit previously agreed upon. 

15. If any side fail to give its 
question or answer within the 
time-limit, the opposing side gain a 
question; that is, an extra question 
is allowed if they are the question- 
ers, and one less if they are the 
answerers. A question is thus 
gained for every expiration of the 
time-limit; thus, if the time-limit 
be five minutes, and the answering 
party take sixteen minutes to con- 
sult over an answer, the askers are 
allowed twenty-three questions. 

History. Twenty Questions is 
said by some persons to have been 
invented by George Canning, the 
English statesman, who was born 
in 1 770, and it is sometimes called in 
England the Canning Game; but 
it probably existed in some form 
long before his time. Not only 
Canning but other eminent men, 
including William Pitt, were fond 
of the game. Pitt once guessed 
the subject " The stone on which 
Walworth, Lord Mayor of London, 
stood, when he struck Wat Tyler 
down, in Richard II. 's time." 
About 1880 the game became very 
popular in the eastern United 
States, but it had been played in 
this country many years before that 
time. 

TWIRL THE PLATTER. A game 
played by any number of persons 
with a tin or earthenware plate. 
The players stand in a circle, and 
one of them, who may be chosen in 
any way, begins the game by twirl- 
ing the plate on the floor in the 
middle of the circle, calling out at 



TWIRLER 



752 



TWIRLER 



the same time the name of one of 
the other players. That one must 
catch the platter before it falls to 
the ground, and then twirl it again, 
calling out the name of some one, 
as before. Any player failing to 
catch the platter before it falls must 
pay a forfeit. Sometimes the play- 
ers are numbered, and the one who 
twirls the plate calls out a number 
instead of a name. 

TWIRLER. An arrangement for 
spinning objects rapidly, used in 
some of the scientific experiments 
described in this book. It consists 
usually of two wheels fixed on a 
stand, and so connected by a band 
that by turning a handle fixed to 
one, the other revolves very rapidly. 
The object to be twirled is fixed to 
this second wheel. Twirlers can 
be bought of dealers in scientific 
or school supplies, or its place can 
be supplied by the wheel of a toy 
cart. Turn the cart bottom up- 
ward, pin or tack the object to be 
twirled to one side of the wheel, and 
twirl it from the other side with the 
forefinger. If the object is to be 
twirled horizontally — as, for in- 
stance, a pail of water — the cart 
may be placed on its side on a table 
with the wheel to be used pro- 
jecting over the edge. The cart is 
kept in place by putting a weight 
on it. The string supporting the 
object is now tacked as near the 
middle of the hub as possible, and 
the wheel twirled as before. 

An excellent twirler can also be 
made as follows : Support a board 



from six to twelve inches wide and 
a few feet long, by placing one end 
under the top of a door-way, open- 
ing the door slightly, so that the 
middle of the board rests on it. 
Over the free end of the board 




hang a circle of twine so long that 
the lower end reaches within two 
feet of the floor. This end should 
be provided with a hook. If the 
twine now be twisted and the ob- 
ject to be twirled hung on the hook, 
the untwisting of the cord will 
make the object spin. It will 
move still more swiftly if it is as- 
sisted to untwist by pressing down- 
ward with a stick just above the 
twisted part. A flat piece of cork 
may be strung on the twine a little 
above the end, and kept in place 
by knots. On this colored disks 
of paper may be placed, producing 
the same effects when spun as the 
color Top. 



UGLY MUG 



753 



UNCLE JOHN 



u 



UGLY MUG. A singing game, 
playeci by any number of persons. 
A leader is chosen, who stands fac- 
ing the rest of the company. They 



must imitate every gesture that he 
makes, and those who can do so 
sing with him. He sings, to the 
tune given below : 



I 



m^- 



-mz=i 



^ 



put my right hand in. 



put my right hand out, 



I 



gs 



give my right hand shake, shake, shake, and turn my - self 



bout. 



Ashe sings he suits the action to 
the words, first stretching out his 
right hand, then facing in the op- 
posite direction and extending it 
again, then shaking it, and finally 
turning back to his first position. 
In like manner he then sings : 

" I put my left hand in," etc. 
" I put my both hands in," etc. 
" I put my right foot in," etc. 
" I put my left foot in," etc. 
" I put my both feet in," etc. 
" I put my ugly mug in," etc. 

To " put both feet in " the play- 
ers jump forward, and to shake 
them they dance up and down. At 
the last line the players stretch their 
heads forward. Sometimes those 
who laugh are required to pay for- 
feits. 

In England this game is called 
" Hinkumbooby " or " Looby Loo- 
by," and the verse begins : 

" Looby, Looby, Looby, 
All on a Saturday night." 

UNCLE JOHN. A singing game 
played by any number of boys and 
girls. The players dance hand in 
hand in a circle singing : 

Uncle John i~ very sick ; 

What shall we send him ? 
A piece of pie, a piece of cake, 

A piec« of apple dumpling. 



What shall we send it in ? 

In a piece of paper. 
Paper is not fine enough ; 

In a golden saucer. 
Whom shall we send it by ? 

By the king's daughter. 
Take her by the lily-white hand. 

And lead her o'er the water. 

The dancers then sit down, and 
the last down (supposing it to be a 
girl) selects a friend and whispers 
in her ear the initials of some boy. 
She then takes her place in the 
ring, but facing outward, while the 
friend announces the initials, and 
the players again circle and sing : 

" X. Y., so they say, 
Goes a-courting night and day. 
Sword and pistol by his side, 
And to be his bride. 

He takes her by the lily-white hand 
And leads her o'er the water ; 

Here's a kiss, and there's a kiss 
For Mr. 's daughter." 

The one whose initials were 
given then kisses the girl who 
gave them ; she faces inward, and 
the game goes on as before. If the 
player last down was a boy, his full 
name is given in the first line of 
the last-quoted stanza, and the 
initials he gives are inserted in the 
fourth line. 



VALENTINE PARTY 



754 VEGETABLE INSTRUMENTS 



. VALENTINE PARTY. An enter- 
tainment at which each guest 
gives a valentine to every other. 
The party must be given on or 
near St. Valentine's day, February 
14th. The hostess informs each 
guest beforehand what he or she 
is expected to do, and at least a 
day beforehand each guest must 
send in his valentine. On the 
evening of the party some one 
appointed by the hostess reads 
them all aloud, giving each to the 
person to whom it is addressed, 
after it is read. Assumed names 
are usually signed to the val- 
entines, which may be sentimental 
or ridiculous, as the writer pleases. 
Sometimes each guest is allowed 
to write as many or as few val- 
entines as he wishes ; and if the 
hostess finds, on looking them 
over, that any guest has received 
none, she either writes him one her- 
self or asks some one else to do so. 

VEGETABLE MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. Rude musical instru- 
ments of several kinds can be made 
from trees or vegetables. Some of 
these are described below. 

Willow Whistles. A green willow 
stick from two to five inches long 
is cut, as in Fig. i. The bark is 
loosened by pounding it carefully 
with a smooth stone or the handle 
of a pocket-knife till it will slip 
off. A thin slice of wood is then 
cut from the notch A to the end 
of the stick at B, and then the 
bark is slipped on again. (See Fig. 
2.) If the whistle has been proper- 
ly made, blowing at the end B will 
make a shrill noise. 

Willow whistles were once sup- 
posed to have the power of causing 
rain. Swiss children, when they 
make these whistles, sing " Franz, 
Franz, lend me your pipe," which 
is supposed once to have been an 
appeal to a water spirit. 

Squash Trumpets. From the leaf- 



stalk of a squash or pumpkin vine 
the leaf is cut through the fleshy 
part so that the hollow stalk will 
be closed at that end. A slit about 
an inch long is then made length- 
wise, close to the closed end. 
When that end is placed in the 
mouth so that the slit is entirely 
within, a harsh note may be pro- 
duced by blowing. If little holes 
are cut in the stem different notes 



\r 



Fig. I. 




Fig. 4. 
Vegetable Musical Instruments. 

may be produced by stopping 
these with the fingers ; and by 
cutting them at the right distance 
apart — which may be done after a 
few experiments — a tune can be 
played. (See Fig. 3.) 

Corn-stalk Fiddle. A piece of 
corn-stalk is cut so that a joint 
will be at each end. Part of the 
edges of the concave side are then 
slit so as to detach two cords, the 
joints holding them at the ends. 
Then two bits of stick are cut, of 
the thickness of a slate pencil and 
about an inch long, and one is 
pushed under the cords at each 
end, to raise and tighten them. 
This makes the fiddle. (Fig. 4.) 
The bow is made in like manner 



VIBRATING RODS 



755 



VIBRATING RODS 



of a smaller piece of stalk, and 
when one is drawn across the other 
a squeaking noise results. 

VERBARIUM. See Dictionary. 

VIBRATING RODS, Experiment 
with. Obtain two pieces of white 
pine, each four feet long, one inch 
wide, and quarter of an inch thick. 
On the flat side, close to the end 
of each, fasten with wax a bit of 



silvered glass one inch square. 
Fill two dry-goods boxes (A and 
B, Fig. i) about fourteen inches 
square, with sand, to serve as 
steady supports for the rods. Fas- 
ten one rod, C, upright to one 
of the boxes by two screws so that 
the rod projects above the box 
just thirty inches. The other rod, 
D, is held horizontally across the 




Vibrating- Rods— Fig. i. 



side of the other box by two bits 
of wood, F, G, screwed across it 
but not into it, so that the rod may 
be slipped forward and backward. 
Over the mirror of the upright rod 
is pasted a piece of paper one inch 
square with a hole in its centre a 
quarter of an inch in diameter. A 
beam of light from a heliostat or a 
lamp is allowed to enter the room. 
In case a lamp is used, it must 
be covered all but the opening 
through which the light passes, 
and a lens must be set in the 



beam so as to make the rays 
parallel. The box supporting the 
upright rod is so placed that the 
beam falls squarely on the mirror 
at the end of the rod. The other 
box is placed on a table, and the 
horizontal rod is slid out till just 
thirty inches of it are beyond the 
box. The box is now disposed so 
that the beam is reflected from the 
upright rod to the mirror on the 
horizontal rod, and thence to the 
wall, or a screen at S, where it ap- 
pears as a bright spot. If the up- 



VIBRATING RODS 



756 



VIBRATING RODS 



right rod be made to shake to and 
fro by giving it a pull and letting 
it go, the spot becomes a verti- 



cal line, which grows shorter and 
shorter till the rod stops. In like 
manner, if the horizontal rod is 




Vibrating Rods— Fig, 2. 




Vibrating Rods— Fig. 3. 




Vibrating Rods— Fig. 4. 



made to shake, there will be a 
bright horizontal line on the 
screen. If both rods together be 
made to shake, the result will be a 



figure like those obtained with the 

DOUBLE PENDULUM, but mUCh 

more clear and beautiful. The 
kind of figure depends on the 



VIOLIN 



757 



VIOLIN 



length of the horizontal rod. With 
the length given above — that is, 
where the vibrating rods are equal 
— it will be like that in Fig. 2. Un- 
less the rods have been very exact- 
ly adjusted, the figure will change, 
becoming in turn each of those 
represented in the illustration. 
Other curves are shown in Figs. 3 
and 4, and many others still will 
be obtained by sliding the rod D 
in and out. 

VIOLIN, Experiments with a. 
These can be tried equally well on 
a banjo, or guitar, but a violin bow 
is necessary for some of them. 



1. Loosen all the strings but 
one — preferably one of the middle 
strings. Pluck or bow it first ex- 
actly in the middle and then close 
to one end, listening carefully. 
There is a difference in the sound, 
which has more " twang " when the 
string is plucked at the ends. This 
is because the note given by the 
string is composed of several faint 
ones, called "overtones," beside 
the loud one which is most plain- 
ly heard, and more overtones are 
present when the string is plucked 
at the end. 

2. Press the finger firmly down 




Sonometer. 



exactly on the middle of the string, 
and sound it again. The note 
heard will be an octave higher than 
the original note. Touch the finger 
lightly to the same spot, and sound 
the note as before. The result will 
be the same, but by looking closely 
it will be seen that both halves of 
the string are vibrating. By press- 
ing the string at a third its length 
from the bottom and drawing a 
bow across the smaller part, the 
fifth above the note given by the 
whole string is obtained. By touch- 
ing the same spot lightly and 
bowing as before, the whole string 
can be made to vibrate, the longer 
part vibrating in halves. The whole 
string thus vibrates in three parts. 
The points between the vibrating 
parts, which are almost still, are 
called " nodes." If it cannot be 
seen that the string is vibrating in 



parts, bend a little narrow strip of 
paper and hang it over the string 
where the node ought to be. When 
the string is made to vibrate the 
paper will be agitated only a little, 
whereas if it be moved along a little 
way it will shake violently, or be 
thrown off the string. By touch- 
ing different points of the string a 
skilled violin player can make it 
vibrate in four, five or more sec- 
tions. Notes thus produced are 
called "harmonics." 

This experiment will succeed 
better if a Sonometer is used, which 
is easily made as follows : Take a 
piece of violin string, or piano wire, 
a little longer than the table you 
wish to use. Tie it to a nail at one 
end of the table and pass it over 
a pulley screwed horizontally into 
the other end. To the end of the 
string tie a tin pail filled with sand. 



VITESSE 



758 



VOLTAIC PILE 



nails or scraps of iron. It may, 
instead, be fastened to a second 
nail, as in the diagram, but the 
other way is best, as the pull on 
the string can then be easily al- 
tered. The string should now be 
fiat on the table, or nearly so. 
Cut wedge-shaped sticks of wood 
and place them under the string, 
as shown in the picture at A, B 
and D. By letting the wedges at 
the ends remain and moving the 
third, the same results will follow 
as if the string were touched with 
the finger. Two ways of vibrating 
are shown in the diagram, the 
nodes being at C. The weight of 
the pail can be varied by taking 
out or putting in nails or sand, 
thus stretching the string to the 
desired degree, 

3. Sound a string and then 
touch it lightly in the middle. It 
will give the octave faintly. 

4. Loosen all the strings of a 
violin but two, and tune those to 
the same note, pluck one, and then 
stop it ; the other will continue to 
sound. Tune one slightly higher 
or lower than the other, and try 
the same experiment. The second 
string will still sound, but not as 
loud or as long as before. This 
is called "sympathetic vibration," 
The notes which are most sympa- 
thetic, or are set in motion most 
easily by a vibrating string, are the 
same note, its octave, the fifth 
above the octave, the second oc- 
tave, and the third and fifth above 
that. This is shown best by experi- 
ments on the Piano, 

5. Tune the two lower strings as 
nearly as possible to the same note, 
and loosen the others. Place the 
ear behind the drum, if the instru- 
ment be a banjo, or close to the 
openings in the body, if it be a 
violin or guitar. Pluck the two 
strings together, and the resulting 
sound will be heard, first louder 
and then softer, in waves or pul- 
sations. These are called beats. 
If they are not heard, raise or low- 



er the pitch of one of the strings 
a little. The beats will be slower 
the nearer in tune the two strings 
are, and faster the farther they 
are apart ; but if the notes are not 
very near, the beats will be so fast 
that they cannot be distinguished. 
They can be heard still better with 

TUNING FORKS. 

VITESSE. A game played by two 
persons, each with a full pack of 
CARDS. Each player sits with his 
pack face downward before him, 
and at a signal both begin to turn 
over their cards one by one, face 
outward, and throw them on the 
table. They do not take turns, but 
each plays as fast as he can, repeat- 
ing as he does so the names of the 
thirteen cards from Ace to King, 
over and over again, one for each 
card he turns. Whenever the card 
turned is the same as the one called 
out, he must lay it by itself, and 
begin again at the Ace in calling 
out. The player who first lays 
aside thirteen cards in this way 
wins. But if a card is once passed 
that should have been thrown out, 
the player must go on as if it had 
been any other card. The game 
of Vitesse thus requires quickness 
of hand and eye, and at the same 
time close attention, and a prac- 
tised player will always win over a 
beginner, though it looks so sim- 
ple. 

The word Vitesse is French, and 
means Quickness. 

VOLTAIC PILE. A kind of elec- 
tric BATTERY, named after its 
inventor, Alexander Volta. A sim- 
ple one may be made as follows : 
Take a glass tube about an inch in 
diameter — an argand lamp chim- 
ney from which the lower part has 
been removed may be used. Paste 
two sheets of ordinary ^old paper 
back to back and cut out disks just 
large enough to slip into the tube. 
The disks can be cut several at a 
time by first folding the paper. Cut 
an equal number of disks in like 
manner from silver paper, and then 



VOWELS, THE 



759 



WALKING TRIPS 



make a pile of them, gold alter- 
nating with silver. The tube must 
thus be filled with the disks pressed 
together as tightly as possible, and 
closed at each end with a cork, 
through which passes a wire touch- 
ing the end disk. A Leyden jar 
may be charged with such a pile 
by connecting one wire with the 
knob and the other with the outer 



coating. The electricity in the pile 
will last a long time, 

VOWELS, THE. A game played 
by any number of persons who sit in 
a row. Each, in turn, asks a question 
of his right-hand neighbor, at the 
same time requiring him to answer 
without using some one vowel. If 
the vowel is used in the answer, 
the offender pays a forfeit. 



w 



WALKING TRIPS. In making a 
walking trip as few things as pos- 
sible should be carried, as every 
pound of weight adds to the fa- 
tigue. In this article only neces- 
sities are considered. 

Outfit. The shoes should fit the 
feet easily, and the soles should 
be neither so heavy that their 
weight is uncomfortable, nor so 
light that the feet feel through 
them the roughness of the ground. 
Low shoes should not be worn, as 
they admit dust and dirt. For 
climbing rocky hills or mountains 
heels filled with iron nails are best, 
as they hold to the rocks. Steel 
should not be used, as it is hard and 
slippery. The inside of the sole 
should be perfectly smooth. A 
roughness or lump which would not 
be noticed in an ordinary walk may 
become painful after a tramp of 
twenty or thirty miles. The best 
plan is to wear movable leather 
in-soles. As soon as the least lump 
is perceived the shoe should be 
taken off, the sole removed, and 
part of its under surface pared off 
with a sharp knife, just under the 
uncomfortable spot. If this is done 
faithfully, the soles will be perfectly 
fitted to the feet at the end of a 
day's walk, and the trouble of doing 
it will be amply repaid by the in- 
creased comfort. This simple meth- 
od of adapting the sole to the foot 



was devised by Russell A. Bigelow, 
a New York lawyer. Some people 
put sweet oil or salve on the feet 
when they begin to chafe, and they 
should be washed frequently. 

The other articles of dress may 
be according to the fancy of the 
wearer, so long as they are easy- 
fitting and comfortable. For warm 
weather, gauze underclothing and a 
loose flannel shirt are best, with a 
light jacket to wear when not walk- 
ing. For colder weather the shirt 
may be tighter at the wrists and 
neck and the underclothing thick- 
er. In all seasons knee-breeches 
and a soft hat are best. One can 
buy a knapsack, which may be 
strapped on the back, or, if his bun- 
dle is small, it may be carried in 
the hand. It is generally better to 
carry a small weight in the hand 
than in a knapsack. Other articles 
that may be carried are slippers, to 
rest the feet at night (some think 
that these should be taken, even if 
nothing else is); a change of under- 
clothing; needle and thread ; but- 
tons; adhesive plaster; fish-line 
and hooks; extra handkerchiefs; 
pen, ink and paper; a ball of twine 
and matches. If the trip is to last 
more than a few days, so that a 
change of underclothing is posi- 
tively necessary, it may be packed 
in a valise and sent by express to 
some town on the road. One valise 



WALKING TRIPS 



760 



WALKING TRIPS 



can usually be made to answer for 
a party of four or five. 

A cane or staff is a great aid in 
climbing, or in the latter part of the 
day, when the walker is tired ; but 
as it is often in the way, it is best to 
cut a fresh one when it is wanted. 

Shelter and Food. In some parts 
of the country it is possible so to ar- 
range the trip that every night shall 
be spent at a hotel. Otherwise it is 
necessary to ask for shelter at 
farmhouses, or in a very wild coun- 
try to CAMP OUT ; but this requires 
extra luggage. In some parts of 
the United States it is very easy to 
get shelter for the night at a farm- 
house ; elsewhere it is often impos- 
sible. If the walking party wish to 
stay at farm-houses, they should in- 
quire beforehand of some one who 
knows the country whether they 
can do so without trouble. The mid- 
day meal should be light, unless a 
rest of several hours is taken after 
it. No food should be taken when 
tired, and it is best to rest at least 
half an hour before eating. The 
pedestrian is apt to be very thirsty, 
especially on a warm day. Many 
authorities say that no water at all 
should be taken while walking, and 
that the blood should be cooled by 
simply bathing the wrists and tem- 
ples freely at intervals, or plunging 
the arms into water up to the el- 
bows. Others drink freely of spring 
water. Perhaps it is best for each 
to decide for himself which way is 
best. 

Distance and Hours. Unless the 
walker has been used to walking 
eight or ten miles a day, he should 
go not more than fifteen miles on 
the first day, and increase this dis- 
tance by two or three miles a day 
till he feels he has reached the limit 
of comfort, say twenty-five or 
thirty miles. The tendency of be- 
ginners is to walk as far as they 
can the first day, with the result 
that they are too lame on the next 
day to go more than five or six 
miles without pain. Ten hours a 



day at a rate of three miles an 
hour is quite enough. In a long trip, 
lasting many weeks, the muscles 
become hardened, and much more 
than this can be done — thirty-five 
miles a day, or perhaps even forty ; 
but this is an extreme. For most 
boys under eighteen years, twenty 
miles will be found quite enough ; 
and this distance must be lessened, 
if weight is to be carried. The 
best time to walk is in the morn- 
ing and late in the afternoon, 
taking a long rest at noon, before 
and after the mid-day meal. It is 
best both to retire and to rise early. 
If the legs and feet feel hot and full 
of blood while walking, it is a great 
relief to lie on the back and hold 
them up as straight as possible 
against a tree or wall for a few 
minutes. If the whole body is tired, 
one of the best resting postures is 
to lie flat on the face on the ground. 
This is said to be a favorite position 
with the Indians when tired. But 
there is no reason why more than a 
pleasant degree of fatigue should 
ever be felt, if the walker does not 
overdo. 

The walker generally suffers from 
sunburn during the first two or 
three days, but it usually ceases 
after a time. The second day of 
the march is generally most fatigu- 
ing. The change of life and ex- 
citement often keep him from 
sleeping soundly through his first 
night, and he often feels tired when 
he wakes. The fresh air makes 
him very thirsty, and his stomach 
often becomes disordered. These 
symptoms, however, will soon pass 
away. No medicines nor alcohol 
should be taken, though laxative 
food, such as fruits, is good. 

Routes. The general road to be 
followed should be studied on the 
map before starting, leaving the 
exact route to be decided on from 
day to day. For parts of the country 
that are the resorts of tourists there 
are guide-books, giving the best 
routes, the names of hotels on the 



WANDERING CARD 



761 



WATCH, EXPERIMENTS 



road, and much other information. 
If part of the route lies over a 
country where there is no road, the 
direction of the nearest town must 
be found out from a map or other- 
wise. A pathless walk of more than 
an hour requires a compass. While 
walking in a forest it is necessary 
to get the right direction only at 
first; it can be kept by "lining" 
trees. This is done by selecting 
three trees on a line with the eye 
in the proper direction; after the 
nearest is passed another is taken, 
beyond the last, so that three are 
always kept in view. It is never safe 
to trust to instinct to keep in a 
straight line in the woods, for most 
people naturally walk in a circle, 
owing to the fact that one leg is 
slightly stronger than the other. 
Persons lost in the woods have oft- 
en travelled thus in a circle, some- 
times for days. 

Party. A large party is more en- 
joyable in some respects, but it has 
the disadvantage that some will al- 
ways want to walk farther than oth- 
ers.and that it is difficult to agree on 
the route, the hours, and the rest- 
ing places. The best plan is either 
to choose a leader with power to 
decide these things, or for all to 
agree to follow the wishes of a ma- 
jority. When one person walks 
alone, he can do exactly as he 
pleases, but such a trip is apt to be 
lonely, and it is also dangerous, for 
in case of accident there is no one 
to give or obtain aid. 

WANDERING CARD. A soli- 
taire game of cards, played with 
one full pack. The first 1 3 cards 
that are taken from the pack are 
laid in a row, as they come, face 
upward. The next 13 are laid on 
these in the same order. As each 
of the second 13 is played, the 
number of the pile on which it is 
placed is spoken, and if the num- 
ber of pips on the card is the same, 
the card is laid aside, and the 
next card is laid on the next pile. 
Knaves count as 11 , Q ueens 1 2, a nd 



Kings 13. This is repeated till the 
pack is out, when there will be four 
cards in each pile, except where a 
card has been put aside. The top 
card of those laid aside is now 
taken and slipped under the pile 
having the corresponding number. 
The top card of that pile is slipped 
under its proper pile, and so on till 
one is reached that is in its proper 
place. Then the next card of those 
laid aside is taken, and so on till 
all have been used. The player 
has won if the pack is arranged at 
the end of the game in 13 piles 
each of which contains four cards 
of the same value. 

Clock, The. A variation of the 
preceding game. Cards are placed 
in twelve piles of four each, face 
downward in a circle, and num- 
bered to correspond with the fig- 
ures on a clock dial. The thir- 
teenth pile is placed in the centre. 
The top card of the middle pile is 
now turned and placed face up- 
ward under its proper pile, and so 
on, as in the game just described. 
WATCH, Experiments with a. 

1. Close the ears tightly, and hold 
the watch firmly between the teeth. 
The ticking will be heard distinctly, 
because the sound is conducted 
through the teeth and the bones 
of the head to the inside of the ear. 

2. Let one person hold the watch 
against the end of along pole, and 
let another press the other end of 
the pole against his ear. or hold it 
between his teeth. He will hear 
the watch tick distinctly, the sound 
being conducted along the pole. 

3. Let one person hold the watch 
and another walk slowly away till 
he just ceases to hear the ticking. 
Let the first person now hold the 
watch in front of a concave mirror, 
such as is used for lamp reflectors. 
The second person will find that he 
can hear the watch tick if his ear is 
directly in front of the mirror, but 
that the sound ceases if he moves 
to one side or the other. (See Re- 
flection OF Sound.) 



WATCH, TRICK WITH 



762 



WATER DROP 



WATCH, Trick with. 

I. To indica:e on the dial of a 
watch the hour secretly thought of 
by another. Taking a pencil, the 
performer taps with it the hours 
on the dial, asking the other to 
count the taps mentally, beginning 
from the number he thought of. 
Thus, if the number were six, he 
must count the first tap as seven, 
the next as eight, and so on. He 
is instructed to say " Stop " as 
soon as he reaches the number 
twenty, when the performer's pen- 
cil is found to point to the number 
thought of. The trick is performed 
as follows : The first seven taps 
may be given on any numbers 
whatever, but the eighth must in- 
variably be given on the number 
Xn, the ninth on XI, and so on 
backward around the dial. When 
the spectator, having reached 20, 
says " Stop," the tap will be made 
on the number he thought of. The 
reason is easily understood by 
those who understand algebra. Let 
X be the number thought of. Then 
the first tap is numbered x+i and 
the eighth x+8. But if x=i2, x+8 
=20, and the spectator will "Stop," 
therefore the tap must be made on 
the figure XII. If x=ii, x+8 — 19 
and x-f-9=2o, therefore the ninth 
or next tap must be made on the 
figure XI, and so on. 

WATCHMAN, THE. See Going 
TO Jerusalem. 

WATCHWORD GAME, THE. See 
Dictionary. 

WATER CLOCK. A device for 
telling time by means of water. A 
simple one can be made as follows : 
Stop up one end of an argand lamp 
chimney with a cork, through 
which passes a glass jet (see Chem- 
ical Experiments) drawn out so 
fine that water will pass through it 
only in drops. Fill the chimney 
with water, marking the level by a 
scratch made with a diamond or 
sharp file. As the level slowly falls, 
mark it anew every fifteen minutes 
or oftener, as desired, making lar- 



ger marks every hour. The chim- 
ney can now be used as a clock by 
filling it and letting the water be- 
gin to drop exactly at some hour. 
If it be desired to distinguish small- 
er intervals of time, the water must 
be allowed to drop out faster, so 
that the level will fall more quick- 
ly ; but then the clock requires fill- 
ing oftener, unless a long tube be 
used. The marks on the tube will 
be closer together at the bottom 
than on top, for, as the level falls, 
the pressure decreases and the wa- 
ter drops out more and more slow- 
ly. To be exact, the clock must be 
kept at the same temperature, as 
otherwise the water will flow out at 
different rates of speed. 

The water clock was used by the 
Greeks, who called it Clepsydra 
(from kleptein, to steal away, and 
hudor, water). 

WATER CUTTER. See Circu- 
lar Saw. 

WATER DROP, Experiment with 
a large. Across a barrel-hoop, from 
fourteen to twenty-four inches in 
diameter, stretch thin sheet india- 
rubber. Pour water on it, and 
it will sag downward, making a sort 
of bowl. Continue to pour water 
in gradually, and finally the rubber 
bowl will all at once change its 
shape. Dip out a little water, and it 
will take its old shape again. The 
sheet of rubber filled with water is 
like a huge water drop, only it can- 
not wholly detach itself and fall to 
the ground like a real drop. The 
change of shape can also be pro- 
duced by dipping the hand into the 
water. An amusing way of show- 
ing the experiment is to drop a 
coin into the water and then ask 
some one to pick it out. As soon 
as the hand is thrust under water 
the rubber bowl will drop down- 
ward, carrying the coin farther away 
from the hand. To perform this 
experiment properly it is necessary 
that the rubber should be neither 
too tight nor too loose at the be- 
ginning. The proper tightness va- 



WATER MILL 



763 



WATER WHISTLE 



ries with the size of hoop, and is 
best found by trial. 

WATER MILL, or WATER EN- 
CINE. To make a water mill, take 
two glass tubes (see Chemical Ex- 
periments) about a foot long, and 
bend two inches of each at each 
end at right angles, but in different 
planes, so that if the bent part at 
one end be held vertical that at the 
other will be horizontal. Looking 
along the tube from one bend, held 
vertical, the other bend must be in 
the same direction in both tubes ; 
that is, both must be to the right, 
or both to the left. Make a jet at 
one end of each tube. In one end 
of a glass cylinder (an argand lamp 
chimney will do), fit a cork or rub- 
ber stopperwithtwoholes. In these 
holes fit those ends of the tubes 
at which the jets were not made. 
The tubes extend in opposite di- 
rections, and the jets therefore 
point to opposite sides. Suspend 
the lamp chimney by tying a string 
around it at one end, and then fill 
it with water. As the water runs 
out through the jets the reaction 
will make the mill spin around. 

WATER PRESSURE, Experiments 
on. I . Bend a piece of glass tubing 
into the shape of a letter U, but 
with one branch much shorter than 
the other. The longer branch may 
be six inches long and the shorter 
one inch. Pour mercury into the 
tube till it stands about half an 
inch high in each branch. Thrust 
the tube under water so that the 
opening of the long branch re- 
mains above the surface, and the 
mercury will rise in the long branch. 
The deeper the tube is in the water 
the higher the mercury rises. For 
a depth of six inches it rises about 
half an inch. The mercurv is 
pushed up by the pressure of the 
water on the smaller branch of the 
tube, and the pressure increases 
with the depth of water. 

2. Plunge the tube to any depth 
in a pail of wate ', say five inches ; 
note the height of the mercury, and 



then plunge it to the same depth 
in a bath-tub full of water. The 
mercury will rise to the same height 
in both cases. The reason is that 
water pressure depends on the 
depth, not on the amount of water 
in the vessel. 

3. Attach a thread to the centre 
of a circular disk of cardboard 
about an inch and a half in diame- 
ter, by passing through it a sewing 
needle and knotted thread. Pass 
the thread through an argand lamp 
chimney so that the disk can be 
held firmly against one end by the 
thread. While it is so held, push 
that end of the chimney down into 
a pail of water. The upward pres- 
sure of the water will hold the disk 
to the end of the chimney without 
the aid of the string. Pour water 
into the chimney, and when that 
on the inside has reached the level 
of that on the outside, the disk 
will fall. The reason is that the 
upward pressure of the water on 
the disk is just equal to that of the 
water that was poured in, so that 
the pressure on both sides balanced, 
and there was nothing to hold the 
disk up. 

4. To the end of a glass tube 
about half an inch in diameter tie 
tightly an india-rubber bag or bal- 
loon, and fill the balloon with water, 
which may be colored, to make it 
more easily visible. Thrust the 
balloon into water, and the colored 
water will rise in the tube farther 
and farther as the balloon sinks 
deeper. 

WATER WHISTLE. A whistle 
may be played under water by at- 
tending to the following d irections: 
Buy a tin whistle or flageolet at a 
toyshop; close the hole nearest the 
mouth-piece by putting wax over it, 
and connect the mouth-piece with 
a water faucet. Stand the whistle 
upright in a jar tall enough to hold 
it and turn on the water, which will 
run through the whistle. Fill the 
jar, and overflow it. If the flow 
be now carefully regulated, a low 



WAX WORKS 



764 



WEDGE, EXPERIMENTS 



but distinct musical note will be 
heard, caused by the water flowing 
through the whistle. 

WAX WORKS. See Mrs. Jar- 
ley's Wax Works. 

WEAVING. The process of 
weaving is explained in C. C. T., 
in the article Loom. It is possible 






Weaving— Fig. i. 

to weave on a small scale with no 
other tools than two lead-pencils, a 
piece of cardboard and some yarn 
or string. Cut the cardboard (which 
may be an ordinary visiting card), 
as shown in Fig. i, making slits 




Weaving- 



about an inch long, and punching 
holes half-way between them along 
the horizontal line. Lay the pen- 
cils on a table so that about two- 
thirds of each will project over 
the edge, supporting them by a 
book laid on the ends (see Fig. 2). 
The pencils should be about six 



inches apart. Now tie one end of 
a piece of yarn several yards long to 
one of the pencils near the table 
pass the other end through the first 
hole in the card, around the other 
pencil, back through the adjoining 
slit, around the first pencil, through 
the next hole, and so on — always 
passing it through a hole in one 
direction and back through a slit. 
After all the holes and slits have 
been passed through thus, tie the 
yarn. The yarn thus arranged 
forms the warp of the cloth, and 
the card takes the place of the 
healds, for by pushing it up and 
down it will be seen that one set 
of threads is brought first above 
and then below the other. Cut a 
shuttle out of cardboard in either 
the shapes shown in Fig i, and 
wind yarn upon it for the weft. 
Pull the card up, pass the shut- 
tle between the warp threads in 
one direction ; then push the card 
down and pass the shuttle back, 
and continue until the piece of 
cloth is as large as desired. To 
take the place of the batten, and 
make the weft threads lie close, an 
ordinary paper-cutter can be used. 
WEDGE, Experiment with. Hinge 
together two boards about a foot 
square, or fasten them with leath- 
er on one side. Cut a piece of 
wood into wedge shape and place 
it inside the hinged boards be- 
tween two lead-pencils, used as 
rollers. The small end of the 
wedge must be turned outward, 
and its angle must be less than that 
made by the hinged boards. On 
pressing the boards together, the 
wedge, instead of rolling inward on 
the pencils, as might have been ex- 
pected, is pressed outward. This 
is because the wedge tends to move 
in the direction which allows the 
boards to come nearest together. If 
the wedge moved inward the pencils 
would also roll inward, and force 
the boards farther apart. If the 
angle of the wedge be equal to that 
of the boards, it will not move at 



WEIGHING IN WATER 765 



WHIRLWIND BOX 



all when the boards are pressed; 
and if the angle is greater, it will 
move inward. 

WEIGHING IN WATER, Experi- 
ments on. I. Weigh a piece of 
metal or stone with a pair of scales. 
Then tie the object to one of the 
scale pans with a piece of string 
and let it hang in a glass of water 
while weighing it. It will be found 
to weigh less than before. This is 
because the water partly supports 
the weight of the object. 

2. Fill a goblet with water so 
that it runs over, and then float on 
it a block of wood. Some of the 
water in the glass will be forced 
out by the wood. Balance an 
empty glass on a pair of scales. 
Place the wood in the opposite 
scale and balance it by pouring 
water into the glass. Pour this 
water into the first goblet used, 
and it will just fill it again. The 
reason is that any floating body 
displaces a quantity of water ex- 
actly equal to its own weight. 

3. Balance a glass of water on 
one pair of scales and hang a piece 
of lead from one pan of another 
pair, balancing this also by weights. 
Let the lead dip into the water, 
when both balances will be de- 
stroyed — the pan containing the 
water growing heavier and that 
with the lead growing lighter. Re- 
store the balance again in both 
cases by pouring sand into the 
lighter pan. Afterward balance 
these quantities of sand against 
each other, and they will be found 
to be equal. The reason is that 
the water bears up part of the 
weight of the lead, but adds to its 
own weight in so doing by an equal 
amount. 

WHAT IS MY THOUGHT LIKE? 
A game in which one of the play- 
ers thinks of an object and then 
asks each of the others to guess 
what that thought is like. When all 
have answered, the questioner then 
tells his thought, and asks each of 
the company to tell how his guess 



resembles it. Much skill is often 
required to give a good answer. 

In another form of the game 
each writes the names of two ob- 
jects on separate slips of paper, and 
when all the slips have been well 
mixed each draws two. Each then 
writes in verse the resemblance 
between them, and finally all the 
verses are read aloud. This game 
is sometimes called Resemblances. 

WHIRLWIND, THE. A game 
played by any number of persons, 
all but one sitting in chairs placed 
close together in a circle. The 
players face inward and one stands 
in the centre of the circle, leaving 
one chair unoccupied. At a sig- 
nal each player changes to the 
chair just at his right, and then to 
the next one, the whole circle mov- 
ing around thus as fast as possible. 
The player in the middle tries to 
secure a chair, and when he does 
so the one on his right must take 
his place. 

WHIRLWIND BOX. An arrange- 
ment by which a little whirlwind 
can be made. Take a soap-box, 
remove the bottom and fasten the 




Whirlwind Box. 

cover to the box with hinges, so 
that it will open and shut like a 
door. Place a handful of small 
bits of tissue paper in front of tht> 
box, and shut or open the door 
suddenly. There will be a minia- 
ture whirlwind, as is shown by the 
motion of the bits of paper. 



WHIST 



766 



WHIST 



WHIST. A game of cards played 
with a full pack by four persons, two 
in partnership against the other two. 
The cards rank in order as follows : 
Ace, King, Queen, Knave, Ten, Nine, 
Eight, Seven, Six, Five, Four, Three, 
Two, the last being the lowest. In 
cutting for deal, however, the Ace 
is the lowest card. Partners are 
generally decided by cutting the 
cards, the two highest and the two 
lowest playing together. The one 
cutting the lowest card is the dealer. 
Each player deals in his turn, and 
the right of dealing goes to the left. 
The partner of the dealer shuffles 
the cards for the ensuing deal, and 
must place them to the left of the 
next dealer. The player on the 
dealer's right cuts the pack, and in 
dividing it must not leave fewer 
than four cards in either packet. 
The dealer, beginning with the player 
at his left, deals one card at a time 
to each until the whole pack is dealt, 
thus giving to each player thirteen 
cards. The last, or trump card, is 
turned face up on the table, and re- 
mains there until the first trick has 
been played, when the dealer takes 
it into his own hand. Two packs of 
cards are usually played with, to save 
time, the second pack being shuffled 
while the dealer is dealing the first. 
The thirteen cards received by each 
player is termed a hand, and the four 
hands termed a deal. The player at 
the left of the dealer leads. Each 
must follow suit, if he can, and the 
highest card of the suit led wins the 
trick. The winner of the trick then 
leads, playing a card of any suit he 
chooses, and so on in turn until all the 
cards, making thirteen tricks, have 
been played. If a player be not able 
to follow suit, he may play a trump or 
a card of any other suit he chooses. 
If he trump, he wins the trick (as 
trumps take all other suits), unless 
another player trumps over him — 
that is, plays a higher trump. A 
player renounces when he does not 
follow suit ; if he renounces, and has 
cards in that suit, he revokes. When 



all the cards have been played out 
the side having the most tricks 
counts towards game one point for 
each trick taken in excess of six 
tricks. Thus, the side making seven 
tricks scores one point, eight tricks 
two points, and so on. 

The game of ten points, called 
Long Whist, in which honors are 
scored, is now seldom played. The 
Honors are the Ace, King, Queen, 
and Knave of trumps. If two part- 
ners hold all four of these, either 
separately or together, they score 
four points towards the game. If 
they hold any three of them, they 
score two points. When each party 
holds two honors — that is, when 
they are evenly divided — neither 
party scores, and it is then said that 
" honors are easy." The honors 
can be counted only by those to 
whom they have been dealt, and not 
by those who win them in playing. 
They must be announced at the end 
of the hand, and before the first card 
of the next hand is dealt, or they 
cannot be counted. 

Short Whist, a game of five points 
where honors are scored, is usually 
played in England. In playing a 
rubber — which is the best two out of 
three games — the winners gain (i) 
a treble, or gain of three points, 
when their adversaries have not 
scored ; (2) a double, or gain of two 
points, when their adversaries have 
scored less than three ; (3) a single, 
or gain of one point, when their 
adversaries have scored three or four. 
The winners of the rubber gain two 
points, called the rubber points, in 
addition to the value of their games. 
When the rubber consists of three 
games the number of points made 
by the losers is deducted from the 
number made by the winners. 

The American game is of seven 
points without honors. 

A good player usually leads from 
the suit in which he has most cards 
(called his " long suit "). The reason 
of this is that he wishes to draw all 
the other cards of that suit from the 



WHIST 



767 



WHIST 



other players. Then, when all the 
trumps have been played, if he gets 
the lead he can take a trick with 
every remaining card of the suit, no 
matter how small it is. When a 
player has enough of the highest 
cards in a suit to win all the others 
from the other players, he is said to 
have " complete command " of it. 
If he has the highest cards, but not 
enough to win all the others, he has 
temporary command. When com- 
plete command of a suit has been 
obtained, as described above, it is 
said to be " established." A player 
will know by his partner's lead what 
the latter's long suit is, and can aid 
him in establishing it by leading it in 
turn. As the success of this plan 
depends on getting an opponent's 
trumps out of the way, a good player 
leads trumps if he have as many 
as five, even if they are small ones. 
The particular cards that should be 
led in different cases are given in the 
rhyming rules below. 

On \\\& first round of a suit second 
in hand should usually play high, if 
had it been his lead he would lead 
high, and low if he would lead low, 
but on the second round he should 
play the winning card. The second 
player should not trump if he has 
many trumps, but wait till, by lead- 
ing them, he may exhaust those of 
his opponents. But if he have only 
two or three, the best way to use 
them is in trumping. 

The third player is expected to 
take the trick, if his partner has not 
done so, or at any rate to play his 
best card, so that the trick will cost 
the fourth player as dear as possible. 
But if he hold the highest card out 
and the second below it, he often 
plays the latter, which is called 
"finessing." The reason for doing 
this is that the chances are two to 
one that the fourth player does not 
hold the next to the highest card. 
If he does, the third player loses no 
more than he would have done by 
any other play: if he does not, a 
trick is won. This combination 



of cards — for instance. Ace and 
Queen, or King and Knave — is 
called a Tenace (French, tenace^ 
strong), and the third player is said 
to " finesse against " the middle 
card. A player should particularly 
watch his left-hand neighbor; for if 
the latter prove weak in any suit it 
is not necessary for the former to 
play so high, when he is third in 
order. 

The fourth player should, of 
course, take the trick with as small 
a card as he can, if his partner has 
not already taken it. 

When anyone leads a suit in 
which he knows another player has 
no card, he is said to " force " that 
player, for he gives him no choice 
except to lose the trick or to trump. 
It is generally considered bad for a 
player to force his partner when that 
player has few trumps, for it is then 
probable that his partner has many, 
which he wishes to keep till he can 
lead them. But if he has found out 
that his partner does not wish to 
lead trumps, or that the opponents 
do, then he should force. It is 
always right to force the strong 
trump hand of an opponent. 

When a player has no cards of 
one suit and his partner has none of 
another suit, it is often of advantage 
for them to lead those suits alter- 
nately. Thus, suppose A has no 
Spades and B has no Hearts. 
When they discover that this is the 
case, A leads a Heart, which B 
trumps, and then returns a Spade, 
which A trumps. This is called 
cross-rufifing, or seesawing. If a 
player sees that his opponents are 
likely to establish a cross-ruff, he 
should at once lead a trump, no 
matter how lowr ; for even if the 
trick is taken, it requires two of the 
enemy's trumps to do it, while in a 
cross-ruff each of those trumps 
would take a trick. 

When a suit is led in which a 
player has no cards, and he either 
cannot trump or does not wish to do 
so, he puts on the smallest card of 



WHIST 



768 



WHIST 



his weakest suit. This is called 
" throwing away " or " discarding." 
When a player is strong in trumps 
and wishes them led, it is customary 
to make what is called the " signal 
for trumps " or " trump signal." 
This is done by discarding hrst a 
rather high card and then a lower 
one, instead of the lower one first, as 
would be the ordinary rule. 

Directions how to play Whist have 
been put in rhyme by William Pole. 
Some of them are given below : 

Your first lead makes your partner understand 
What is the chief component of your hand; 
And hence there is necessity the strongest 
That your first lead be from your suit that's 
longest. 

In this, with Ace and King, lead King, then 

Ace; 
With King and Queen, King also has first 

place; 
With Ace, Queen, Knave, lead Ace, and then 

the Queen; 
With Ace, four small ones, Ace should first be 

seen; 
With Queen, Knave, Ten, you let the Queen 

precede; 
In other cases, you the lowest lead. 

Ere you return your friend's, your own suit 

play; 
But trumps you must return without delay. 
When you return your partner's lead, take 

pains 
To lead him back the best your hand contains. 
If you received not more than three at first. 
If you had more, you may return the worst. 

If second hand, your lowest should be played. 
Unless you mean " trump signal" to be made; 
Or, if you've King and Queen or Ace and King, 
Then one of these will be the proper thing. 

Mind well the rules for trumps — you'll often 

need them. 
When you hold five, 'tis always right to lead 

them; 
Or if the lead won't come in time to you; 
Then signal to your partner so to do. 

When, second hand, a doubtful trick you see, 
Don't trump it if you hold more trumps than 

three; 
But having three or less, trump fearlessly. 

When weak in trumps yourself, don't force 

your friend. 
But always force the adverse strong trump 

hand. 

For sequences stern custom has decreed 

The lowest you must play, if you don't lead. 

When you discard, weak suit you ought to 

choose. 
For strong ones are too valuable to lose. 

While many of these plays are in 
use, the American leads are con- 



sidered better on account of show- 
ing number in suit. 

SUITS WITH ACE AT HEAD. 

Holding Ace, King, and three or 
more small ones, lead Ace, then 
King. 

Holding Ace, King, and two 
small ones, lead King, then Ace. 

Holding Ace, King, Queen, and 
one small one, lead King, then 
Queen. 

Holding Ace, King, Queen, and 
more than one small one, lead 
Queen, then Ace with five, King 
with more than five. 

Holding Ace, King, Queen, 
Knave, lead King, then Knave. 

Holding Ace, King, Queen, 
Knave, and small one, lead Knave, 
then Ace with five, King with six, 
and Queen with more than six. 

Holding Ace, Queen, Knave, Ten, 
lead Ace, then Ten. 

Holding Ace, Queen, Knave, and 
one small one, lead Ace, then 
Queen. With two or more small 
ones follow the Ace with Knave. 

Holding Ace and four or more 
small ones, lead Ace, and follow 
with fourth best. Many players 
lead fourth best. 

IN TRUMPS. 

Holding Ace, King and five, lead 
Ace, then King. Holding less than 
five, lead fourth best. 

Holding Ace, King, Queen, 
Knave, lead King, then Knave. 

All other suits headed by Ace are 
the same as in plain suits. 

SUITS WITH KING A T HEAD. 

Holding King, Queen, Knave, 
and Ten, lead King and follow with 
Ten. 

Holding King, Queen, Knave, and 
more than one small card, lead 
Knave. If you have five in suit, 
follow with King ; if more than five, 
with Queen. 

Holding King, Queen, Knave, 
with or without one small card, lead 
King, then Knave. 

Holding King, Queen, and. small 
cards, trumps, lead Queen, if you 



WHISl 



769 



WHIST 



have seven or more in suit, or if you 
hold the Ten with five in suit. If 
you have fewer than seven trumps, 
or do not hold the Ten, lead the 
fourth best card. 

Holding King, Queen, and small 
cards, common suits, lead King, if 
you have four or less than four ; if 
more than four, lead Queen. 

Holding King, Knave, Ten, Nine, 
with or without small cards, lead 
Nine. If the Nine wins, follow with 
Knave, if you have four in suit ; 
with Ten, if you have more than 
four. But if the Nine forces the 
Queen, or Queen and Ace, follow 
with King, if you have four in suit; 
with Knave, if five ; and with Ten, 
if more than five. 

Holding King, Knave, and Ten, 
alone, lead Ten ; with small ones, 
lead fourth best. 

Holding King, Knave, and small 
cards, or King and small cards, lead 
the fourth best. 

SUITS WITH QUEEN A T HEAD. 

Holding Queen, Knave, Ten, and 
Nine, with or without small cards, 
lead Ten. If you have four in suit, 
follow with Queen ; if more than 
four, with Knave. 

Holding Queen, Knave, and small 
cards, or Queen and small cards, 
lead the fourth best. 

SUITS WITH KNA VE AT HEAD. 

Holding Knave, Ten, Nine, Eight, 
with or without small cards, lead the 
Eight. If you have four in suit, 
follow with Knave ; if five, with Ten ; 
and with more than five, with Nine. 

Holding Knave, Ten, Nine, and 
small cards, or Knave and small 
cards, lead the fourth best. 

SUITS WITHOUT HONORS. 

Holding four or more small cards, 
lead the fourth best. 

RULES. 

The following general rules will 
enable the learner to remember the 
leads : 

Lead the Ace. if you have King 
and more than four in suit (except 



in trumps), or if you hold Queen and 
Knave also. 

Never lead the King with more 
than four in suit. 

Never lead the Queen with less 
than five in suit. 

Never lead the Knave with less 
than five in suit. If you lead Ace 
from a long suit, and do not hold 
King, or Queen and Knave, follow 
withyour original fourth best. When 
the Queen, led from a King-Queen 
suit wins, follow with the fourth 
best remaining. 

In opening a suit with a low card, 
lead the fourth best. 

Never lead from a single card, as 
it is apt to mislead your partner. 

Dummy. This is played by three 
persons, a fourth hand, called Dum- 
my, being exposed on the table. 
The laws are the same as those of 
Whist, with the exception that (i) 
Dummy deals at the commencement 
of each rubber ; (2) Dummy is not 
liable to the penalty for a revoke ; (3) 
Dummy's partner is not liable to any 
penalty for an error whence he can 
gain no advantage. 

Double Dummy is played by two 
persons, each having a dummy, or 
exposed hand, for his partner. The 
laws are the same as in Dummy 
Whist, except that there is no mis- 
deal. 

RULES OF THE GAME. 

1. If there is a misdeal, the deal 
passes to the next player, unless the 
mistake was caused by an interrup- 
tion from an opponent, in which case 
the same player deals again. 

2. If a card be exposed by a player, 
a new deal by the same dealer may 
be demanded by his opponents, if 
they have not looked at their hands. 

3. A player must not deal for his 
partner without his opponents' per- 
mission. 

4. The dealer must take the trump 
into his hand after his first play, 
and after that no one may ask what 
it is. but any one may ask what the 
trump suit is. 

5. A card wrongly exposed on the 



WHIST 



770 



WHIST 



table must be played whenever it is 
called for, unless so playing it would 
cause a revoke. 

6. If a player lead out of turn, he 
must take back his card, which is 
treated as exposed ; but if all the 
others have played to the lead, it is 
considered good. 

7. If the third hand play before 
the second the fourth may also play 
before the second. 

8. If the third hand have not 
played, and the fourth play before 
his partner, the latter may be called 
on to win or not to win the trick. 

9. If a player revoke, his opponent 
may score 2 points, unless he dis- 
cover his error before the trick is 
turned and quitted, in which case 
he may change his play, and the 
wrongly played card is simply treated 
as exposed. 

10. A revoke cannot be claimed 
after the cards have been cut for the 
following deal. 

11. After a trick has been turned 
and quitted it cannot be looked at. 

Bridge Whist. A game that is 
played, after the lead of the first card, 
like Dummy Whist. 

The differences lie mainly in the 
declaration of trumps, the differing 
values of suits, increasing values by 
going over, methods of scoring and 
rubber count. 

The dealer does not turn a trump. 
He has the option of making it, but 
if he does not wish to do so his part- 
ner must make it. 

The value of the tricks above six 
varies as follows, according to the 
trumps declared — spades count 2, 
clubs 4, diamonds 6, hearts 8, and 
"no trump" 12. After the declara- 
tion of trump suit the adversaries 
have the right to go over (that is, 
double the value) ; the dealer's left- 
hand adversary having the first right 
to do so ; if he does not wish to^^ 
over, or double, he says to his part- 
ner, " May I play } " His partner 
must answer " Play " or " Over." If 
either adversary goes over, the dealer 
and his partner have the right to go 



over them, the player who declared 
the trump having the first right ; and 
the going over may be repeated until 
both side are satisfied. After the 
leader — the player at left of dealer — 
plays his first card, the dealer's part- 
ner places his hand on the table face 
up and the dealer plays it as in 
Dummy Whist. 

Honors are Ace, King, Queen, 
Jack, and Ten of the trump, or the 
four aces when " no trump " is de- 
clared. Honors are credited to the 
original holders, and are valued as 
follows : Three honors held between 
the partners (called simple honors) 
count the same as two tricks, four 
honors are equal to four tricks, five 
honors equal to five tricks, four 
honors in one hand equal to eight 
tricks, four in one hand and the fifth 
in partner's equal to nine tricks, and 
five honors in one hand equal to ten 
tricks. 

In " no trump " three aces be- 
tween partners count thirty, four 
aces between partners forty, and four 
aces in one hand one hundred. 

Slam is thirteen tricks scored in- 
dependently of the revoke penalty, 
and adds forty to the honor count. 

Little Slam is twelve tricks simi- 
larly counted, and adds twenty to the 
honor count. 

Chicane (one hand void of trumps) 
is equal in value to simple honors ; 
that is, if partner of player having 
Chicane scores honors, he adds the 
value of three honors to his score ; 
while if the adversaries score honors 
it deducts an equal value from them. 

The value of honors. Slam, Little 
Slam, and Chicane is in no .wise 
affected by going over. 

Each game consists of thirty trick 
points. The rubber is the best of 
three games ; if the first two games 
be won by the same partners the 
third is not played. Tricks and hon- 
ors are scored in separate columns. 

At the conclusion of a rubber the 
total score for tricks and honors is 
added up and 100 added to the win- 
ners' score — the lesser score is then 



WHIST 



771 



WHIST 



deducted from the greater, the 
remainder being the value of the 
rubber. 

The penalty for a revoke is at the 
option of the adversaries, who may at 
the end of the hand take three tricks 
from the revoking player and add 
them to their own, deduct the value 
of three tricks (in the hand where 
the revoke occurred) from the score 
of the adversaries, or add the value 
of three tricks to their own score. 

The penalty for a revoke takes 
precedence of all other scores. 

Dummy is not liable to the penalty 
for a revoke. No player should pur- 
posely incur a penalty because he is 
willing to pay it, nor should he make 
a second revoke to conceal a first one. 

Duplicate Whist is that form of 
the game of Whist in which each 
deal is played only once by each 
player, but in which each hand is 
played over again so as to bring the 
play of teams, pairs, or individuals 
into comparison. 

Each player, when it is his turn to 
play, must place his card face up 
before him, leaving it there until all 
have played to the trick, when he 
must turn it over with the ends to- 
wards the winners of the trick. 
When the deal is played each player 
must place his hand in the tray or 
other device, face down, and the 
trump card is placed face up on top 
of the dealer's hand. 

The points made on each deal are 
recorded on score cards made for that 
purpose, as the game of seven points 
is not played in Duplicate Whist. 

leralache, or Russian Whist. This 
is exactly like our Whist, except that 
there are no trumps. The scoring 
varies according to agreement, but 
is generally as in Long Whist. 

History. The game of Whist is 
traced back by some to the Italian 
Trwnfo, the French Triomphe, one 
of the first card games ; but others 
say that the game of Trump, from 
which Whist is derived, was not the 
same as these games, and originated 
in England. Trump was played in 



England in the beginning of the i6th 
century and was probably very simi- 
lar to the game of Ruff and Honors, 
or Slam, which followed it. Ruff 
and Honors was played by four per- 
sons with a full pack of 52 cards, but 
only twelve were dealt to each, four 
being left in the stock, the topmost 
card of which was turned for trump. 
The holder of the ace of trumps was 
allowed to exchange four cards for 
those in the stock, and the game was 
nine points ; but in other respects 
the game was like Long Whist. 
The first known mention of Whist 
in print was in a book called " The 
Motto," published in 1621, where 
it is spelled Whisk. The earliest 
known use of the present spelling is 
in Butler's " Hudibras " (1663). For 
about fifty years after this it was 
spelled indifferently either way. 
Cotton, in his " Compleat Gamester " 
(1674), says : " Whist is a game not 
differing much from this [Ruff and 
Honors], only they put out the 
Deuces and take in no stock." The 
game was thus played with 48 cards. 
Whist is mentioned in George Farqu- 
har's play of " The Beaux's Strat- 
agem" (1707), and in 171 5 Alexander 
Pope speaks of it in one of his epis-. 
ties. About 1725 the game was 
made ten points, and began to be 
played with 52 cards again. In 
" Whist-and-Swabbers," which was 
much played about this time, cer- 
tain cards called Swabbers entitled 
their holders to part of the money 
wagered on the game, no matter who 
the winners might be. 

The game was much studied by 
a party of gentlemen who frequented 
the Crown Coffee House in London 
in 1730, and then it began to be 
played in its modern form, Richard 
Seymour, in his " Compleat Game- 
ster, for the use of the Young 
Princesses," published in 1734, has 
an article on " Whist, vulgarly called 
Whisk." He gives an account of 
the game as it was played in his time, 
from which it appears that it was 
then much used by card-sharpers, a 



WHIST 



772 



WINDMILL, THE 



full account of their various methods 
of cheating being given, with the 
way to defeat them. " Formerly," 
he says, " it was usual to deal four 
cards together ; but it is demon- 
strable there is no safety in that 
method ; but now the cards are 
dealt round one and one at a time, 
as the securest and best way." It 
also appears from this book that 
two-handed and three-handed Whist 
were sometimes played. In the lat- 
ter, each player had twelve cards, 
and, says Seymour, "always two 
strive to suppress and keep down 
the rising man." About this time 
Whist began to be a fashionable 
game, and in 1743 appeared an 
anonymous treatise upon it, of 
which it is thought Edmund Hoyle 
was the author. At this time Hoyle 
gave lessons in Whist for a guinea 
each, and he did so much for the 
game that he is often called the 
" father of Whist." It was then 
thought necessary for all well-edu- 
cated people to know how to play it. 
In the " Rambler " for May 8, 1750, 
occurs the passage, " Papa made 
me drudge at Whist till I was tired 
of it ; and Mr. Hoyle, when he had 
not given me above forty lessons, 
said I was one of his best scholars." 
Since Hoyle's time there have been 
many writers on the game. 

Whist had been treated as though 
the art of the game depended on 
arbitrary rules, but it is now granted 
that all rules for play depend on 
general principles. The modern 
game is but an elaboration of the old 
one. Before Hoyle, Matthews had 
an idea of the discard, which is 
now accepted by all advanced 
players. In the writings of Des- 
chapelles, a noted French player, 
and of Clay, Drayson, and Caven- 
dish, celebrated English players, 
the rules of the Crown Coffee House 
(1728) are still the important ones. 
They were (i) " Lead from your 
strong suit. (2) Study your partner's 
hand. (3) Attend to the score." 
Hoyle understood that it was neces- 



sary to unblock, without knowing 
how to do it systematically. These 
writers all had a desire to show 
length and strength of suit, which 
has been met by N. B. Trist, of New 
Orleans, who, in American Leads, 
proposes a systematic course of play 
when opening, and continuing leads 
from strong suits. Within the last 
forty years Short Whist has been 
substituted for Long Whist in Eng- 
land. The signal for trumps has 
also been introduced, and is now 
recognized as legitimate, although 
at first it was strongly opposed by 
many of the best players. 

Whist means silence ; and it is 
supposed that the game was so 
named from the necessity of silence 
while it is being played. 

WHISTLE, Experiment with a. 
Fit over the mouth-piece of a toy 
fife or whistle the end of a rub- 
ber tube several feet long. Blow 
through the tube, and at the same 
time swing the whistle around in a 
circle so that it will sound while 
swinging. If a person twenty or 
thirty feet distant listens to the 
whistle, he will hear its sound grow 
alternately sharper and flatter, as it 
approaches him and recedes from 
him. This is because the pitch of 
sound depends on the speed with 
which the sound-waves reach the 
ear, and they get to the ear faster 
when the sounding body itself is 
moving toward the listener. 

WHO WAS HE ? A game played 
by any number of persons. One 
begins by giving a brief sketch of 
some historical character, and then 
asking " Who was he ? " He who 
makes the first correct answer 
gives another similar sketch, and 
so on as long as the players choose. 

WICKET. See Cricket. 

WINDMILL, THE. A solitaire 
game of cards, played with two 
packs. An Ace is placed on the 
table to begin with, and the first 
eight cards played are laid in order 
in a circle around it, so as to re- 
semble the sails of a windmill, but 



WINDMILL 



773 



WINE GLASSES 



leaving a space within. In this 
space the first four Kings are 
placed, one above the Ace, one be- 



low it, and one on each side. One 
family is to be formed on each of 
the Kings by piling downward, and 










* 








The Windmill. 



lour families on the Ace by piling 
i^pward, beginning another family 
with another Ace when the one 
before it is completed. Suit need 
not be followed in any of the piles. 
In piling, the sails of the windmill 
may be used, each being at once re- 
placed by the next card played. 
Useless cards are laid aside to form 
stock, of which the top card can be 
used at any time, instead of playing 
from the pack. 

WINE CLASSES, Experiments 
withi I. Dip two wine glasses un- 
derwater, and while they are there 
bring them mouth to mouth, see- 
ing that both are completely full. 
Lift them out together and stand 
them on the table, one being on the 
other and both still full of water. 
It will be found that the upper one 
can be lifted up a very little way 
without any of the water running 
out. Holding it in this way, pour 
slowly on the foot of the upper 
glass some red wine, or some al- 
cohol colored with carmine. (See 



Fig. I.) It will run off the foot 
in drops, fall on the side of the 




glass and trickle down to the open 
space between the two glasses, 



WINE GLASSES 



774 



WOLF 



Avhen it will enter the water and 
rise into the upper glass. The 
water in the upper glass can, with 




\<^''^'^^ ."V^ 







Fig. 2. 

care, be colored red in this way, 
while that in the lower glass re- 
mains transparent. The wine or 
alcohol rises in the water because 
it is lighter. 

2. Fill a soup plate with water, 
and on a cork or an inverted but- 
ter plate in the middle place a 
crumpled piece of paper as large 
as one's fist. Set fire to it and at 
once turn a goblet over it. The 
water will be drawn up into the 
goblet. (See Fig. 2.) The reason is 
that the paper, in burning, exhausts 
the oxygen under the goblet, re- 
ducing the pressure there, and the 
pressure of the outside air then 
forces up the water, 

3. Fill a glass with water so that 
it almost overflows, and then place 
over it a sheet of paper which 
touches both the edge of the glass 
and the surface of the water. Turn 
the glass upside down, and the 
water will not run out. (See Fig. 
3.) To guard against accidents, , 
this should be done over a basin I 



or sink. A piece of glass may be 
used instead of paper; but if the 
tumbler be tilted a little to one side 
it will slide off. To prevent this, 
bits of cork may be glued to it on 
the inside. 

4. Place a lighted candle in a gob- 
let or large wine glass. After it has 
burned a few seconds, lay on the 
glass a piece of wet paper having a 
hole cut in the middle, and then 
press down on it another glass in- 
verted. The paper is to make the 
two glasses fit together very tightly. 
Soon after the upper glass has been 
pressed down on the lower, the can- 
dle will go out for want of air, and it 
will be found that the two glasses 
stick together very tightly, so that 
the lower can be lifted by the up- 
per, and so that it requires consid- 
erable force to pull them apart. 
This is because some of the air 
inside, heated by the candle, has 
risen out of the glass, so that the 




Fig. 3. 

pressure outside is greater than that 
within, and the two glasses are thus 
held together. 

WIZARD OF THE EAST. See 
Guessing the Sign. 

WOLF. An outdoor hiding game, 
played by any number of persons. 
One of the players, chosen Wolf 
by COUNTING OUT, hides, while the 
rest of the party stay near the 
goal or bye, which may be a tree, 
stone, or other object. When 
they have waited a minute or so. 



WOLF 



775 



WRESTLING 



they cry out " Coming ! say noth- 
ing ! " and, if there is no reply, they 
go out in different directions to 
look for the Wolf. If the Wolf is 
not ready when he hears the cry he 
must shout " No ! " and the oth- 
ers must then wait a reasonable 
time before they shout again. 
When any one finds the Wolf he 
cries " Wolf ! " to let the others 
know, and all then run to the goal. 
If the Wolf can touch any of them 
before they reach it, the ones caught 
become Wolves also, and hide with 
him next time ; but if he catches no 
one he must hide again alone. The 
game goes on till all are Wolves and 
the first one caught by the 
Wolf is Wolf at the beginning 
of the next game. The Wolf 
often does not wait to be 
found, but runs out whenever 
he thinks there is a good 
chance to catch any one. If he 
can get to the goal before any 
of the others he can generally 
touch many of them as they 
come in. In such a case one 
of the best runners can often 
lead the Wolf away on a chase 
while the others run in to the _ 
goal. The game may be block- -m 
ed by the Wolf's keeping close 
to the goal in such a case, or 
by his insisting on chasing a 
player he cannot catch. The 
players, therefore, before the game, 
should agree either that the Wolf 
must select some one player to 
pursue, and allow that player to re- 
turn to goal if not caught in a cer- 
tain time, or that all the players 
must run in to goal, letting the 
Wolf touch whom he can. When 
there are several Wolves they may 
hide in the same place or different 
places, as they choose, and any one 
of them may run out when he 
pleases. If the Wolves arrange 
among them where they shall hide 
and how they shall run out, they 
usually succeed in catching more 
players than when each follows a 
method of his own. Any player 



who wishes may remain at the goal, 
instead of running out to look for 
the Wolves. 

This game is sometimes called 
" Whoop " in England. There is 
never more than one player that 
hides, and he tries to catch but one. 
The one caught carries his captor 
to the goal on his back, and then 
hides in his turn. 

WORD MAKING AND WORD 
TAKING. See Logomachy. 

WRESTLING. A sport in which 
one person tries to throw another 
to the ground. There are several 
kinds, which differ chiefly in the 
manner in which thecontestantsare 




Wrestling — Fig. i. 

allowed to hold one another. The 
simplest and best kind for boys is 
the kind first practised in Cumber- 
land, England. In this country this 
form of wrestling is commonly 
called "backhold " catch. In it the 
contestants are allowed to hold 
each other in only one way, which 
is arranged before the wrestling 
begins. The wrestlers stand chest 
to chest, each placing his chin on 
the other's shoulder and grasping 
him around the body, as shown in 
Fig. I, the right arm of each being 
under his opponent's left. They 
are allowed to use every means to i 
throw each other, except kicking or 
similar injury, and if either con- 



WRESTLING 



776 



WRESTLING 



testant unclasps his hands he is re- 
garded as beaten, just as if he had 
been thrown. A wrestler is con- 
sidered thrown when both shoul- 




Wrestling — Fig. 2. 

ders touch the floor. The object 
of each contestant in this kind 
of wrestling should be to force his 
right shoulder beneath his oppo- 
nent's arm-pit. To prevent this, 
the latter must keep his left arm 
pressed in as far as possible. Each 
tries to throw the other by swing- 
ing him sidewise, pulling him for- 
ward, or pushing him backward, at 
the same time trying to trip him 
in various ways. Some of the de- 
vices employed are described below. 

The Back-heel. The wrestler puts 
his foot behind his opponent's 
heel and tries to bend him over it. 
To meet this, the latter may loosen 
his hold or turn his side. 

The Buttock. The wrestler turns 
as far as he can to the right, then 
he straightens up and at the same 
time throws his left leg back of his 
opponent's left, which will enable 
him to bend him over backward for 
a fall by doubling him over his hip. 
To meet this the opponent will 
hold him tight, and at the moment 
of his trying to trip, he will endeav- 
or to lock his left leg from the in- 
side around the left of his adver- 
sary, and then bend him over back- 
ward for a fall. This last is called 
a " back-hank." 

The Hank. The wrestler turns 
sidewise, twists his leg about that 



of his adversary, and pulls him 
backward. To meet this the op- 
ponent should lean forward and 
strengthen his hold. 

The Click. The wrestler pulls 
his opponent forward to make him 
resist by dragging back, and then 
suddenly ceasing, trips him up with 
one foot. 

The Hipe. The wrestler forces 
his shoulder under his adversary's 
right arm, lifts him up as far as pos- 
sible, and at the same time catch- 
ing the opponent's left leg with his 
right, drags it up. If properly done, 
this brings the opponent down on 
his back. The hipe may be per- 
formed with the left shoulder and 
leg ; and though this is not so easy, 
if it fails, the wrestler is left in a 
position for a Buttock. 

Dog Fall. This occurs when both 
wrestlers fall to the ground togeth- 
er. They must then break their 
hold, rise, and begin the contest 
anew. 




Wrestling— Fig. 3. 

In another method, the hold is 
not arranged at the beginning of 
the contest, but the wrestlers stand 
face to face with their hands held 
out before them, as shown in Fig, 2. 



WRESTLING 



777 



WRESTLING 



The object of each is now to seize 
his opponent under the latter's arms 
which is called getting the " un- 
derhold," and is an advantage. In 
Fig. 3 the boy whose back is toward 
the spectator has the underhold. 
The opponent tries to prevent this 
by pushing aside his hands. Neither 
may succeed in getting the under- 
hold, in which case the wrestling is 
similar to that just described. If 
either get the underhold, he may 
throw his opponent by lifting him 
up bodily or by drawing him for- 
ward by the waist and pushing 
backward against his breast, as well 




Wrestling— Fig. 4. 

as in the other ways described. 
Sometimes tripping is not allowed 
in this kind of wrestling, and some- 
times several other holds are al- 
lowed, such as seizing the head 
with one or both hands or with the 
arm taking the shoulders or arms 
with one or both hands ; seizing 
the legs ; or a combination of any 
two of these holds. 

In the shoulder grip, shown in 
Fig. 4, the wrestler seizes his oppo- 
nent by the shoulders with both 
hands, pulls him outwards, to right 
or left, and throws him with a sud- 
den jerk, using any trip that is avail- 
able. 

One of the arm grips is shown in 
Fig. 5, where the wrestler seizes his 
opponent with both hands by the 
left fore-arm, pulls him quickly for- 
ward, and, putting the arm over his 
shoulder, throws him, as shown in 



the cut. Fig. 6 shows a method of 
throwing by a leg grip. 

In Collar and Elbow, or Cornish 
wrestling, the hold is by the jacket. 




Wrestling— Fig. 5. 

as the name indicates. When the 
contestants are allowed to take any 
hold they please above the waist, 
the method is called " Graeco Ro- 
man ; " and when any hold what- 
ever is permitted, it is called 




Wrestling— Fig. 6. 

" Catch as Catch Can." The rules 
of the kinds of wrestling most gen- 
erally used in public contests in this 
country are given below. 



WRESTLING 



778 



WRESTLING 



COLLAR AND ELBOW. 

I. The men shall wear short coats 
or jackets made of canvas, not ex- 
tending below the hips, with strong 




Wrestling— Fig. 7. 

collar and elbow, suitable for the 
grasp of an opponent. They shall 
wear rubber sandals on the feet. 

2. Each man shall take hold of 
the collar of his opponent with his 
right hand, while with the left hand 
he must take hold of the right el- 
bow. 

3. Both men shall stand up breast 
and breast, with limber arms, and 
show fair and equal play with the 
feet. 

4. Either man breaking his hold 
with one or both hands, to save 
himself from a fall, shall forfeit said 
fall. 

5. All falls must be square back 
falls ; either two hips and one shoul- 
der or two shoulders and one hip 
to be on the carpet simultaneously, 
to constitute a fall. 

6. Striking upon the face, side 
or knees is no fall, and nothing 
shall be allowed for forcing a man 
from such positions to his back. 
Going down on one or both knees 
is fair, as long as no holds are 
broken. 

7. A rest of at least ten and not 
more than twenty minutes shall be 
allowed between each fall. 

8. The first fall, best two in three 
or three in five, shall win, according 
to mutual agreement. 



9. The ring shall be twenty-four 
feet square, and nobody shall be al- 
lowed inside except the referee and 
two umpires. 

CA TCH AS CA TCH CA N. 

1. The contestants can take any 
hold, trip or lock they please. 

2. To constitute a fall, two shoul- 
ders must strike the floor simulta- 
neously. 

3. Long or short drawers must be 
worn, and nothing heavier for the 
feet will be allowed than socks and 
thin slippers. 

4. A rest of at least ten and not 
more than twenty minutes shall be 
allowed between each fall. 

5. The umpires shall take their 
positions at a proper distance from 
the contestants, and there remain, 
and will not be allowed to talk to or 
advise the principals during the 
contest. They shall however have 
the right to call the attention of 
the referee to any point which, in 
their judgment, may require his 
decision. 

6. Doing anything to injure an 
opponent shall be considered foul. 
For each violation of this rule the 
offender shall be deemed to have 
lost a fall, and the referee shall have 
the power to award the match to 
the injured party. 




Wrestling— Fig. 8. 
GR^CO-ROMAN. 

I. Wrestlers are allowed to take 
hold anywhere between the head 
and the belt or waist. Grasping 
the legs is strictly forbidden. 



WRESTLING 



779 



WRESTLING 



2. The men shall use open hands, 
and are not allowed to strike or 
scratch, to clasp one of their own 
hands within the other, nor inter- 
lace their fingers ; but they can 
grasp their own wrists, to tighten 
their hold around their opponent's 
body or otherwise. 

3. The principals shall have their 
finger-nails and hair cut short, and 
must wrestle either barefooted or in 
their socks. 

4. Should a wrestler fall on his 
knee, shoulder or side, a new start 
must be made. 



5. Should the principals roll over 
each other, the one whose shoul- 
der shall touch the ground first is 
deemed conquered. 

6. A rest of not less than ten 
nor more than twenty-five minutes 
shall be allowed between each bout. 

7. Two shoulders touching the 
ground simultaneously constitutes 
a fall. 

History. Wrestling contests have 
been held since the earliest times. 
They formed part of the Greek 
athletic games. At first the Greeks 
used to wear belts in these contests. 




Wrestling— Fig. 9. 



but finally their use was forbidden 
and the wrestlers contended naked, 
their bodies being made slippery 
with oil. In the middle ages wrest- 
ling was a sport only among the 
lower classes, though knights and 
nobles often looked on at wrestling 
bouts. They were very rough, and 
the wrestlers were frequently maim- 
ed or even killed. A mediaeval 
wrestling match is shown in Fig. 7. 
Fig. 8, from an old manuscript, 
shows an early English wrestling 
match in which the contestants 
mounted on the shoulders of other 
men. In early times (14th and 15th 
centuries), in England, such matches 



were held on feast days before the 
Lord Mayor and aldermen of Lon- 
don, dressed in their robes of office. 
After the Reformation the sport 
was not in favor, yet it was kept up 
in the west and north of England 
and by students at the Universities. 
Advocates of athletic sports tried 
hard to bring it into favor again, 
but physicians thought it caused 
rheumatism and ague, and it was 
not until about 1826 that it began 
to be revived. Since that time it 
has been popular. 

The Japanese are famous wrest- 
lers. Fig. 9 shows one of their con- 
tests. 



YACHTING 



780 



YACHTING 



YACHTING. Much information 
about different kinds of boats and 
rigging will be found in the article 
Sailing. There are now in this 
country about 75 yacht clubs, 20 of 
which are in New York and 10 in 
Boston. Only a few of the boats are 
large racers, the great majority of 
the 2000 boats on the official lists 
being comparatively small. Besides 
these, there are many thousand 
others whose owners belong to no 
club. The yacht clubs all hold 
races once or twice a year, and of- 
fer prizes for the fastest yacht. As 
the boats are of many different 
sizes, what is called a system of 
time-allowances is adopted, that 
small boats may race on even terms 
with larger ones. The object is 
to give a greater time-allowance 
the smaller the boat, and then 
credit it with the difference be- 
tween this calculated time and 
the real time. Thus the time-al- 
lowance of a small boat may be 2 
minutes per mile. If the course is 
20 miles long, and she makes it in 
80 minutes, her corrected time 
would be 80-40, or 40; while a 
larger boat, with a time-allowance 
of half a minute, whose actual time 
was but 56 minutes, would be 
credited with 56-10 or 46, and 
would therefore be beaten. There 
has been much discussion over the 
proper method of calculating time- 
allowances, and each club general- 
ly adopts its own rules. The Eng- 
lish rule is based on the length 
and beam, which is one reason 
why English yachts are so nar- 
row, the time-allowance being thus 
larger. The New York clubs use 
now a measurement based on sail- 
area and length, and the New 
England Racing Association one 
based on length alone. In the 
former system the allowance varies 
from nothing for the largest yacht 
up to 136 seconds per mile for the 



smallest ; and in the latter, from 
nothing for a boat 116 feet long 
up to 5 minutes 29 seconds for one 
only 12 feet long. The yachts in a 
club are usually divided into class- 
es, according to their rig and 
measurement for time-allowance. 

Steam launches and yachts. 
Steam launches are usually long 
and narrow, and have no decks. 
The boiler, which is upright, is 
placed in the centre of the boat, 
the engine aft, and the boat is 
driven by a screw propeller. The 
length varies from thirty to forty 
feet, the beam from seven to nine, 
and the draft from two and a half 
to three feet. 

Steam yachts are larger than 
launches, with decks and cabins, 
and some of them are fitted up 
with great magnificence. The 
largest steam yacht in this country 
is the Alva, owned by W. K. Van- 
derbilt, which is 285 feet long and 
has 32.3 feet beam. Steam yachts 
generally have also masts and sails, 
to be used in case of accident to 
the machinery. 

Some steam yachts have what is 
called a safety-coil boiler, in which 
a coil of pipe contains the water, 
and there is no danger ot explo- 
sion. Small launches have what 
are called naphtha engines, in which 
the expansion of a small quantity 
of naphtha vapor drives the piston. 
These engines occupy little room, 
and can be run by any one. To 
run a steam-engine a license from 
the United States Government is 
required. The only steam yacht 
club in this country is the Ameri- 
can Yacht Club, formed in New 
York in 1883. There are several 
systems of time-allowance for steam 
yacht racing, most of which are 
based simply on the ^ength of the 
yacht. In the system devised by 
Dr. C. E. Emery, a yacht 50 feet 
long is allowed a speed of 9.947 



VACHTING 



781 



YACHTING 



knots an hour, and one of 300 feet 
18.074 knots; so that if the for- 
mer should make 12 knots in a race 
while the latter made 19, the small- 
er yacht would be considered the 
winner. The best recorded time 
made by a steam yacht was from 
Larchmont, N. Y.,to New London, 
Conn, (about 90 miles), in 4 hours, 
34 minutes, 57 seconds, by the 
Atlanta, July 15, 1886. 

History. Sailing for pleasure is 
a very old form of amusement. In 
the 17th century Englishmen were 
accustomed to buy their pleasure- 
boats from the Dutch, and called 
them yachts, from the Dutch jag-t, 
a swift form of sailing vessel. The 
first yacht race on record was 
in 1661, between Charles II., King 
of England, and his brother the 
Duke of York, afterward James II. 
The first organized yacht club 
was the Cork Harbor Water Club, 
of Cork, Ireland, formed in 1720, 
which was soon followed by the 
Royal Yacht Club and others in 
England. The yachts of this pe- 
riod were broad, had blunt or 
" bluff " bows, and drew but little 
water. The fourteen sail-boats 
owned by Charles II. varied in 
length from 31 to 66 feet, in beam 
from i23^to2i.6feet,andindraught 
water from 6 to 7.6 feet. Before 
the present century Americans 



adopted a longer, deeper and nar- 
rower boat. The English followed, 
and have gone on in the same di- 
rection until the English " cutter " 
has become the narrowest and 
deepest of yachts. In this country, 
on the other hand, the tendency 
has been to return to boats of the 
old type, called by some people, in 
derision, " skimming dishes," be- 
cause they are broad and shallow. 
One reason why the English favor 
such deep boats is because of the 
rough seas and deep water near 
England, and deep vessels sail bet- 
ter in very rough water. In this 
country the first yacht club, the 
New York Club, was formed in 1844. 
In 1 85 1, during the World's 
Fair in London, a keel schooner- 
yacht, called the America, built for 
the purpose, was sent to England 
from New York to compete with 
English yachts. She raced, Aug. 
22, 1 85 1, fifteen English yachts, for 
a silver cup, and won it. This 
victory created great interest in 
yachting in both countries. In 
1857 the cup won by the America 
was given by her owners to the 
New York Yacht Club, to be held 
till won by some foreign yacht. A 
list of the races for it, all of which 
have been held near New York, 
over a forty mile course, is given in 
the appendix. ^ 



20ETR0PE 



782 



ZOETROPE 



ZOETROPE. A toy by which a 
succession of figures in different 
attitudes are made to appear like 
a single one in motion. The sim- 
plest form of the toy consists of two 




Zoetrope— Fig-, i. 

disks fastened on the same axis six 
or eight inches apart, so that they 
will turn on it together. The 




Zoetrope— Fig. 2, 

figures are arranged on one, as 
shown in Fig. i, and in the other 
are a number of slits equal to that 
of the figures. The figures repre- 



sent some action at successive in- 
stants ; thus, in the first picture the 
man has his bow drawn to one 
side ; in the next it is pushed a 
little farther along, and so on. If 
any one look through the slits 
while the discs are turned, and 
direct his attention to any one 
spot, he will see a different picture 
in that spot every time a new slit 
comes in front of his eye, and he 
will not see one picture moving 
away from the spot and another 
coming up, because the pasteboard 




Zoetrope — Fig. 3. 

between the slits then comes be- 
tween. Thus he will see in the 
same place a succession of momen- 
tary pictures, each in a slightly 
different posture, and it will seem 
to him as though he saw the man 
playing the bass viol. In this way 
an endless variety of movements 
may be counterfeited. 

The disk bearing the figures is 
often made a little smaller than the 
one with the slits, and fastened 
with it on the axis at the same 
point (see Fig. 2). The observer 
then looks through the slits at a 
mirror, and the effect is the same 



ZOETROPE 



783 



ZOETROPE 




ZOETROPE 



784 



ZOETROPE 



as before. The zoetrope in this 
shape is more easy to manage. 
Another form is a round box, open 
at the top, which revolves on an 
upright stand (Fig. 3). The fig- 
ures are on strips of paper which 
fit around the inside of the box, 
and the slits are vertical ones 
in the edge. Six such slips are 
shown in Fig. 4. The observer 
looks through the slits toward the 
figures on the opposite side of the 
box. The effect is the same as be- 



fore, though in this case the figures 
and slits are moving in opposite 
directions. An arrangement has 
been devised by a Frenchman for 
showing the zoetrope to a large 
audience with the aid of the 
Magic Lantern. The word zoe- 
trope is from the Greek zoe, life, 
and trepeifty to turn. The toy 
is also called the Magic Wheel 
and the Zoopraxiscope, from the 
Greek zoe, life, praxis, action, and 
skopetn, to see. 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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